===== Map name ===== ={Atlantic Revolutions} 2.0= ===== Map description ===== Explore the imprint of the era of Democratic Revolution in the North &South American independence, French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars; Rekindle the fire of truth,review the romantic and adventurous life course of revolutionaries,reappear the Wars History of the {Atlantic Revolutions}!SoD_SP required. ===== Rumors ===== Name: Liberty now has a country Text: "Humanity has won its battle. Liberty now has a country." ~Marquis de Lafayette Name: Copenhagenization Text: Copenhagenization is an expression in the early 19 century.The expressionrefers to a decisive blow delivered to a potentialopponent while being at peace with that nation. Name: The French Army and the Atlantic World Text: FrenchArmyhasbeenamongthelargestinEurope.ItwasinFrancethatmanyoftheparadigmsthatdefinemodernmilitaryforcesandmilitaryservices, such as the concept of citizen-soldiers,first arose Name: Revolutions in the Atlantic World Text: Within just a half century, the American, French, Haitian, and Spanish American revolutions transformed the Atlantic world. Name: The Revolutionary Atlantic Text: Encompassing the major rebellions that transformed the Atlantic world in the Age of Revolutions, The Revolutionary Atlantic is a major achievement. Name: The Maritime Atlantic in the Age of Revolutions Text: Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. Name: Napoleon & Empire Text: There was a strong development of Masonic military lodges under the Empire, and Napoleon saw in that Masonic presence a powerful means of military cohesion to unite the Brotherhood Name: Napoleon Bonaparte and the Atlantic World Text: Napoleon Bonaparte(1769–1821), also known as Napoleon I after his 1804 coronation, served as general,first consul, and emperor of France during the era of the French Revolution Name: The French Revolution1 Text: The universality of the aspirationsandpolitics of 18th-century revolutionary movements, from North America to Europe, anchored the Age of Democratic Revolution firmly in the Atlantic Name: The French Revolution2 Text: The revolutionary Atlantic was a movement of public opinion, protest, and representative institutions that grew out of independence and democratic movements spanning the ocean. Name: The French Revolution3 Text: The history of the impact,consequences, and broadermeaning of the French Revolution in the Atlantic is dominated by revolutionary exceptionalism Name: Napoleon: A Symbol for an Age Text: Bypreservingfundamentalgainsof1789,NapoleonlaidthefoundationsofmodernFrance.Hislegacyofwar,civilrights,exploitation,andnationalawakeningreshapedidentitiesacrosstheEuropeancontinent Name: Map hero Text: Three of the greatest heroes in the history of Homm3 {@SIRGENT,@Rosekavalierhc, @adrh} made great contributions to the Map {Atlantic Revolutions}. Name: {Atlantic Revolutions} Text: The{Atlantic Revolutions}were a revolutionary waveinthelate18thandearlyn19centuries..Revolutionaries in each countryknewoftheothers and tosomedegree wereinspired byoremulated them Name: AR Text: Atlantic Revolutions in theUS (17651783)Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1788–1792) France and Europe(1789–1814),Haiti(1791-1804),Ireland(1798)andSpanish America(1810-) Name: Enlightenment Text: The Age of Enlightenment( from death of Louis XIV of France in 1715 to the1789outbreak of the French Revolution)was the former era to the {Atlantic Revolutions} era Name: Enlightenment-ar Text: The ideas of Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Catholic Church and paved/leadthe way for the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. Name: Sons of Liberty1 Text: FromtheSonsofLibertytoBritishreformers,IrishnationalistsFrenchJacobinsandAmericanDemocratsthegreatestsocialmovementsoftheAgeofAtlanticRevolutionsgrewaspartofacommon,interrelatedpattern Name: Sons of Liberty2 Text: Activistssharedstrategiesinternationally,creatingbroadbasedcampaigns,jointlyrespondedtotheAtlantictrendsoftheireratocreateanewwaytooroverthrowgoverment:mobilizingmassivesocialmovements Name: Illuminati Text: Illuminati is a name given to several groups. The name usually refers to the Bavarian Illuminati, an Enlightenment-era secret society founded on 1 May 1776 in Bavaria Name: {{Freemason}ry} Text: {Freemasonry}- fraternal organisations -origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that,from13thcentury, their qualifications and interaction with authorities and clients. Name: Secret society Text: A secret society is a club or an organization whose activities, events, inner functioning, or membership are concealed,developed their own rituals and require membership oaths Name: {Freemason}s, the Illuminati, and the Templars Text: There are rumors that the{Freemason}s,the Illuminati,and the Templars have joined hands to lead a series of revolutions in the era of the Atlantic Revolution Name: Napoleon's theorem Text: Napoleon'stheorem:ifequilateral triangles constructed on the sidesof any triangle,the linesconnecting thecentresofthose equilateral triangles themselvesform anequilateraltriangle Name: Term Marine Text: Term Marine is Sublime art, masterpiece of the courage of mankind, too complex to be entirely submitted to calculation, and thatwas everonly enriched with the help oftheexperienceofseamen Name: targowiczanin Text: Targowica Confederation wasestablished by Polish and Lithuanian magnates on 27. 04.1792, in Saint Petersburg,withthebackingoftheRussian EmpressCatherineII,becamea synonym for traitor Name: Napoleonic Wars Text: The Napoleonic Wars(1803–1815)- a series of conflictsfoughtbetweenFranceundertheleadership ofNapoleonBonaparteagainstafluctuatingarrayofEuropeanstatesformedintovariouscoalitions. Name: The Revolutionary War Text: The Revolutionary War was a war unlike any other—one of ideas and ideals, that shaped “the course of human events.” With 165 principal engagements from 1775-1783 Name: The Haitian Revolution Text: HaitianRevolutionwasalargestsuccessfulinsurrection since Spartacus'unsuccessfulrevoltagainst the Roman Republic ,now widely seenasadefining moment in the history of the Atlantic World Name: latin-american-independence Text: The Latin American Wars of Independence took place in the late 18th and early 19th centuries,profound effects on the Spanish, Portuguese and French colonies in Americas ===== Timed events ===== Name: 红一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :Red Britain}==== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 蓝一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :Blue France}==== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 褐一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :tan Austria}==== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 绿一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :green Russia}==== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 橙一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :orange Spain}==== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 紫一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= =={Current selected side color : purple south America }== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 青一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ==={Current selected side color :teal north America}=== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 粉一 Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ==={Current selected side color :pink Sweden }=== Version 2.0 Introduction: Since the release of version 1.0 on July 14, 2022, and after nearly one year of long struggle - after the monthly update on the 14th of each month (1.1-1.9), this version 2.0 can be considered a milestone update: in previous versions ,the computer sides are lack of mobile, and there was no boss hero of real sense ; but now in version 2.0 ，it will not only be seen that The computer side heroes in different moments suddenly evolved into a real sense of super BOSS, and its mobility now has a qualitative leap, so the computer sides combat ability greatly improved! The first reason for this change is that the original map was too large, the distribution of monolith was not ideal, which made it difficult to meet computer heroes. However, now the {monolith system} of the map has been extensively optimized and reformed, greatly increasing the probability of meeting; The second reason is that the original heroes of computer sides did not have additional enhancements, causing them to be vulnerable even when player have a big army. Now, the {Boss bonus Zone} which been planned to increase has been completed, and players will encounter numerous computer Boss heroes that are extremely difficult to handle. In fact, the two issues mentioned above were listed as key issue for improvement a long time ago, and were not only discovered after the release of 1.0. But always categorizing them into unfinished parts/modules and leaving them unfinished from 1.0 to the present day, it by coincidence allows players to play versions 1.0 to 1.9without encountering too much trouble instead ，because There are no particularly difficult computer heroes to deal with, so the difficulty is not too high. This makes it easier for players who have already touched the map to explore the map in depth, Lay a good foundation for their map familiarity in the Boss version with increasing difficulty in the future! Therefore, the optimization of the {Boss bonus Zone and monolith system} modules has only been officially completed, tested, and updated to this day, can be said that they were not completed in the past on time, or that they were intentionally done, and in short, they have a balanced advantage and disadvantage. {Atlantic Revolutions was, is, and will continue to be seen as an ongoing Huge Homm3 map works.} After testing, the new version was successful, completely solving the problem of the map's original lethargy. Now, the entire map has become exceptionally Nimble and challenging during playing, reaching an unprecedented level of challenge. Various computer heroes under the command of the computer can smoothly transform into bosses in the boss bonus Zone, and are extremely random: each new game, the computer heroes who transform into bosses in the new game are not from the same group, and the transformation order will also change. The {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Monolith System}, which have been successfully put into use, are equivalent to two roaring and outstanding engines. They are not only efficient, but also do not have any negative effects (without causing any problems with slow or seizing when passing game turn). Due to the surge in difficulty, after the establishment of the {Boss Bonus Zone}, a human {Player Bonus Zone} was added to allow players to obtain rich rewards (such as big main army strength) that never seen before. The new 'Monolith System', 'Boss Bonus Zone/Player Bonus Zone', and the massive historical story plot system already completed in previous versions are like three carriages, driving the massive Atlantic map smoothly! Name: 公二 Message: What is {Boss Bonus Zone} and {Player Bonus Zone}: There are 4 Zones ABCD, all in the underground part of the map. Zone A is located a little to the left of the northernmost part of the underground. Computer sides or human players coming to Zone A can get those heroes with complex identity backgrounds that can be recruited by multiple sides from taverns when in the hero pool, such as Humboldt and Lady De Stael, and can also occupy multiple nests of strategic troop types like Azure Dragon, Angel,Titan and gorgon in Zone A. Zone B is very large, it is {Boss Bonus Zone} and it also is {Player Bonus Zone}, located in the upper center right of the underground, in the middle of the two patterns of Napoleon cross the Alps and Liberty Leading the People, where there are numerous boss transformation organs, the computer hero can go to this Zone ，after receiving the {Boss Bonus Box} to transform into a boss, but it is ensured that the player is unable to get the {Boss Bonus Box} .However, players can wait for each boss to transform into a boss and then kill it to get the {kill bonus} (three kinds of courage medals), and before the computer heroes eating the {boss bonus box} to transform into a boss, players can never get the corresponding {kill bonus} - this is achieved through 156 sets of seemingly complex but clear triggers, if interested Open the map editor to learn more.After the computer hero receives the {Boss bonus box} and becomes a boss, the corresponding terrain before the kill bonus for killing the boss will change, causing the path to become passable. Only then can the player open the guard in front of the kill bonus ， kill the boss and receive the kill bonus. Zone C is functionally identical to Zone B. It is both a {Boss Bonus Zone} and a {Player Bonus Zone}, located in below the top left corner of the ground floor, and is a supplement to Zone B. Because Zone B cannot be further expanded to accommodate 156 sets of triggers and other devices，in order to maintain its current loving heart shape (which can be regard as Napoleon's heart link with Lady Liberty), it was supplemented by the construting of Zone C. Zones B and C not only provide tasks for receiving medals by killing bosses , but also many other ways to accumulate medals. In addition, the plot line of the map also contains a certain amount of medals, so the value of finish the plot line has been greatly increased in the current version. Zone D is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea and is {player bonus Zone}, players can use the medals received in Zone B and Zone C after killing bosses to exchange them into actual rewards such as troops in Zone D . There are also a lot of spells, skills and artifacts here in Zone D, which are difficult to found on the map. ABCD four Zones are connected by a specific set of green monolith two-way, there is a entrance of the specific green monolith two-way near each force's main city , when the side is the computer AI, it has own way to enter; when the player control the side, need to introduce a {key} concept. When players play as different sides, they must get the box with 3 {keys} exclusive to their sides as soon as possible, in order to open the three guards in front of this specific green monolith two-way in front of their homes and one guard in the Mediterranean player Bonus Zone, i.e. Zone D. There are four guards in total (three of them are required to hand in one {key}, and the other one ca be unlocked by the current side color), and finally enter the specific green monolith two-way and go to ABCD Zone. Players will ask: If I don't wanna the key and don't wanna enter the {Bonus Zone}, I will just develop normally and play normally. The problem is ， the computer heroes will still transform into bosses no matter what, and players are not able to beat the computer sidds in the current version of without going to the {Bonus Zone} to get all kinds of great Bonus. So you should still try to go to the {reward Zone}. And once you open the three layers of guards in front of the specific green monolith two-way near the main city, it means that the computer heroes will come one after another from the specific green monolith two-way to attack, get ready for a tough challenge! (Computers do not know how to collect {keys} before the expiration of the {keys} guards' deadline, so computers will not scurry to each other's main cities to attack each other, they will only attack human players after human players open the guards in front of the specific green monolith two-way, and no matter human players open the guards in front of the specific green monolith two-way or not, they can enter the specific green monolith two-way by going through their own color border gate + black border gate in front of their main cities, this does not require any key, and then return to the specific green monolith two-way in front of their main city after completing the Boss transformation) Destroy them! And head to the {bonus Zone} to collect the great rewards! You can collect {keys} firstly, but to open the guards in front of the specific green monolith two-way a little later--when your army has some battle power, otherwise open early, even a small boss come from the specific green monolith two-way can take down your base! Name: 红三 Message: {How does Red British side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: Prince Edward back to London as soon as possible, open the guard at (166,184,1) to receive the key box. Then open the three guards at (163,183,1) in turn, then you can enter the specific green monolith two-way, by repeatedly pressing the space to go to ABC three Zones, when coming to the Mediterranean bonus Zone, open the fourth guard. } Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 蓝三 Message: {How does Blue France side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: On the second day of the game,Langeron enters the portal to the left and repeatedly presses the space to jump near Moscow to rescue Ney. The latter completes the RPG for the first week and returns to Paris (it is very difficult and complex, and can search for Homm3 Atlantic France walkthrough on the youtube. Introduction to the video for the first week of France). Open the guard at (50,69,1) and collect the key box. Open the three guards at (51,68,1) one by one to enter the specific green monolith two-way. Press the space repeatedly to access the three Zones of ABC. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard. } Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 褐三 Message: {How does tan Austia side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: At the beginning, Franz returned to Vienna as soon as possible and passed through the Vienna Bridge (152，140,0), heading north to (150，136,1). Open the guard at (149，133,0) and collect the key box. Open the three guards at (150，138,1) one by one to enter the specific green monolith two-way. Press the space repeatedly to access the three Zones of ABC. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard } Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 绿三 Message: {How does green Russia side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: At the beginning, Suvorov returned to St. Petersburg as soon as possible from (246,1,0) to the underground and opened (248,2,1). Open the guard at (249,4,1) again and step one grid to south to retrieve the key box. From the left side of the Moscow gate, go underground and open the three guards at (243,51,1) to enter the specific green monolith two-way. Press the space repeatedly to access the ABC three Zones. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard. } Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 橙三 Message: {How does orange Spain side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: At the beginning, Saint Martin crossed the Mediterranean as soon as possible and landed on the coast of Barcelona. Open the guard at (21218,0) again and step one grid upper right to retrieve the key box. Open the three guards near Seville (243,204,1) to enter the specific green monolith two-way. Press the space repeatedly to access the three Zones of ABC. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard.} Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 紫三 Message: { How does purple south america side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: On the second day of the game, Miranda opened the guard to the left and entered the portal of (249,164,1). the open the guard of (65,55,1) and headed northeast to (77,51,1). After reaching the surface, kill the Ghost Dragon and headed north. Fight a two-month guerrilla campaign in this Zone to the north, accumulating creatures(symbolizing Miranda's participation in the French Revolution during this period and becoming a French division commander on the North Rhine front), When the strength allows, step on the event of (86, 29,0) then to open the guard of (87,29,0), and then open the guard of (87,27,0) to receive the key box on the left one step . This actually completes the RPG of the purple early plot. And by the way, you can return to Buenos Aires and open the three guards at (222,240,1) to enter the specific green monolith two-way. By repeatedly pressing the space, you can access the three Zones of ABC. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard. } Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 青三 Message: { How does teal north america side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: At the beginning, Connor visited Pegasus and boarded the ship (101，187,1). Open the guard at (105，187,1) to collect the key box. Open the three guards at (78，200,1) again to enter the specific green monolith two-way. Press the space repeatedly to access the three Zones of ABC. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard.} Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: 粉三 Message: { How does pink sweden side receive the key and enter the boss bonus Zone / player bonus Zone: At the beginning, Fersen opened (42,89,1), then opened the guards of (41,87,1) and picked up the keybox to the left. Open the three guards on the surface of the Stockholm sea (181,7,0) again, and you can enter the specific green monolith two-way from land (179,6,0). Press the space repeatedly to access the three Zones of ABC. When you reach the Mediterranean reward Zone, open the fourth guard.} Tip: SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the map objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content, It can be used to easily distinguish between the different bonus contained in the many similar looking huts in the reward Zone! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: all00000 Message: ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn Name: all0000 Message: ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. Name: all000 Message: ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings Name: all00 Message: ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn Name: all0 Message: ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list Name: all1 Message: ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the vigorous Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless Memorabilia of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. Name: all2 Message: ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 Name: all3 Message: ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! Name: br0-kingsMentalillnessPlayerResourscetaken Message: The Regency Crisis of 1788:In late October 1788, George III descended into a bout of mental illness,which puts country into a national crisis Name: fr0-1840frResourscetaken Message: December 15, 1840, a cold day today.Napoleon's remains was transferred from steamboat La Dorade to a huge funeral car led by 16 black horses. The funeral procession crosses the Noy Bridge to the Arc de Triomphe, then moves along the Champs-Elysees , and then crosses the Concorde Bridge ,to the L'hotel des Invalides. You are waiting for the return of the emperor's remains. This was also the last wish of Napoleon I himself. In the annex to his will, the first emperor of the French Empire, who had made the whole of Europe kneel to the feet of France, left this sad wish: "A wish to be buried on the bank of the Seine, in the midst of the French people whom I loved so much.'' Name: Au0-chapter1forAuResourscetaken Message: Chapter 1:Ending of Josephinism and enlightened despotism In 1789 Joseph II's other dominions were restive under the burdens of his war with Turkey. His empire was threatened with dissolution.Josephinism--called enlightened absolutism, elicited grudging compliance at best, and more often vehement opposition from all sectors in every part of his empire,just like his personal health ,was failing Name: ru0-resourstaken Message: Catherine II attempted to organize society into well-defined social groups, or estates, according to her serfdom that squeezed the bottom. Since 1785, she issued charters to nobles and townsmen. The Charter to the Towns that established self-government of the towns proved complicated and ultimately less successful than the one issued to the nobles. Name: sp0-1788declineandfallresourstaken Message: King Charles III died on 14 December 1788.Decades of decline and fall is coming next. Name: sa0-PlayerResourscetaken Message: "Whites, mulattos and blacks loathed each other. The poor whites couldn't stand the rich whites, the rich whites despised the poor whites, the middle-class whites were jealous of the aristocratic whites, the whites born in France looked down upon the locally born whites, mulattoes envied the whites, despised the blacks and were despised by the whites; free Negroes brutalized those who were still slaves, Haitian born blacks regarded those from Africa as savages. Everyone—quite rightly—lived in terror of everyone else. ...Haiti was hell, but Haiti was rich". Name: na0-teataxPlayerResourscetaken Message: Since The Stamp Act,The British government didn't stop trying to tax the colonies. We were also told we had to pay high taxes on the tea. This tax was called the Tea Act.This didn't seem fair to the colonies as we were not represented in British Parliament and didn't have a say on how the taxes should be done. Name: sw0-chapter1forSwPlayerResourscetaken Message: Chapter 1:Gustav III's Russian War The conflict was initiated by King Gustav III of Sweden for domestic political reasons, as he believed that a short war would leave the opposition(A large group of female members of the court and aristocracy, led by the examples of Princess Charlotte, Princess Sophia Albertina and Jeanna von Lantingshausen, unleash a social boycott of the monarch in protest of the Union and Security Act) with no recourse but to support him. Before the grand opening of the Riksdag in 1789, King Gustav III had the Riksdag Music commissioned. The Parliament then decided on the creation of a National Debt Office to raise funds and finance the war, a move that gave rise to a wave of inflation of the Swedish Riksdaler. Name: fr1-1840 Message: Suddenly you find a strange door behind you--like gate of magic, and your horse is running towards that gate Name: sp1-chapter1forSpMalaspinaExpedition Message: Chapter 1:Malaspina Expedition Known for his fascination with science, and had already procured funds to further develop science and technology in several areas ,the Spanish king, Charles III promptly approved the Malaspina Expedition two months before he died, although he would never see its results Spanish government had the largest scientific budget of any European state at the time. You, Bustamante,partnered with Alessandro Malaspina,do not disappoint the king’s unfulfilled wish, go to the ocean to chase in the footsteps of James Cook and complete the great scientific expedition Name: na1-Bostonteaparty Message: You,Ratonhnhake:ton, dress as a Mohawk Indian, go to the port,get on the Britian ship, and lead the destruction of 342 chests of tea on that three ships. The informant of the Sons of Liberty is waiting for you to meet Name: Ai-br0-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: Ai-fr0-forstartingarmy Message: Name: Ai-au0-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: Ai-ru0-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: Ai-sp0-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: Ai-sp0-foraitent Message: Name: Ai-sa0-forstartingarmy Message: Name: Ai-na0-unlimitedresources Message: Give Ai unlimited resources Name: Ai-sw0-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: sw-forstart Message: Rose of Versailles, the fee will help you to assist the Queen of France and her family to escape from Paris. Name: all0-afterthestorm0 Message: “So, is there a rebellion?”--Louis XVI Name: all0-afterthestorm1 Message: “No, Sire, a revolution!”--Duke de La Rochefoucauld Name: fr2-peasant uprisings-e1789721 Message: Riots and peasant uprisings in Strasbourg (July 21), Le Mans (July 23), Colmar, Alsace and Hainaut (July 25).The revolutionary enthusiasm of citizens has led to a financial improvement Name: sa1-sugar industry Message: Economic income of Port au Prince sugar industry Name: na2-Cickamauga Message: The Cherokees are Coming Name: Ai-fr1-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: na3-Clark's militia Message: "I know the case is desperate; but, sir, we must either quit the country or attack Mr. Hamilton. No time is to be lost. Were I sure of a reinforcement, I should not attempt it. Who knows what fortune will do for us? Great things have been affected by a few men well conducted. Perhaps we may be fortunate. We have this consolation, that our cause is just, and that our country will be grateful and not condemn our conduct in case we fall through. If we fail, the Illinois as well as Kentucky, I believe, is lost."--George Rogers Clark(elder brother to William Clark, one of the leaders of the Lewis and Clark Expedition) wrote to Governor Henry Name: br-EastIndiaCompany Message: Saltpetre used for gunpowder was one of the major trade goods of the East India Company,so high was the demand from armed forces that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. Name: Ai-sa1-unlimitedresources Message: unlimitedresources Name: fr+sa0-HaitiDanger Message: "The Saint-Domingue whites sleet at the foot of Vesuvius."--Count Mirabeau Name: allmod Message: =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! Name: Sodsp Message: #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see: Sign: the information content of the sign Waterwheel: Details of the resources currently available for the waterwheel Magic Garden: Details of the resources currently available in the Magic Garden Crypt: Details of the guards and rewards in the crypt Wisdom Tree: Details of the resources required to upgrade in this Wisdom Tree Pyramids: Details of the guards of the pyramids and what magic is rewarded Bones: Details of the rewards for the bones Lean To: Details of the resources available for this Lean To Wagon: details of the treasure that can be collected from this wagon Shipwreck/Abandoned Ship: Details of the wrecked/abandoned ship's garrison and rewards Floats: Details of the resources available for this float Survivor: Details of the treasures for this survivor Sea Chest: Details of the rewards for this Sea Chest Ocean Bottle: Information content of this Ocean Bottle Any creature dwelling (including refugee camps): details of the creatures currently recruitable in that creature's dwelling Witch's Hut: What skills are given in this Witch's Hut Dragon Kingdom: Details of the guards and rewards for this Dragon Kingdom Any Creature Houses Griffin Houses Duck Trees, etc.: Details of the size of the garrison and rewards for this Houses Magic Shrine: What magic is given in this magic shrine Black Market: Details of the current treasures available for purchase at this black market Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prison: details of the heroes held Scholar: what skill or magic the scholar is giving Tomb of the Brave: details of the treasures that can be collected from this Tomb of the Brave Blue dot event: full details of the event (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Any wild creatures: the number of creatures in the group, whether they joined, whether they escaped, and what resources or treasures the group is carrying, all at a glance Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero Any treasure: the presence or absence of guards for that treasure and details of the guards Campfire: details of the rewards of the campfire Resources: the specific amount of resources in this pile And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! Name: allwarcost Message: National Treasury daily financial :material expenditure and military expenditures Name: all Message: From the Sons of Liberty to British reformers, Irish nationalists to French Jacobins, Haitian revolutionaries and American Democrats, the greatest social movements of the Age of {Atlantic Revolutions} grew as part of a common, interrelated pattern. In this transnational history, historians see the connections between the most prominent movements of the era, as they drew upon each other's models to seek unprecedented changes in government. As Friends of Freedom, activists shared ideas and strategies internationally, creating a chain of broad-based campaigns that mobilized the American Revolution, British Parliamentary Reform, Irish nationalism, movements for religious freedom, abolitionism, the French Revolution, Haitian Revolution, and American party politics. Rather than a series of distinct national histories. Our map --'AR',so call the '{Atlantic Revolutions}' ,will show how these movements jointly responded to the Atlantic trends of their era to create a new way to alter or overthrow governments: mobilizing massive social organization movements. Name: br-Memel Message: Please pay for the timber shipped from Memel Name: Motto1 Message: Men are haunted by the vastness of eternity. And so we asked ourselves......will our actions echo across the centuries? Will strangers hear our names long after we're gone...... and wonder who we were......how bravely we fought...... Certain of mankind's greatest armies have passed like meterors, bursting out of chaos to storm across our history into enduring legend. Some have left us more than a proud tradition; others, a changed world. To the cadenced thunder of their drums they pass, to the lilting of forgotten trumpets, riddled standards high above the Great Captains who shaped and led them: the pikes and muskets of Gustavus Adolphus' tautly disciplined Swedes and Scots, Oliver Cromwell amidst his Ironside horsemen and redcoat infantry,: George Washington's tattered, hard-bitten Continentals; Napoleon's Grande Armee; the lean butternut ranks of Robert Lee's Army of Northern Virginia; George Thomas' indomitable Army of the Cumberland. Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps and George Patton's Third Army were of their lineage. The Grande Armee was the trenchant instrument with which Napoleon reshaped both Europe and the art of war. Swift marching, furious in the attack, grimly enduring, high-hearted, stubborn in disaster, it still ranks among the few greatest of the great. It also was many men of many different nations - many heroes, not a few cowards, and the multitude who were neither but did their duty as they saw it. Probably no armies in all history have fought such a variety of enemies in so short a space of time as did the French soldiers under Napoleon Bonaparte. - Colonel John Elting, US Army Napoleon Bonaparte and his mighty Grande Armee were one of the dominant players of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon himself showed innovative tendencies in his use of mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, as brilliantly demonstrated in several campaigns. The long series of wars formed an extension of the wars originated by the French Revolution. These wars revolutionized European armies and military systems, and took place on a scale never before seen, mainly due to the application of modern mass conscription. Name: Au1-Austrian_East_India_Company Message: Last merchant fleet of the Austrian East India Company returned from Asia and brought some profit back to the empire. The company would run for no more . Name: Motto2 Message: Our deeds will live on quietly but perpetually at work,and over our ashes will be shed the hot tears of noble people. Name: turn1 Message: The revolution never ends. Abe [in letter to his deceased son] Name: na4-Lee Message: "Do not trust Lee"Ratonhnhake:ton reminds Washington and Continental Congress,"Don't often let him command the army in battle." Name: Motto3 Message: “ Im Namen der Bürgerschaft von Karlsbad Ihro der Kaiserin von Frankreich Majest?t In the Name of the Councillorship of Karlsbad, to Your Majesty the Empress of France Sieht man den sch?nsten Stern die Nacht erhellen, So wird das Auge wie das Herz erquickt; Doch wenn in seltnen langersehnten F?llen Ein herrliches Gestirn zum andern rückt, Die nahverwandten Strahlen sich gesellen, Dann weilt ein jeder schauend, hoch entzückt; So unser Blick, wie er hinauf sich wendet, Wird vom Verein der Majest?t geblendet. If one sees the fairest star brightening the night, then the eye like the heart is enlivened; but when in long yearned-for cases a splendid constellation draws close to another then every observer lingers in great delight; then our glance, as it turns upward, is bedazzled by the union of majesty. Wir denken noch, wie sie hinweggezogen, Der Eltern Lust, die holde Friedensbraut; Schon beugten sich des Rheines edle Wogen. Die beiden Ufer l?chelten vertraut; So freut die Erde sich am Himmelsbogen, Von farbigen Juwelen aufgebaut, Der, wenn er schon vor unsern Augen schwindet, Den Frieden sichert, den er angekündet. We still call to mind mind how she drew by, the joy of the parents, the lovely bride of peace; the noble waves of the Rhine bowed. On either side its banks smiled with assurance; the earth rejoices at the rainbow, studied with colourful jewels, which when vanishing from our eyes assures the peace it has proclaimed. Im neuen Reich empf?ngt sie das Behagen Von Millionen, die aus düstrer Nacht Aufschauen wieder zu gesunden Tagen, Zum festen Leben abermals erwacht. Ein jeder fuhlt sein Herz gesichert schlagen Und staunet nun, denn alles ist vollbracht, Die holde Braut in lebensreichem Scheine – Was tausende verwirrten, l?st der Eine. In the new realm she receives the warm feelings of millions who once more look forward to days of health after experiencing a dismal night, awakened yet again to sturdy life. Everybody feels his heart beat in security and is amazed, for all is accomplished, the lovely bride in the brightness of abundant life. That which thousands had brought into confusion One puts right. Worüber trüb Jahrhunderte gesonnen, Er übersieht’s in hellstem Geisteslicht, Das Kleinliche ist alles weggeronnen, Nur Meer und Erde haben hier Gewicht; In jenem erst das Ufer abgewonnen, Dass sich daran die stolze Woge bricht, So tritt durch weisen Schluss, durch Machgefechte Das feste Land in alle seine Rechte. Whatever centuries had pondered over in the gloom he comprehends at a glance in the brightest mental flash. The petty has completely run off. Here only sea and land have any importance; the sea surrenders to the shore so that the proud wave breaks upon it. Thus by wise counsel and battles for power terra firma asserts all its rights. Und wenn dem Helden alles zwar gelungen, Den das Geschick zum Günstling auserw?hlt, Und ihm vor allen alles aufgedrungen, Was die Geschichte jemals aufgez?hlt; Ja reichlicher als Dichter je gesungen! – Ihm hat bis jetzt das H?chste noch gefehlt; Nun steht das Reich gesichert wie geründet, Nun fuhlt er froh im Sohne sich gegründet. And when the hero has succeeded in everything, even the one whom destiny has chosen to be its favourite, and has laden upon him in preference to all others all that history has ever amassed in riches, indeed more profusely than ever a poet praised in song, even this person has lacked the highest good until this day. Now the empire stands on a sure footing and well rounded, now he feels happily affirmed in his son. Und dass auch diesem eign Hoheit g’nuge, Ist Roma selbst zur W?chterin bestellt. Die G?ttin, hehr an ihres K?nigs Wiege, Denkt abermal das Schicksal einer Welt. Was sind hier die Troph?en aller Siege, Wo sich der Vater in dem Sohn gef?llt? Zusammen warden sie des Glucks genie?en, Mit milder Hand den Janustempel schlie?en. To assure this son sufficiency in his own high estate, Rome itself is commissioned as a guardian. The goddesss, serene beside the king’s cradle, muses once more upon the fate of a world. What here are the trophies of all victories against the pleasure bestowed on the father in his son? Together they will enjoy felicity and close the temple of Janus with gentle hands. Sie, die zum Vorzug einst als Braut gelanget, Vermittlerin nach G?tterart zu sein, Als Mutter, die, den Sohn im Arme, prangert, Bef?rdre neuen, dauernden Verein; Sie kl?re, wenn die Welt im Dustern banget, Den Himmel auf zu ew’gem Sonnenschein! Uns sei durch dies letzte Glück beschieden – Der alles wollen kann, will auch den Frieden. May she who achieved the bridal privilege of being a mediator in a godly manner as a mother shining in splendor with her son in her arms, may even she promote a new and lasting union. And should the world be gripped by fear amid the surrounding gloom , may she illumine the sky with eternal sunshine, and may this final bliss be granted to us – whosoever desires everything worth having also wants peace. Name: na5-War Hawks Message: The War Hawks' desire to annex the Canadas was similar to the enthusiasm for the annexation of Spanish Florida by inhabitants of the American South as both expected war to facilitate expansion into long-desired lands and end support for hostile tribes (Tecumseh's Confederacy in the North and the Creek in the South). Name: turn2 Message: Gen Washington: You are owed much more than this. Abe: Thank you. GW: Our country owes its life to heroes whose names it will never know. Name: Frances Burney Message: “You must learn not only to judge but to act for yourself.” - Frances Burney, Evelina Name: turn3 Message: My legend has yet to be written. I will return to the colonies and I will win. -Benedict Arnold Name: turn4 Message: Maj. Tallmadge [to Gen. Washington]: You have been blindsided by self-centered ambition. And it will be my friends who pay the price. Gen. Washington: Get out! Name: all1-PaduaCircular Message: July 5,1791, Emperor Leopold II issues the Padua Circular calling on the royal houses of Europe to come to the aid of Louis XVI, his brother-in-law. Name: all2-kingcantbeputontrial Message: July 15: National Assembly declares the king inviolable, and cannot be put on trial. Louis XVI suspended from his duties until the ratification of a new Constitution. Name: turn5 Message: Without New York, we cannot win. -Gen. Washington Name: all3- Louis XVI'sbrothersrefusereturn Message: December 3,1791, Louis XVI's brothers, the counts of Provence and Artois refuse to return to France, citing "the moral and physical captivity in which the King is being held." Name: all4-AustriaandPrussiainvade Message: February 7,1792,Austria and Prussia sign in Berlin a military convention to invade France and defend the monarchy. Name: all5-Brunswickcomes Message: March 7: The Duke of Brunswick is named to command a joint Austrian-Prussian invasion of France. Name: all6-Chapter2warbeginstheFirstCoalition Message: Chapter 2:French Revolutionary Wars War of the First Coalition April 20,1792, The Assembly declares war on the King of Bohemia and Hungary, i.e. to the Holy Roman Empire. Name: fr3-LaMarseillaise Message: <> Allons enfants de la Patrie, Le jour de gloire est arrive ! Contre nous de la tyrannie L'etendard sanglant est leve, (bis) Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Mugir ces feroces soldats ? Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras egorger vos fils, vos compagnes ! Aux armes, citoyens, Formez vos bataillons, Marchons, marchons ! Qu'un sang impur Abreuve nos sillons ! Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, De tra?tres, de rois conjures ? Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, Ces fers dès longtemps prepares ? (bis) Fran?ais, pour nous, ah! quel outrage Quels transports il doit exciter ! C'est nous qu'on ose mediter De rendre à l'antique esclavage ! Aux armes, citoyens... Quoi ! des cohortes etrangères Feraient la loi dans nos foyers ! Quoi ! Ces phalanges mercenaires Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers ! (bis) Grand Dieu! Par des mains encha?nees Nos fronts sous le joug se ploieraient De vils despotes deviendraient Les ma?tres de nos destinees ! Aux armes, citoyens... Tremblez, tyrans et vous perfides L'opprobre de tous les partis, Tremblez ! vos projets parricides Vont enfin recevoir leurs prix ! (bis) Tout est soldat pour vous combattre, S'ils tombent, nos jeunes heros, La terre en produit de nouveaux, Contre vous tout prêts à se battre ! Aux armes, citoyens... Fran?ais, en guerriers magnanimes, Portez ou retenez vos coups ! epargnez ces tristes victimes, à regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, Mais ces complices de Bouille, Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitie, Dechirent le sein de leur mère ! Aux armes, citoyens... Amour sacre de la Patrie, Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs Liberte, Liberte cherie, Combats avec tes defenseurs ! (bis) Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Accoure à tes males accents, Que tes ennemis expirants Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire ! Aux armes, citoyens... (Couplet des enfants) Nous entrerons dans la carrière Quand nos a?nes n'y seront plus, Nous y trouverons leur poussière Et la trace de leurs vertus (bis) Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Que de partager leur cercueil, Nous aurons le sublime orgueil De les venger ou de les suivre. Aux armes, citoyens... --Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, April 1792 Name: all7-BrunswickManifesto Message: "Should the royal family be harmed, an "exemplary and eternally memorable revenge" will follow." The Austrian commander Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick warns,July 25,1792 Name: fr4-LaCarmagnole Message: <> Madame Veto avait promis, Madame Veto avait promis. de faire egorger tout Paris, de faire egorger tout Paris. Mais son coup a manque, grace à nos canoiners. Dansons la Carmagnole Vive le son, Vive le son, Dansons la Carmagnole Vive le son du canon. Monsieur Veto avait promis (bis) D'être fidèle à son pays, (bis) Mais il y a manque, Ne faisons plus quartie. Antoinette avait resolu (bis) De nous faire tomber sur le cul; (bis) Mais le coup a manque Elle a le nez casse. Son Mari se croyant vainqueur, (bis) Connaissait peu notre valeur, (bis) Va, Louis, gros paour, Du Temple dans la tour. Les Suisses avaient promis, (bis) Qu'ils feraient feu sur nos amis, (bis) Mais comme ils ont saute! Comme ils ont tous danse! Quand Antoinette vit la tour, (bis) Elle voulut faire demi-tour, (bis) Elle avait mal au coeur De se voir sans honneur. --Insurrection of 10 August 1792 Name: all8-thetrialofLouis XVI Message: On December 3 ,1792,Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins and First Deputy for Paris in the Convention, demands that the King be put to death.Three days later,at the proposal of Jean-Paul Marat, the Convention rules that each deputy must individually and publicly declare his vote on the death penalty for the King. Name: sa1-Frenchdeclareslaveryabolished Message: "Representatives of the French people, until now our decrees of liberty have been selfish, and only for ourselves. But today we proclaim it to the universe, and generations to come will glory in this decree; we are proclaiming universal liberty ... We are working for future generations; let us launch liberty into the colonies; the English are dead, today."-- Georges Danton, one of the Frenchmen present at the meeting of the National Convention, expressed this sentiment of French declare slavery abolished Name: br+fr0-WarinVendeebegin Message: March 7,1793: War in the Vendee begins. Armed uprising against the rule of the Convention, particularly against conscription into the army Name: sp2-Second_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso Message: The Second Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed on 19 August 1796 between the Spanish Empire and the First French Republic. Based on the terms of the agreement, France and Spain would become allies and combine their forces against the Kingdom of Great Britain. Name: br+na0-JayTreatysigned Message: On November 19,1794,Britain and the United States sign the Jay Treaty (coming into effect 1796), which attempts to clear up some issues left over from the American Revolutionary War and secures a decade of peaceful trade between the two nations . It inflamed the new growth of two opposing parties in every state, the pro-Treaty Federalists and the anti-Treaty Jeffersonian Republicans. Name: br1-MenofHarlech Message: Men of Harlech, stop your dreaming, Can't you see their spearpoints gleaming, See their warrior pennants streaming, To this battle field! Men of Harlech stand ye steady, It can not be ever said ye, For the battle were not ready, Welshmen never yield! From the hills rebounding, Let this war cry sounding, Summon all at Cambria's call, The mighty force surrounding! Men of Harlech on to glory, This will ever be your story, Keep these burning words before ye, Welshmen will not yield! --Gorhoffedd Gwyr Harlech—March of the Men of Harlech in the second edition of The Musical and Poetical Relicks of the Welsh Bards,1794 Name: br2-Fedon'srebellion Message: Fedon's rebellion (also known as the Brigands' War, or Fedon's Revolution, 2 March 1795 - 19 June 1796) was an uprising against British rule in Grenada.The rebellion had lasted over a year, consumed the resources of 16 British regiments,—about 10,000 men, including slaves and skilled mercenaries—and cost over ￡2,500,000 in sterling Name: br3-bread riots Message: In September and Octobe,1795,Famine in England, brought on by bad harvests and a wartime economy; bread prices soar, and bread riots result. Name: br+na1-Jaytreatytookeffect Message: Jay treaty of 1794 now officially takes effect,Britain and the United States are mutually beneficial in trade Name: b+sp0-Anglo-Spanish War Message: On 5 October,1796,Anglo-Spanish War: Spain declares war on Britain. Name: fr5-warwithus Message: March 2,1797: The Directory authorizes French warships to capture U.S. ships, in retaliation for the British-US treaty of February 20, 1796. Name: br+fr0-seize neutral ships Message: January 18,1798: The legislature authorizes French ships to seize neutral ships carrying British merchandise. Name: br4-Income tax announced Message: On December 4,1798 ,Income tax was announced in Britain by William Pitt the Younger in his budget to pay for weapons and equipment in preparation for the Napoleonic Wars. Pitt's new graduated (progressive) income tax began at a levy of 2 old pence in the pound (1/120) on annual incomes over ￡60 (equivalent to ￡6,363 as of 2021), and increased up to a maximum of 2 shillings (10 percent) on annual incomes of over ￡200. Pitt hoped that the new income tax would raise ￡10 million, but receipts for 1799 totalled just over ￡6 million. Name: all9-Chapter3SecondCoalition Message: Chapter 3:French Revolutionary Wars War of the Second Coalition December 29,1798: Alliance (Second Coalition) between Russia, Britain and the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily against France signed. Name: br5-income tax take on effect Message: Income tax takes effect and the treasury is replenished Name: ru1-Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire Message: Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire established on 8 September 1802 Name: sa2-Chapter4forSA-CryofDolores Message: Chapter 4:Spanish American wars of independence Mexican War of Independence "My children: a new dispensation comes to us today. Will you receive it? Will you free yourselves? Will you recover the lands stolen three hundred years ago from your forefathers by the hated Spaniards? We must act at once... Will you defend your religion and your rights as true patriots? Long live Our Lady of Guadalupe! Death to bad government! Death to the Gachupines!" --Cry of Dolores,Miguel Hidalgo,16th September 1810 Name: sp1-Cry of Dolores Message: "My children: a new dispensation comes to us today. Will you receive it? Will you free yourselves? Will you recover the lands stolen three hundred years ago from your forefathers by the hated Spaniards? We must act at once... Will you defend your religion and your rights as true patriots? Long live Our Lady of Guadalupe! Death to bad government! Death to the Gachupines!" --Cry of Dolores,Miguel Hidalgo,16th September 1810 Name: ru2-Finance Message: Ministry of Finance now in charge of financial and economic policy, imperial fiscal revenue increased Name: BR+FR+Au+Ru+sp+sw-Chatper4WaroftheThirdCoalition-NapoleonicWarsbegin Message: Chapter 4:Napoleonic Wars War of the Third Coalition In March of last year, France and Britain agreed to cease hostilities under the Treaty of Amiens. For the first time in ten years, all of Europe was at peace. However, many problems persisted between the two sides making the implementation of the treaty increasingly difficult. Britain declare war on France on 18 May 1803. Name: all11-FirstSerbianUprising Message: On February 14, 1804, in the small sumadija village of Orasac, nearby modern Arandelovac(47 miles from Nándorfeherv), in Maricevica jaruga, the Serbs gathered and decided to undertake an uprising.The First Serbian Uprising (Serbian: Prvi srpski ustanak, Serbian Cyrillic: Први српски устанак; Turkish: Birinci SIrp AyaklanmasI)breaks out. It was an uprising of Serbs in the Sanjak of Smederevo against the Ottoman Empire from 14 February 1804 to 7 October 1813. Initially a local revolt against renegade janissaries who had seized power through a coup, it evolved into a war for independence (the Serbian Revolution) after more than three centuries of Ottoman rule and short-lasting Austrian occupations. Name: br6-ironproduction Message: The annual iron production in the UK has reached hundreds of thousands of tons and is still rising. Name: all12-HolyRomanEmpirefall3rdCoalitionended Message: On 1 August,1806, the members of the confederation formally seceded from the Holy Roman Empire, and on 6 August, following an ultimatum by Napoleon, Francis II declared the Holy Roman Empire dissolved. Francis and his Habsburg dynasty continued as emperors of Austria. The Third Coalition ended. Name: BR+FR+Au+Ru+sp+sw-Chatper5WaroftheFourthCoalition Message: Chapter 5:Napoleonic Wars War of the Fourth Coalition On 9 October 1806, Prussia joined a renewed coalition, fearing the rise in French power after the defeat of Austria and establishment of the French-sponsored Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia and Russia mobilized for a fresh campaign with Prussia massing troops in Saxony. Name: All12-BerlinDecree Message: The Berlin Decree was issued in Berlin by Napoleon on November 21, 1806.Continental system established In response to a British Order in Council of 16 May 1806, which had declared all ports from Brest to the Elbe to be under a state of blockade. The Berlin decree proclaimed that "the British Isles are declared to be in a state of blockade" and forbade all correspondence or commerce with Great Britain.All British subjects found in the territory of France or its allies were to be arrested as prisoners of war and all British goods or merchandise seized. Any vessel found contravening the decree and landing in a continental port from a port of Britain or its colonies was to be treated as if it were British property and therefore liable to confiscation, along with all of its cargo. Great Britain responded with the Orders in Council of 1807 issued on 6 January and 11 November 1807, extending the range and scope of the blockade instituted the previous year.[1] These forbade French trade with Great Britain, its allies, or neutrals, and instructed the Royal Navy to blockade French and allied ports. This order required all shipment to stop in English ports to be checked for military supplies that could have aided France. Ships that did not stop to be checked at English ports were liable to British seizure. Napoleon retaliated with the Milan Decree of 1807, which declared that all neutral shipping using British ports, or paying British tariffs, were to be regarded as British and seized. Name: br7-1807Frobergmutiny Message: The Froberg mutiny staged between 4 and 12 April 1807 at Fort Ricasoli, on the island of Malta, then a British Protectorate, by the Froberg Regiment. The regiment had been formed using dubious methods, with personnel recruited from various nationalities in Albania and the Ottoman Empire. The troops, who had arrived on Malta in 1806, were unhappy with their rank and pay. The mutiny lasted for eight days, during which several people were killed and the fort was damaged. The mutiny was put down, and the ringleaders were executed. It is considered the most serious mutiny of the Napoleonic Wars. Name: br-BerlinDecree effect Message: The goal of the so-called Continental System was to force Britain to the peace table by starving her of trade with Europe and thereby wrecking her economy. However, the blockade's effectiveness was difficult to enforce over so vast an area and was generally unpopular among French subjects and allies. Historian Paul Schroeder considers it to have proved an ineffective method of economic warfare. The Continental System eventually led to economic ruin for France and its allies. Less damage was done to the economy of Britain, which had control of the Atlantic Ocean trade. Name: fr6-BerlinDecree bad effect Message: The embargo also had an effect on France. Ship building and its trades declined, as did many other industries that relied on overseas markets. With few exports and a loss of profits, many industries closed entirely. It was an admission that his blockade had hurt the French economy more than the British. It also failed to reduce British financial support to its allies. Name: au-BerlinDecree bad effect Message: The goal of the so-called Continental System was to force Britain to the peace table by starving her of trade with Europe and thereby wrecking her economy. However, the blockade's effectiveness was difficult to enforce over so vast an area and was generally unpopular among French subjects and allies. Historian Paul Schroeder considers it to have proved an ineffective method of economic warfare. The Continental System eventually led to economic ruin for France and its allies. Less damage was done to the economy of Britain, which had control of the Atlantic Ocean trade.Other European nations removed themselves from the Continental System, which led in part to the downfall of Napoleon Name: ru-BerlinDecree bad effect Message: The goal of the so-called Continental System was to force Britain to the peace table by starving her of trade with Europe and thereby wrecking her economy. However, the blockade's effectiveness was difficult to enforce over so vast an area and was generally unpopular among French subjects and allies. Historian Paul Schroeder considers it to have proved an ineffective method of economic warfare. The Continental System eventually led to economic ruin for France and its allies. Less damage was done to the economy of Britain, which had control of the Atlantic Ocean trade.Other European nations removed themselves from the Continental System, which led in part to the downfall of Napoleon Name: sp-BerlinDecree bad effect Message: The goal of the so-called Continental System was to force Britain to the peace table by starving her of trade with Europe and thereby wrecking her economy. However, the blockade's effectiveness was difficult to enforce over so vast an area and was generally unpopular among French subjects and allies. Historian Paul Schroeder considers it to have proved an ineffective method of economic warfare. The Continental System eventually led to economic ruin for France and its allies. Less damage was done to the economy of Britain, which had control of the Atlantic Ocean trade.Other European nations removed themselves from the Continental System, which led in part to the downfall of Napoleon Name: ru3-Russo-Turkish War(1806-1812) Message: Hidden Chapter of Russia Section 2:Russo-Turkish War(1806-1812) The war broke out in 1805-1806 against the background of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1806, Sultan Selim III, encouraged by the Russian defeat at Austerlitz and advised by the French Empire, deposed the pro-Russian Constantine Ypsilantis as Hospodar of the Principality of Wallachia and Alexander Mourousis as Hospodar of Moldavia, both Ottoman vassal states. Simultaneously, the French Empire occupied Dalmatia and threatened to penetrate the Danubian principalities at any time. In order to safeguard the Russian border against a possible French attack, a 40,000-strong Russian contingent advanced into Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sultan reacted by blocking the Dardanelles to Russian ships and declared war on Russia. Name: na5-EmbargoActof1807 Message: The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general trade embargo on all foreign nations that was enacted by the United States Congress. As a successor or replacement law for the 1806 Non-importation Act and passed as the Napoleonic Wars continued, it represented an escalation of attempts to coerce Britain to stop any impressment of American sailors and to respect American sovereignty and neutrality but also attempted to pressure France and other nations in the pursuit of general diplomatic and economic leverage. Name: na6-failureEmbago Message: The embargo proved to be a complete failure. It failed to improve the American diplomatic position, highlighted American weakness and lack of leverage, significantly (and only) damaged the American economy, and sharply increased domestic political tensions. Name: ru+sw-Chapter6for RU+Sw Finnish war Message: Chapter 6:Finnish War The Finnish War (Swedish: Finska kriget, Russian: Финляндская война, Finnish: Suomen sota) was fought between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Russian Empire from 21 February 1808 to 17 September 1809. As a result of the war, the eastern third of Sweden was established as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian Empire. Other notable effects were the Swedish parliament's adoption of a new constitution and the establishment of the House of Bernadotte, the new Swedish royal house, in 1818. Name: sp-Chatper6forspPeninsular War Message: Chapter 6:Napoleonic Wars Peninsular War The Peninsular War (1807-1814) was the military conflict fought by Spain, the United Kingdom and Portugal against the invading and occupying forces of France for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. In Spain, it is considered to overlap with the Spanish War of Independence.The war began when the French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807 by transiting through Spain, and it escalated in 1808 after Napoleonic France had occupied Spain, which had been its ally. Napoleon Bonaparte forced the abdications of Ferdinand VII and his father Charles IV and then installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne and promulgated the Bayonne Constitution. Most Spaniards rejected French rule and fought a bloody war to oust them. The war on the peninsula lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and it is regarded as one of the first wars of national liberation and is significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare. Name: au-Fifthcoalition Message: In April 1809 the British treasury supplied ￡20,000 in credit to Prussia, with additional funds promised if Prussia opened hostilities with France. Austria received ￡250,000 in silver, with a further ￡1 million promised for future expenses. Britain refused to land troops in Germany but promised an expedition to the low countries and to renew their campaign in Spain.After Prussia decided against war, the Fifth Coalition formally consisted of Austria, Britain, Portugal, Spain, Sicily and Sardinia, though Austria was the majority of the fighting effort. Name: BR+FR+Au-Chatper6WaroftheFifthCoalition Message: Chapter 6:Napoleonic Wars War of the Fifth Coalition,10th Franco-Austrian war On the early morning of 10 April ,1809, leading elements of the Austrian army crossed the Inn River and invaded Bavaria. Name: br8-AlQasimi Message: Dhows and bhagalas of Al Qasimi caused severe disruption to the regional trade of Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea,massacring Honourable East India Company (HEIC) merchant ships. Name: sa3-FederalRepublicofCentralAmerica Message: On July 1, 1823, the Congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, and established a republican system of government. Name: sp-Aponte_conspiracy Message: In 1812, in Havana, a new abolitionist conspiracy was created by the freedman Jose Antonio Aponte and his reaches spread all the way to Sancti Spíritus, Trinidad, Camagüey, Bayamo, Holguín and Santiago in Cuba,also known as the Aponte rebellion) was a large-scale slave rebellion in Cuba that occurred in 1812.It is named after its alleged leader, Jose Antonio Aponte. Name: na7-Chapter4forNA-WAROF1812 Message: Chapter 4:The War of 1812 The War of 1812 (June 1812 - February 1815)or“Mr. Madison's War”was a conflict fought between the United States and its allies, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and its dependent colonies in North America and Native American allies. The conflict began when the United States declared war in June 1812, and ended in a restoration of the pre-war status quo when a peace treaty agreed to earlier was ratified by the United States in February 1815. Its consequences include establishment of a separate Canadian state, an end of hopes for an independent Native American confederation in the North West and paving the way for the western expansion of the US. Name: latin america revolution Message: If the places we liberate end up as many small countries because of geographical barriers, they should not forget the great years of salvation and mutual encouragement of their compatriots Name: BR+FR+Au+Ru+SP+sw-Chapter7WaroftheSixthCoalition Message: Chapter 7:Napoleonic Wars War of the Sixth Coalition,sometimes known in Germany as the War of Liberation. A coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States,began on 3 March 1813. Name: ru4-Treaty of Reichenbach Pr Message: On 14 June 1813 the Treaty of Reichenbach was signed between Great Britain and Prussia. Based on the terms of the accord, Britain agreed to provide Prussia a subsidy of 666,666 pounds sterling Name: ru5-Treaties of Reichenbach (1813)ru Message: On 15 June 1813 the Treaty of Reichenbach was signed between Great Britain and Russia. Based on the terms of the accord, Great Britain agreed to provide Russia with a subsidy of 1,333,334 pounds sterling Name: BR+Au+Ru+SP+sw-Chapter8WaroftheSeventhCoalition Message: Chapter 8:Napoleonic Wars The Hundred Days War, also known as the War of the Seventh Coalition. Marked the period between Napoleon's return from eleven months of exile on the island of Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815 (a period of 111 days).This period saw the War of the Seventh Coalition, and includes the Waterloo Campaign, the Neapolitan War as well as several other minor campaigns. The phrase les Cent Jours (the hundred days) was first used by the prefect of Paris, Gaspard, comte de Chabrol, in his speech welcoming the king back to Paris on 8 July. Napoleon returned while the Congress of Vienna was sitting. On 13 March, seven days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw, and on 25 March Austria, Prussia, Russia and the United Kingdom, the four Great Powers and key members of the Seventh Coalition, bound themselves to put 150,000 men each into the field to end his rule. This set the stage for the last conflict in the Napoleonic Wars, the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, the second restoration of the French kingdom, and the permanent exile of Napoleon to the distant island of Saint Helena, where he died in May 1821. ===== Heroes ===== Name: Songis Biography: Nicolas-Marie Songis des Courbons (23 April 1761 - 27 December 1810) Position: First General Inspector for Artillery，General de division and commander of the artillery of the Grande Armee Allegiance: Kingdom of France (-1792), French First Republic, First French Empire Branch/service: Grande Armee Rank: General of Division Commands held : Second-in-command of the "Army of the North" Artillery, Chief of battalion in the 8th Foot Artillery regiment, Commander of the 1st Horse Artillery regiment, Commander of the Grande Armee Artillery. Battles/wars :French Revolutionary Wars,Napoleonic Wars Awards Count of the Empire, Grand Aigle, Legion d'honneur, Knight of the Iron Crown Nicolas-Marie Songis des Courbons, Count of the Empire, (23 April 1761 - 27 December 1810), was a French artillery commander during the French Revolutionary Wars, who rose to the rank of General of Division in 1800 and served as commander of the Grande Armee artillery between 1805 and 1809, during the Napoleonic Wars. Early career during the Revolutionary Wars Born in Troyes on 23 April 1761, Songis des Courbons entered the Royal Artillery corps as a student on 1 August 1779 and became a Second Lieutenant in the 4th artillery regiment on 18 July 1780, and a Captain on 3 June 1787. He took part to the Wars of the French Revolution with the "Army of the North". When General Dumouriez was appointed commander of the army, Songis des Courbons was second-in-command of the army's 80 high-calibre guns artillery reserve. Named interim chief of battalion in 1794, his promotion was made permanent in the 8th foot artillery regiment. Songis was transferred to the "Army of Italy" the same year, displaying exceptional talent and knowledge of his arm, which drew the attention of the army's commander-in-chief, General Napoleon Bonaparte. Songis des Courbons rendered invaluable services during the Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars, at the battles of Salo, Lonato, Castiglione. Impressed by Songis's battlefield performances, Bonaparte obtained for him the rank of chef de brigade (colonel) from the French Directory. A commander of artillery in the French "Army of the Orient" artillery, Songis des Courbons campaigned in Egypt and Syria taking part to the numerous battles that the French had to give during this expedition. Named commander of the 1st horse artillery regiment in 1798, he displayed an extraordinary activity during the siege of Saint Jean d'Acre, in 1799. The bravery and intelligence he showed on this occasion deservedly earned him the rank of brigadier general. During this campaign, Songis des Courbons spent every minute he could spare studying his arm, earning the rank of general of division in January 1800. He took part to the battle of Heliopolis in 1800 and to the defense of Alexandria in 1801. Returned to France with the army, Songis des Courbons took command of the artillery of the Guard of the Consuls. He became First Inspector General of Artillery and Grand Officier of the Legion d'honneur in 1804, then a Grand Aigle (Grand Eagle) of the Legion d'honneur the next year. Napoleonic Wars Between 1805 and 1807, General Songis des Courbons served as commander-in-chief of artillery in the Grande Armee, taking part to the army's great victories during the War of the Third Coalition and War of the Fourth Coalition. In 1808, he resumed his duties as Inspector General of Artillery and was created a Count of the Empire, thus becoming a dignitary of the Empire. At the outbreak of the War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809, Songis retained his position as commander-in-chief of the artillery in the "Grand Army of Germany". In this capacity, on 11 May, just 10 days before the battle of Aspern-Essling, he was sent on a crucial mission to reconnoiter the Danube river line between Vienna and Pressburg, in search of a suitable crossing location. He then commanded the army's artillery during the bloody struggle at Aspern and Essling. After the battle, Songis was active in coordinating the set-up of numerous French artillery batteries, as Napoleon was preparing another crossing of the Danube and wanted to deploy his batteries in such a way as to deceive the Austrians into thinking that he would cross in the same location as at Aspern-Essling. However, the health of Songis severely declined before he could finish his assignment and Napoleon allowed him to return to France, leaving his command to General Lariboisière. General of Division count Nicolas-Marie Songis des Courbons died in Paris on 27 December 1810, following a long illness. Recognition During his lifetime, General Songis was rewarded for his military activity. He was created a Count of the Empire, a title for which the letters patent were issued on 1 April 1809, thus making him a dignitary of the Empire. He was also made a Knight of the Iron Crown, a military order in the Kingdom of Italy. On 30 June 1807, Songis had also received the Polish domain of Zelgniewo, in the Bromberg department, as well as an endowment of 30,000 Francs paid by the Kingdom of Westphalia and another of 5,882 Francs on the Empire's Grand Livre. Additionally, he received an endowment of 100,000 Francs for the purchase of a H?tel particulier. As a recognition to his military merits, General Songis is buried at the Pantheon in Paris, alongside other fellow soldiers of the Napoleonic Wars. The name SONGIS is inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, Eastern Pillar. Name: elise Biography: elise de la Serre (1768 - 1794) "I fear that you have lost so much already that you cannot bear to lose more. I think that you would let Germain rule France if you thought it would 'save' me. Have you ever known me to need saving? Have you ever had cause to think that I would accept it if it were offered? My fate is my own. My choice is my own." -elise's last message to Arno elise de la Serre (1768 - 1794) was a French noblewoman and a Templar, as well as the adoptive sister and lover of the Assassin Arno Dorian. Biography Early life "Sometimes I feel like one of those poor wretches we see in Paris, hunched over beneath the weight of expectations forced upon me. I am only ten years old." -A young elise writing her thoughts in her journal, 1778. elise was born the daughter of Fran?ois de la Serre, Grand Master of the French Templars, and Julie de la Serre in 1768. Due to their Templar connections, the family possessed a lot of influence, leading elise to have a very privileged childhood. However, her adventurous nature kept her from being idle, with the young girl preferring the company of servants to attending a ball. As a small child, elise was oblivious to her family's Order and never wondered why she learned history, not etiquette, manners, and poise unlike the other noble children. She did not question her parents why they were different from other families. Her mother told her not to be like the other women at court who only knew of looks and status. This intrigued elise, who started spying on other women behind her mother's skirts. At age five, she entered a convent, in which the Mother Superior hated her happiness and laughter. The old lady caned elise's palms, the scars from which Julie had taken notice of and threatened the Mother Superior. Since then, her parents hired tutors to educate her. The incident left questions in the mind of young elise, who knew that other ladies did not behave the way her mother did. A year later, the de la Serre family attended their neighbor's birthday party. elise found other girls her age stupid for playing dolls and tea parties; instead, she joined the boys who were playing toy soldiers. Her behavior shocked the majority of the crowd, and her nursemaid, Ruth, dragged her away and told her to play with dolls, which she pretended to enjoy. As she watched other ladies gossip and her mother alone, elise realized that she wanted to be like Julie and not the self-centered women of court. elise met her combat mentor and a British Templar, Frederick Weatherall, in February 1774. Her mother led her across their chateau's grounds with their Irish wolfhound Scratch. Unaware of their company, Julie taught her to study and observe her surroundings to find Weatherall. She failed to do so, and Weatherall eventually showed himself and gave them an exaggerated bow. The young girl admired the man and immediately took a liking to him. At first, elise was confused and questioned her mother about her father and Weatherall, but Julie convinced her that he was a confidant and protector and that her father would be busy. A growl from Scratch interrupted their conversation and elise witnessed her mother and Weatherall arm themselves against a wolf. Julie convinced Weatherall to let the wolf go and the pair hid their weapons as if nothing had happened. This made elise wonder how different her family was to other nobles. Her meeting with Weatherall and her sword lessons became elise and Julie's verite cachee, secrets. By the spring of 1774, the Carrolls, an English family of Templars, visited their household. elise and her mother entertained Mrs. Carroll and her daughter, May, with a walk across their gardens. May mocked her occasionally on their walk and kept reminding elise that she was only six, while May was ten. Irritated, elise decided to listen on the ladies' conversation about the Templar Order and caught snippets of it, which added more to her confusion. May asked her if she knew about her "destiny", to which elise replied that she did not. Pretending to be shocked, May told elise that she would soon learn when she turned ten, like May herself had. When elise turned eight, she and her mother visited Christian's shoe shop in Paris. After arranging their payment and delivery, they found no sign of their carriage and coachman. elise saw Julie stiffen and watched the street around them. Julie assured Christian and elise that their coachman was merely negligent but he warned her about the people and that it was getting dark. Julie led her scared daughter towards the square where carriages could be hired and warned her that someone was following them. Telling her to be calm, they passed another shop window and discovered that their stalker disappeared. The pair took an alley lit only by lanterns at each end. They found themselves blocked by their stalker and a lamplighter who doused the lanterns' flames. Their attackers were armed with blades, but Julie took her advantage and attacked the stalker, who happened to be an Assassin, much to elise's amazement. As the lamplighter grabbed elise and threatened to kill her, he was killed himself by Julie's footblade. The Assassin fled and the pair arrived home, composed but bloodied. elise discovered that her mother told different stories, even to her father and his Templar associates, whom the young girl called Crows. Training for Grand Master "Instead, her journal was filled with a sense of injustice and of elise at odds with the world around her... Page after page of her failing to realize that what she was doing wasn't rebelling. It was mourning." -Arno, reflecting upon elise's journal entries, 1794. Due to the incident, elise's parents were forced to reveal their plans to her, which were to prepare her to become the future Grand Master of the Parisian Rite, and tell her of the secret Assassin-Templar War. Relieved that her questions were finally answered, elise found the idea of leading the country to order and peace a principled idea. Since then, the young girl spent her time with Julie and Weatherall, training in combat and tactics, and with her father and governor, learning the Templar principles and beliefs. Later that year, Fran?ois de la Serre adopted young Arno Dorian, following his father's death at the hands of Shay Cormac. As a result, she and Arno grew up together, with the energetic elise often getting her adoptive brother into trouble. Once, she convinced him to jump a fence into an orchard, which happened to be patrolled by guard dogs. They became great friends, and elise took her role as older sister with enjoyment. The two children often played skipping, hopscotch, shuttlecock and sword fighting in which they were evenly matched, with the exception of sword fighting where elise always won. She spent her mornings tutored as a responsible adult-in-waiting, and her afternoons with Arno as a child. Soon after, elise was called by her parents who revealed Arno's Assassin heritage to her, even though the boy himself was oblivious to it. Fran?ois asked her to guide him towards the Templar Order, an idea against elise and her mother's beliefs. They managed to convince Fran?ois to delay his plans, for which the young girl was grateful. Following her mother's illness, elise no longer spent her afternoons with Arno, but rather at her mother's bedside. She found Fran?ois gravitating towards Arno, which left her sad and grief-stricken. elise also discovered Weatherall's love for her mother, when she spied on him visiting and sobbing for Julie. Before her death, Julie told elise to stay strong for the sake of her father and the Order, and that she loved them very much. Julie's death brought emptiness in the young girl's life, even as her routines continued as usual. Weatherall gave her a box from Julie that contained a short sword with an inscription of the Templar maxim on the hilt, but elise felt nothing. Later that day, elise was summoned by her father to his study, where she finally confided her grief in him. elise was sent to the Maison Royale de Saint-Louis school at Saint-Cyr to complete her education as a proper lady and Templar knight, during which she was separated from Arno. She loathed the school and referred to it as Le Palais de la Misere in her letters, saying her personality was unsuited for the school. She detested the restrictions and regime of Maison Royale, which encroached such subjects as embroidery and music. elise often caused trouble in school with her fights against the head pupil, Valerie, for which she was punished by Madame Levene, the headmistress. She would respond with insolence and would make matters worse. The emptiness in her heart caused by Julie's death became the root of her rebellion, which also gave way to her scorn of other pupils and teachers. Due to elise's occasional disturbances, Fran?ois was called to Madame Levene's office on 8 September 1787, where the latter complained about his daughter's acts of rebellion. By then, the nobles had defied the King, and unrest began to spread through Paris, of which Fran?ois notified his daughter. After scolding her, he also reminded elise of their agreement regarding Arno's induction into the Order. Aware of the headmistress' presence, elise reluctantly agreed, but never did perform. Until January 1788, elise neglected their agreement and worsened her behavior at Maison Royale. She was on the risk of expulsion and other threats to her education, and yet she never heeded the warnings. Her father was called once again, but elise found Weatherall in Madame Levene's office instead. Weatherall told her that he had been intercepting Levene's letters to her father and the pair faked punishment just in case the headmistress was spying on their conversation. Weatherall had been searching for the man who attempted to kill Julie years ago, Bernard Ruddock, and found him hiding in London. elise pleaded to join him in his hunt by forging a letter, but Weatherall scolded her instead, telling her she had been reckless and irresponsible with her schooling. Nevertheless, elise hatched a scheme to blackmail Madame Levene. On the night of 23 January 1788, elise spied on her headmistress after learning a rumor from her fellow classmate, Judith, that Madame Levene had a lover. She followed the headmistress through the woods and found her meeting with a younger man named Jacques, the groundskeeper. elise's actions were followed by her theft of a horseshoe from the dormitory door. Soon enough, elise was called to the headmistress' office and the young lady confidently returned the horseshoe to her, ready to set her plan in motion. Yet, the headmistress revealed that she had taken a hold of elise's journal and was aware of her scheme. Madame Levene assured her student that she was merely concerned for her and made an agreement, which entailed elise staying quiet about what she saw, while the headmistress would send the forged letter to her father. Before elise took leave, the headmistress added that Jacques was her son, not her lover, making the young lady ashamed of herself. Meeting Jennifer Scott "She gave me two hours with them. It was enough time to read them and form questions of my own. To know that there was another way. A third way." -elise's ideology after reading Haytham Kenway's letters, 1788. elise arrived at the docks of Calais on 7 February 1788. Ignoring the coachman's warning, she entered the tavern to locate the captain of the ship heading for London. Confident that she could defend herself, she questioned the Middle Man, paying no heed to the drunkards watching her. elise finally realized that the Middle Man was just playing with her and decided to leave. However, she was stopped by his men and lost a sword fight because of her lack of practice. The men tried to kidnap her with another girl, Helène, but were stopped by a drunkard and ship captain Byron Jackson. elise saved Helène in time and joined Byron's journey to England aboard his ship the Granny Smith. After bidding goodbye to Byron at Dover beach, elise and Helène rode a carriage to the Carroll house in Mayfair. Their arrival shocked the Carrolls and Weatherall, who had been inquiring for their assistance. The mentor and his student pretended that her arrival was planned and managed to convince the Carrolls to help them find Ruddock, in exchange for elise and Helène's help in infiltrating Jennifer Scott's home, posing as "Yvonne Albertine" and a maidservant, respectively. Tasked with finding Haytham Kenway's letters to his sister, elise maintained contact with Weatherall through light signals inside Jennifer's home at Queen Anne's Square. In an attempt to converse with her mentor, she was caught and questioned by the butler, Smith, which she answered quite well. By April 1788, elise managed to hear the story of the Kenway family through her and Jennifer's visit to Hyde Park. As the pair returned to the games room, elise was blocked by Jennifer and her men. Jennifer had investigated elise's background and learned of her true identity, saying that there was no "Yvonne Albertine", and that the members of that family had been killed by the Templars. Nevertheless, Jennifer saw goodness in her heart, and gave the letters to elise, on two conditions. The first was that the Templars leave Jennifer in peace, and the second was for elise to attempt to unite the two warring factions. Jennifer also gave elise a Templar pendant which Haytham once sent her, as a parting gift. Before arriving at the Carroll house, elise found the family holding Weatherhall hostage. Using their owl signal, elise learned from her mentor that they had found Ruddock. Telling Helène to leave immediately, she followed the Carrolls to the Boars Head Inn. elise successfully managed to warn Ruddock to escape and confronted the Carrolls in the process. elise gave them letters she received from Arno, after telling them that she was aware of what they had done with the Albertines, but the English Templars burned them, thinking they were Haytham's letters. Their actions caused conflict and elise was forced to murder May Carroll and one of the guards. With the help of Weatherall, the pair narrowly escaped the infuriated Carrolls, but Weatherall was shot in the leg. They've returned to France with Helène, where Madame Levene welcomed them and called a doctor for Weatherall. elise continued her education while her mentor and handmaiden temporarily stayed with Jacques. elise continued her hunt for Ruddock in January 1789, after obtaining information from the Butchered Cow tavern. She found him in a village outside Rouen, where Ruddock was about to be hanged. Cutting the rope in the last second and saving him from the townspeople, she was forced to torture him for information which he could not provide. Ruddock eventually promised that he would find the man who hired him, and elise let him go in hopes that he would find purpose and direction in life. Return to Versailles In May 1789, elise returned to the de la Serre estate in Versailles, and attended the meeting of the Estates General held at the H?tel des Menus-Plaisirs with her father on 5 May. Later at the Palace of Versailles, elise was officially inducted into the Templar Order as an initiate, and gifted with a pin symbolizing the membership by Fran?ois. A private party was held to honor her arrival and induction, where she was reunited with Arno. After sharing an affectionate kiss, elise helped Arno escape the guards by distracting them and asking them to lead her to the billiard room. Halfway though her destination, she heard the cries of the crowd, and later learned that Fran?ois had been assassinated and her lover was the culprit. By July 1789, the French Revolution was starting, but elise was too overwhelmed by grief to do anything and developed scorn for Arno, whom she discovered had failed to deliver a warning letter to her father on the night of his murder. Weatherall visited her and advised the grief-stricken girl to act, not only for herself and Arno but also for the Order, now that she was Grand Master, along with a similar counsel which came from Jennifer Scott's letter. On 14 July 1789, elise joined the people storming the Bastille, where Arno was imprisoned, and witnessed the people's lust for freedom and justice, along with Arno and Pierre Bellec's escape from the fortress by leaping off the battlements. Desperate to reach the de la Serre estate in time, elise ran amongst the chaos and found her house ransacked by looters. She told the remaining servants and butlers to go someplace safe while she checked her important belongings. elise found two men named Hook and Harvey, who were hired by the Carrolls to eliminate her, but managed to kill them with a distraction from Ruddock. Ruddock told her that he had found the man who hired him, known as the Roi des Thunes. elise spent her following days drunk and anxious, until 25 July 1789, when Arno arrived in the estate and explained that he was not Fran?ois' killer. elise showed Arno the letter that he had failed to deliver, and told him to go. Weatherall and a new Templar initiate Jean Burnel arrived on 20 August 1789 and helped elise recover her bearings. She managed to learn from her mentor that the Roi des Thunes was also responsible for her father's death. Adamant in her desire to regain leadership of the Templar Order, elise called a meeting at the H?tel de Lauzun in October 1789. Accompanied by Jean, she discovered through the Marquis de Pim?dan that some of her Templar associates had been murdered in a purge. The Marquis revealed to elise that there were killers waiting for her downstairs, and elise attempted to outwit them. Her efforts failed however, resulting in Jean being killed by ligature, and elise breaking a rib on a ship's hull as she tried to escape by jumping into the River Seine. elise was nursed back to health by Helène and Jacques, and learned that all her allies had abandoned her. Nevertheless, she trained to improve her combat skills as she waited for a chance to find her enemies. On 1 April 1791, she decided to meet Chretien Lafrenière at the H?tel Voysin, having received a letter stating his willingness to support her. However, she discovered the meeting was a trap. To her surprise, she saw a hooded Arno, who informed her that Lafrenière was dead, and helped her escape the attackers. Hunt for justice "You are not men with whom I would normally parley, monsieur, but my father is dead, as are my allies within the Order. If I must turn to the Assassins for my revenge, so be it." -elise, addressing her comments to the Assassin Council, 1791. In spite of their opposing allegiances, elise and Arno shared a goal of finding Fran?ois' killer. However, while Arno sought to redeem himself, she was driven by vengeance, wanting justice for her father's murder. As a member of the "old guard", elise also desired to safeguard her Order against corruption and sought to clash those Templars who had betrayed the de la Serres. On 2 April 1791, the pair went to the Assassin Council to ask permission for elise's aid in hunting the rogue Templar members. While the Council held a private meeting, they decided to investigate on their own in the warehouse of Arno's informant, the silversmith and former Templar Fran?ois-Thomas Germain. However, elise and Arno fell into a trap set by four Templar killers, but they were able to fight and eliminate them. The pair uncovered Templar plans and documents signed by Germain and fathomed that he was the new Grand Master. They were interrupted by gunshots and the two headed to the Assassin Mentor Mirabeau's estate, where they found him dead beside a Templar badge designed to inflict poison. Thinking that elise might be blamed for the incident, they decided to investigate further and tracked down the killer: Pierre Bellec. After killing him, Arno told elise that he had also killed the Roi des Thunes and the traitor Charles Gabriel Sivert, much to the lady's fury. She wanted to inflict pain and death to her father's killers and Arno stole the opportunity from her. Fortunately, he managed to calm her down, saying that he gave them justice. The pair continued their hunt, where Arno eventually assassinated Marie Levesque, and shared a ride on a hot-air balloon, where the lovers shared an intimate moment. However, the deaths of her father's advisors served as a mere diversion and added to the anger consuming the young lady. On 20 January 1793, elise returned to Versailles where she reported her latest endeavors to Weatherall. Her mentor noticed her want for revenge and tried to warn her, but the young lady remained stubborn. The next day, elise and Arno attended the King's execution, where they planned to assassinate Germain. Unfortunately, Germain had the guards alerted and he escaped, Arno choosing to save elise over chasing the Grand Master, for which elise was not grateful. She then cut off contact with him. elise learned from Weatherall that Arno had been expelled from the Brotherhood and retreated to Versailles, where he had become the town drunk. In June 1793, she went to the Palace of Versailles where she found Arno's watch, and returned it to him. elise requested his help, but Arno was reluctant. Eventually, she was able to convince him to resume their hunt for Germain. While Arno assassinated the Templar Aloys la Touche, elise secured transport to Paris. Through the memories of la Touche, Arno learned that revolutionary leader Maximilien de Robespierre was one of Germain's conspirators. They decided to instigate a rebellion against Robespierre. If this happened, Germain would abandon Robespierre, who would be more vulnerable to give up information on his master. At the Festival of the Supreme Being, elise poisoned Robespierre to make him appear insane to the crowd. Arno also found lists of political opponents that Robespierre planned to eliminate. He placed the lists on critics of Robespierre, who was soon deposed by the National Convention. However, Robespierre was sentenced to death, leaving elise and Arno little time to interrogate him. After splitting up to find Robespierre, they cornered him inside the H?tel de Ville. As Robespierre refused to give up Germain's location, elise lost control and shot Robespierre's jaw, much to her and Arno's horror. He then wrote that Germain was hiding at the Temple. Realizing that she was turning into another person and she might not survive her oncoming battle with Germain, she wrote letters for Arno and Ruddock, thanking them for their loyalty. Death "...Think of me. Just as I shall think of you, until we are together again." -elise's final words in her letter to Arno. By 28 July 1794, elise was too consumed with hatred and decided to split up from Arno in their pursuit for Germain in the Temple. It was Arno who encountered Germain wielding a Sword of Eden and was defeated, letting Germain escape once again. elise and Arno found him in a Templar crypt where the two tried to attack him. Using the Precursor sword, Germain trapped Arno underneath a pillar. elise decided to leave Arno and pursue the Grand Master herself. She locked him in a fierce sword fight, which Germain was slowly losing due to an injury that Arno had inflicted. The Sword of Eden's power source became unstable and exploded, throwing elise into a column, crushing her beneath it. A freed Arno immediately went to his lover, but was seconds too late, as elise died in his arms. With her death, the de la Serre family was presumably rendered extinct, as she had no siblings and died childless. Personality and characteristics "You should be proud to inspire such loyalty in your followers, elise. Perhaps you can use those gifts to inspire your Templar associates in other ways. We shall see." -Jennifer Scott, admiring Helène's loyalty to elise, 1788. A free spirit, elise was rarely idle and would often seek out trouble in her youth. As a child, she was quick to laughter which caused her peers in the convent and in the Maison Royale to became annoyed by her. Defined by her mentor Weatherall as overconfident, she sometimes underestimated her opponent and showed stubbornness and irritation if her views were countered. She was very similar to Julie, never keen on joining any of the other noble women's daughters, instead taking an interest in more masculine activities, such as playing war with the boys. elise believed that there was always a third way, an ideology that she had gained from her deceased mother. Growing up, she developed a set of values which she loyally lived by and was willing to go to any lengths to see her goals fulfilled. Her opinions were strengthened during her meeting with Jennifer Scott. elise supported Haytham Kenway's judgement that the war between Assassins and Templars must cease. elise was also considerate and loving to animals, and was fond of giving them treats or grooming them if they had behaved properly. Equipment and abilities Due to extensive training throughout her life, elise was both well-educated and in her physical peaks, with her swordswomanship outclassing even Arno. She was also able to equip pistols in combat. In battle, she would rely on strategy, planning counters for her opponent's moves ahead of time. As a Templar, elise was also trained to become aware of her surroundings and to use clues found in her environment if she needed to track hidden enemies. If needed, she would use charm to convince people to help her. Romantic life Although they were technically family, elise and Arno saw each other not as siblings, but as friends during their youth. Growing up, their feelings developed and the pair eventually fell in love. Due to their respective educations the lovers had very little time to spend with each other and were only able to meet several times a year. During one of her visits abroad, elise met Byron Jackson whom she eventually spent a night with as they sailed from Calais to Dover after sharing a drink. However, elise immediately regretted this decision and felt extremely guilty about it afterwards. Ultimately she decided not to tell Arno about it and chose to look at her mistake as a sign of the great love she had for him; given how upset she felt over the action and that she wanted no other man in her life other than Arno. Once elise discovered Arno's failure to deliver a letter warning her father of the betrayal, their relationship became strained. elise held Arno responsible for her father's death, and it was not until years later, coincidentally by which point Arno had joined the Assassins, that the two began to rebuild their friendship and quickly resumed their romance. Trivia The name elise is a diminutive form of the French name elisabeth, meaning "God's promise". Meanwhile, elise's family name comes from the French Serre, meaning "talon" or "greenhouse", while de la, "from the", indicates nobility. In Unity's ending cutscene, Arno is shown visiting elise's grave in the Cimetière des Saints-Innocents. However, when visiting said location in-game, elise's grave is not there. Instead, the gravestone appears next to her parents' in the garden of the de la Serre estate in Versailles. The Unity novel contradicts this, stating that elise was buried at the Cimetière des Saints-Innocents. Isabelle Ardant had a portrait of elise hanging in her London office in 2015. Name: Dumas Biography: Thomas-Alexandre Dumas(25 March 1762 - 26 February 1806) Position: Black general de division during the Revolution and father of the author Alexandre Dumas Allegiance: Kingdom of France，French First Republic Branch/service: French Army，French Revolutionary Army Rank: Divisional general Commands held :Army of the Eastern Pyrenee,Army of the Alps,Army of the West Commander of Cavalry, Armee d'Orient (1798) Relations :Alexandre Dumas (son),Alexandre Dumas (grandson),Alexandre Lippmann (great-great-grandson) Thomas-Alexandre Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie (French: ; known as Alexandre Dumas; 25 March 1762 - 26 February 1806) was a French general in Revolutionary France. Along with Toussaint Louverture in Haiti and Abram Petrovich Gannibal in Imperial Russia, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas is notable as a man of African descent (in Dumas's case, with a white father and black mother) leading European troops as a general officer. He was the first person of color in the French military to become brigadier general, divisional general, and general-in-chief of a French army. Dumas and Toussaint Louverture (appointed general-in-chief in 1797) were the two highest-ranking officers of sub-Saharan African descent in the West until 1975, when "Chappie" James achieved the equivalent rank of four-star general in the United States Air Force. Born in Saint-Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre was the son of Marquis Alexandre Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie, a French nobleman and Marie-Cessette Dumas, a slave of African descent. He was born into slavery because of his mother's status, but his father took him to France in 1776 and had him educated. Slavery had been illegal in metropolitan France since 1315 and thus any slave would be freed de facto by being in France. His father helped him enter the French military. Dumas played a large role in the French Revolutionary Wars. Entering the military as a private at age 24, Dumas commanded 53,000 troops as the General-in-Chief of the French Army of the Alps by age 31. Dumas's victory in opening the high Alps passes enabled the French to initiate their Second Italian Campaign against the Austrian Empire. During the battles in Italy, Austrian troops nicknamed Dumas the Schwarzer Teufel ("Black Devil", Diable Noir in French). The French—notably Napoleon—nicknamed him "the Horatius Cocles of the Tyrol" (after a hero who had saved ancient Rome) for defeating a squadron of enemy troops at a bridge over the Eisack River in Clausen (today Klausen, or Chiusa, Italy). Dumas failed an attempt to conquer Egypt and the Levant on the Expedition d’egypte when he was a commander of the French cavalry forces. On the march from Alexandria to Cairo, he clashed verbally with the Expedition's supreme commander Napoleon Bonaparte, under whom he had served in the Italian campaigns. In March 1799, Dumas left Egypt on an unsound vessel, which was forced to put aground in the southern Italian Kingdom of Naples, where he was taken prisoner and thrown into a dungeon. He languished there until spring of 1801. Returning to France after his release, he and his wife had a son, Alexandre Dumas, who became one of France's most widely read authors. Alexandre Dumas Junior's most famous characters were inspired by his father. The general's grandson, Alexandre Dumas, fils, became a celebrated French playwright in the second half of the nineteenth century. Another grandson, Henry Bau?r , never recognized by the novelist Dumas, was a left-leaning theater critic in the same period. The General's great-grandson, Gerard Bau?r , son of Henry Bau?r, was a writer in the twentieth century. A great-great-grandson, Alexandre Lippmann (grandson of the playwright Dumas fils), was a two-time gold medalist in fencing at the 1908 and 1924 Olympic games, winning silver in 1920. Ancestry Born 25 March 1762 in Jeremie, Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), Thomas-Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie was the son of a French nobleman, Marquis Alexandre Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie (20 June 1714, Belleville-en-Caux-15 June 1786, Saint-Germain-en-Laye) and Marie-Cessette Dumas (b. unknown; d. during or after 1772, La Guinodee, Saint-Domingue), an enslaved African woman he owned. Father Noble pedigree Alexandre Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie, born 1714, was the oldest of three sons of the Marquis Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie (1674 - 25 December 1758) and Jeanne-Fran?oise Paultre (or Pautre) de Dominon (d. 1757). The Davy de la Pailleteries were provincial Norman aristocrats whose wealth was in decline. The family had acquired the title of "lords" (seigneurs) by 1632. The French kingdom granted the title "marquis" to the family by 1708. Alexandre Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie ("Antoine") had two younger brothers, Charles Anne Edouard (Charles) (b. 1716, d. 1773) (married 1738 to Anne-Marie Tuffe), and Louis Fran?ois Therèse (Louis) (b. 1718, d. 1773). All three were educated at a military school and pursued careers as officers in the French military. They first served during the War of the Polish Succession. Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie, who reached the rank of colonel, saw action at the Siege of Philippsburg in 1734. Career in Saint-Domingue In 1732, Antoine's younger brother Charles had been given a military posting in Saint-Domingue, a French colony in the Caribbean that generated high revenues from its sugarcane plantations, worked by African slave labor. In 1738, Charles left the military to become a sugar planter in that colony; he married Anne-Marie Tuffe, a rich local French Creole widow, and took over her estate. That year Antoine also left the Army and joined his brother and his wife in Saint-Domingue. He lived with them and worked at the plantation until 1748. After the two brothers quarrelled violently, Antoine left Charles's plantation, taking his three personal slaves. At that point Antoine broke off contact with his brother and his family for a period of thirty years. During that time, Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie purchased the slave woman Marie-Cessette "for an exorbitant price" and took her as a concubine. In 1762, she gave birth to their mixed-race son Thomas-Alexandre. During her time with Antoine, she also had two or three daughters with him. The French colonist made a living in Jeremie, Saint-Domingue as a coffee and cacao planter, under the assumed name of "Antoine de l'Isle". When the brothers’ parents, the Marquise Jeanne-Fran?oise and the Marquis Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie, died in 1757 and 1758, respectively, Charles returned to Normandy to claim the title of Marquis and the family chateau. The British blockade of French shipping during the Seven Years' War reduced Charles' income from sugar exports, so he tried to smuggle the commodity out of Saint-Domingue from his plantation. He used a wharf in the neutral border territory (and tiny island) of Monte Cristo (today Monte Christi, Dominican Republic). (Some historians argue that this island inspired Alexandre Dumas's The Count of Monte Cristo.) Charles died of gout in 1773; Louis, the youngest of the Davy de la Pailleterie brothers, died three months later. He had served a 15-day sentence for being involved in selling defective weapons to the French military (a famous scandal at the time known as the Invalides Trial ). Mother Marie-Cessette Dumas, described as a "great matriarch to a saga of distinguished men", was an enslaved woman and concubine of African descent owned by the Marquis Antoine Davy de la Pailleterie. They resided together at a plantation called La Guinaudee (Guinodee), near Jeremie (formerly in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now Haiti) until shortly before Antoine's departure in 1775. He sold Marie-Cessette Dumas, their other two children, and her daughter by another man to a baron from Nantes before leaving Saint-Domingue. The only source for her full name, "Marie-Cessette Dumas", with that spelling, is General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas's later marriage certificate and contract. Her grandson's memoir gave her name as Louise, and another source recorded Cecile. Sources have spelling variations of her name, as standardization was not common. Some scholars have suggested that "Dumas" was not a surname for Marie-Cessette, but, meaning "of the farm" (du mas), was added to her first names to signify that she belonged to the property. Others have suggested African origins of the names Cessette and Dumas, including Gabon or Dahomey. The two extant primary documents that state a racial identity for Marie-Cessette Dumas refer to her as a "negresse" (a black female) as opposed to a "mulatresse" (a female of visible mixed race). Secondary sources on General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, dating back to 1822, almost always describe his mother as a black African ("femme africaine", "negresse", "negresse africaine", "noire", or "pure black African"). Saint-Domingue. Two other documents attest that Marie-Cessette was alive after 1772: a letter recounting her sale in 1775 and an 1801 document signed by Dumas, saying that "Marie-Cezette" will be in charge of General Dumas's properties in Saint-Domingue. Thomas-Alexandre Dumas may have earlier claimed that she had died in order to avoid having to get her approval before marriage and revealing her slave status. In addition, he was in a hurry to leave for the military front. Appearance The enlistment roll-book for the 6th Regiment of the Queen's Dragoons, which Dumas joined in 1786, described him as "6 feet tall, with frizzy black hair and eyebrows... oval face, and brown skinned, small mouth, thick lips". According to his earliest-known description (1797), he was "one of the handsomest men you could ever meet. His frizzy hair recalls the curls of the Greeks and Romans." It described his face as 'something closer to ebony' than to 'bronze.'" General Dumas was described as 'dark—very dark.' Early life Thomas-Alexandre had two siblings by his parents: Adolphe and Jeannette. They also had an older half-sister, Marie-Rose, born to Marie-Cessette before Davy de la Pailleterie purchased her and began a relationship. His father sold Marie-Cessette and her other three children before taking Thomas-Alexandre to France. In 1776, when Alexandre was 14, his father sold the boy for 800 French livres in Port-au-Prince, officially to a Lieutenant Jacques-Louis Roussel (but unofficially to a Captain Langlois). This sale (with right of redemption) provided both a legal way to have Alexandre taken to France with Langlois and a temporary loan to pay for his father's passage. The boy accompanied Captain Langlois to Le Havre, France, arriving on 30 August 1776, where his father bought him back and freed him. From his arrival in France until Autumn 1778, Alexandre (named Thomas Retore) first lived with his father at the Davy de la Pailleterie family estate in Belleville-en-Caux, Normandy. After his father sold that estate in 1777, they moved to a townhouse on the rue de l'Aigle d'Or in the Parisian suburb of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. There, Alexandre studied at the academy of Nicolas Texier de la Bo?ssière , where he was given a young nobleman's higher education. He learned swordsmanship from the Chevalier de Saint-Georges, another mixed-race man from the French Caribbean. Flush with cash from the sale of his family estate, Davy de la Pailleterie for many years spent lavishly on Dumas. His notary said that the boy "cost him enormously". From 1777 to 1786, from age 15 to 24, thanks to his father's wealth and generosity, Dumas lived a life of considerable leisure. In 1784, at age 22, Alexandre moved to an apartment on Rue Etienne, near the Louvre Palace in Paris, socializing at venues such as the Palais-Royal and Nicolet's Theater. In September 1784, while seated at Nicolet's Theater in the company of "a beautiful Creole" woman, he and his companion were harassed by a white colonial naval officer, Jean-Pierre Titon de Saint-Lamain, and one or two others. Following Dumas's verbal protests, the men "tried to force him to kneel before his attacker and beg for his freedom". The police report on the incident shows that Titon chose not to press charges as he might have, and all participants were released. Military career Enlistment and service in the Queen's Dragoons In February 1786 his father Davy de la Pailleterie married Fran?oise Retou, a domestic servant from the Davy de la Pailleterie estate. Dumas did not sign as witness to the marriage contract. According to his son's memoir, the marriage precipitated a "cooling off" which led the father to tighten Dumas's allowance. Soon after, Dumas decided to join the French Army, a common occupation for gentlemen. Unlike his noble peers, who took arms as commissioned officers, Dumas enlisted as a private. A 1781 rule enabled men who could show four generations of nobility on their father's side to qualify to be commissioned as officers. Dumas had this, but the French race laws "made it hard for a man of mixed race to claim his rightful title or noble status".) According to the novelist Dumas's account, on hearing of Alexandre's plan, his father insisted that his son take a "nom de guerre" in order that he not drag the noble name "through the lowest ranks of the army". He signed up for the 6th Regiment of the Queen's Dragoons as "Alexandre Dumas" on 2 June 1786; thirteen days later, his father died. Dumas spent his first years in the Queen's Dragoons in the provincial town of Laon, Picardy, close to the border with the Austrian Netherlands. On 15 August 1789, following the beginning of the French Revolution, his unit was sent to the small town of Villers-Cotterêts. The town's newly formed National Guard leader, innkeeper Claude Labouret, had called for them to come in response to a wave of rural violence known as the Great Fear. Dumas lodged at the Labourets' H?tel de l'Ecu for four months, during which time he became engaged to Claude Labouret's daughter Marie-Louise. Dumas's regiment was in Paris on 17 July 1791, where they served as riot police along with National Guard units under the Marquis de Lafayette during the Champ de Mars Massacre of the French Revolution. Troops killed between 12 and 50 people when a large crowd gathered to sign a petition calling for the French King's removal. Two years later, when someone denounced Dumas to the Committee of Public Safety, he claimed that intervention in the conflict saved as many as 2,000 people. A corporal by 1792, Dumas had his first combat experience in a French attack on the Austrian Netherlands in April of that year. He was one of 10,000 men under the command of the General Biron. Stationed on the Belgian frontier in the town of Maulde, on 11 August 1792 Dumas captured 12 enemy soldiers while leading a small scouting party of four to eight horsemen. Second-in-command of the Black Legion In October 1792, Dumas accepted a commission as lieutenant colonel in (and second-in-command of) the Legion franche des Americains et du Midi , founded a month earlier by Julien Raimond. This was a "free legion" (i.e., formed separately from the regular army) composed of free men of color (gens de couleur libres). It was called the "American Legion", "Black Legion", or Saint-Georges Legion, after its commanding officer, the Chevalier de Saint-Georges. Dumas frequently commanded the legion, as Saint-Georges was often absent. In April 1793, General Dumouriez attempted a coup d'etat; Saint-Georges and Dumas refused to join it and defended the city of Lille from coup supporters. In the summer of 1793, Saint-Georges was accused of misusing government funds, and the Legion disbanded. Commander-in-chief of the Army of the Western Pyrenees On 30 July 1793, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the Army of the North. One month later, he was promoted again, to general of division. In September, he was made commander-in-chief of the Army of the Western Pyrenees. In this brief assignment (September-December 1793), Dumas's headquarters were in Bayonne, France, where he was apparently nicknamed "Mr. Humanity" (Monsieur de l'Humanite) by local sans-culottes; they wanted to intimidate him to conform to their political line at a time when French generals were extremely vulnerable to accusations of treason that often led to execution. Commander-in-chief of the Army of the Alps On 22 December 1793, Dumas was given command of the Army of the Alps. His campaign in the Alps centered on defeating Austrian and Piedmontese troops defending the glacier-covered Little Saint Bernard Pass at Mont Cenis, on the French-Piedmont border. After months of planning and reconnaissance from his base in Grenoble, he had to wait for snow conditions to be favorable to his troops' passage. In April and May 1794, Dumas launched several assaults on Mont Cenis. In the final attack, Dumas's army, equipped with ice crampons, took the mountain by scaling ice cliffs and captured between 900 and 1,700 prisoners. Though his victory won Dumas praise from political leaders in Paris, he was called before the Committee of Public Safety in June 1794, for reasons unspecified but probably to face charges of treason, as this was the period of the "Great Terror", a period of accelerated political executions in the final months of the Reign of Terror period of the French Revolution. Dumas delayed his arrival in Paris until mid-July, and was not seen by the Committee before the Terror ended with the execution of Robespierre on 27 July 1794. Commander-in-chief of the Army of the West (1793) in the Vendee In early August 1794 Dumas was briefly assigned to command the Ecole de Mars military school at Neuilly-sur-Seine near Paris. He was reassigned to lead the Army of the West from August to October 1794. He was responsible for consolidating the recent government victory over a massive insurgency in the region of the Vendee against the French revolutionary government. He focused on increasing military discipline and eliminating soldiers' abuses of the local population. One historian, despite or because of his pro-royalist sentiments, characterised Dumas in this command as "fearless and irreproachable", a leader who "deserves to pass into posterity and makes a favorable contrast with the executioners, his contemporaries, whom public indignation will always nail to the pillory of History!" General in the Army of the Rhine (France) In September 1795 Dumas served under General Jean-Baptiste Kleber in the Army of the Rhine. He participated in the French attack on Düsseldorf, where he was wounded. General in the Army of Italy Siege of Mantua General Dumas joined the Army of Italy in Milan in November 1796, serving under the orders of commander-in-chief Napoleon Bonaparte. Tension between the two generals began as Dumas resisted Napoleon's policy of allowing French troops to expropriate local property. In December 1796, Dumas was in charge of a division besieging Austrian troops at the city of Mantua. By Christmas he intercepted a spy carrying a message to the Austrian commander with important tactical information. On 16 January 1797, Dumas and his division halted an Austrian attempt to break out of the besieged city and prevented Austrian reinforcements from reaching Mantua. The French were thereby able to maintain the siege until French reinforcements could arrive, leading to the city's capitulation on 2 February 1797. Campaign in Northern Italy Following the 16 January fighting, Dumas felt insulted by the description of his actions in a battle report by General Berthier, Bonaparte's aide-de-camp, and wrote a letter to Napoleon cursing Berthier. Dumas was subsequently omitted from mention in Napoleon's battle report to the Directory, France's government at the time. He was then given a command well beneath his rank, leading a subdivision under General Massena, despite a petition from Dumas's troops attesting to his valor. Under General Massena in February 1797, Dumas helped French troops push the Austrians northward, capturing thousands. It was in this period that Austrian troops began calling him the der schwarze Teufel ("Black Devil", or Diable Noir in French). In late February 1797, Dumas transferred to a division commanded by General Joubert, who requested Dumas for his republicanism. Under Joubert, Dumas led a small force that defeated several enemy positions along the Adige River. Dumas's achievement in this period came on 23 March, when the general drove back a squadron of Austrian troops at a bridge over the Eisack River in Clausen (today Klausen, or Chiusa, Italy). For this the French began referring to him as "the Horatius Cocles of the Tyrol" (after a hero who saved ancient Rome). Napoleon called Dumas by this, and rewarded him by making him cavalry commander of French troops in the Tyrol; he also sent Dumas a pair of pistols. Dumas spent much of 1797 as military governor, administering Treviso province, north of Venice. Commander of Cavalry in the French Campaign in Egypt Dumas was ordered to report to Toulon, France in March 1798 for an unspecified assignment. He joined an enormous French armada in preparation for departure to a secret destination. The armada departed on 10 May 1798, destination still unannounced. It was only on 23 June, after the fleet had conquered Malta, that Napoleon announced that the mission's main purpose: to conquer Egypt. Aboard the Guillaume Tell, in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, Dumas learned that he had been appointed as commander of all cavalry in the Army of the Orient. The armada arrived in the port of Alexandria at the end of June, and on 3 July Dumas led the Fourth Light Grenadiers over the walls as the French conquered the city. After fighting, Napoleon sent Dumas to pay ransom to some Bedouins who had kidnapped French soldiers. The expedition's chief medical officer recounted in a memoir that local Egyptians, judging Dumas's height and build versus Napoleon's, believed Dumas to be in command. Seeing "him ride his horse over the trenches, going to ransom the prisoners, all of them believed that he was the leader of the Expedition." From 7 to 21 July, Dumas commanded the invading army's cavalry as it marched south from Alexandria to Cairo. Conditions of heat, thirst, fatigue, and lack of supplies for the troops on the desert march were harsh; there were a number of suicides. While camped in Damanhour, General Dumas met with several other generals (Lannes, Desaix, and Murat). They vented criticisms of Napoleon's leadership and discussed the possibility of refusing to march beyond Cairo. Dumas soon participated in the Battle of the Pyramids (following which he chased retreating Mameluke horsemen) and the occupation of Cairo. At some point during the occupation, Napoleon learned of the earlier mutinous talk, and confronted Dumas. In his memoirs, Napoleon remembered threatening to shoot Dumas for sedition. Dumas requested leave to return to France, and Napoleon did not oppose it. Napoleon was reported to have said: "I can easily replace him with a brigadier." Following the destruction of the French armada by a British fleet led by Horatio Nelson, however, Dumas was unable to get out of Egypt until March 1799. In August 1798, Dumas discovered a large cache of gold and jewels beneath a house in French-occupied Cairo, which he turned over to Napoleon. In October, he was important in putting down an anti-French revolt in Cairo by charging into the Al-Azhar Mosque on horseback. Afterward (according to his son, drawn largely from the memories of Dumas's aide-de-camp Dermoncourt), Napoleon told him: "I shall have a painting made of the taking of the Grand Mosque. Dumas, you have already posed as the central figure." The Girodet painting, however, which Napoleon commissioned eleven years later, shows a white man charging into the mosque. On 7 March 1799, Dumas boarded a small ship called the Belle Maltaise in the company of his fellow General Jean-Baptiste Manscourt du Rozoy, the geologist Deodat Gratet de Dolomieu, forty wounded French soldiers, and a number of Maltese and Genoan civilians. Dumas had sold the furnishings of his quarters in Cairo, and purchased 4,000 pounds of moka coffee; eleven Arabian horses (two stallions and nine mares) to establish breeding stock in France; and hired the ship. While returning to France, the ship began to sink, and Dumas had to jettison much of his cargo. The ship was forced by storms to land at Taranto, in the Kingdom of Naples. Dumas and his companions expected to get a friendly reception, having heard that the Kingdom had been overthrown by the Parthenopean Republic. But that short-lived republic had succumbed to an internal uprising by a local force known as the Holy Faith Army, led by Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo, in alliance with King Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples, who was at war with France. Imprisonment in the Kingdom of Naples The Holy Faith Army imprisoned Dumas and the rest of the passengers and confiscated most of their belongings. Early on in the captivity, Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo tried to trade Dumas for a Corsican adventurer named Boccheciampe, an imposter posing as Prince Francis, son of Ferdinand IV, in order to aid the Holy Faith movement. Boccheciampe had been captured by French forces north of the Neapolitan kingdom, shortly after he had visited the prisoners in Taranto, but Ruffo lost interest in a trade when he learned Boccheciampe had been killed by the French. Dumas was malnourished and kept incommunicado for two years. By the time of his release, he was partially paralyzed, almost blind in one eye, had been deaf in one ear but recovered; his physique was broken. He believed his illnesses were caused by poisoning. During his imprisonment, he was aided by a secret local pro-French group, which brought him medicine and a book of remedies. In November 1799, Napoleon had returned to Paris and seized power. Dumas's wife lobbied his government for assistance in finding and rescuing her husband, to little result. Napoleon's forces, under the command of Dumas's fellow general Joachim Murat, eventually defeated Ferdinand IV's army and secured Dumas's release in March 1801. Political views Dumas made few political statements, but those he made suggest deeply felt republican beliefs. One month after the French National Convention abolished slavery (4 February 1794), Dumas sent a message to troops under his command in the Army of the Alps: Your comrade, a soldier and General-in-Chief ... was born in a climate and among men for whom liberty also had charms, and who fought for it first. Sincere lover of liberty and equality, convinced that all free men are equals, he will be proud to march out before you, to aid you in your efforts, and the coalition of tyrants will learn that they are loathed equally by men of all colors. Later years and death After he gained release in 1801, Dumas was not awarded "the pension normally allocated to the widows of generals" by the French government and he struggled to support his family after his return to France. He repeatedly wrote to Napoleon Bonaparte, seeking back-pay for his time lost in Taranto and a new commission in the military. He died of stomach cancer on 26 February 1806 in Villers-Cotterêts, when his son Alexandre was three years and seven months old. The boy, his sister, and his widowed mother were plunged into deeper poverty. Marie-Louise Labouret Dumas worked in a tobacconist's shop to make ends meet. For lack of funds, the young Alexandre Dumas was unable to get even a basic secondary education. Marie-Louise lobbied the French government to pay her military widow's pension. Marie-Louise and the young Alexandre blamed Napoleon Bonaparte's "implacable hatred" for their poverty. Legacy and honors Dumas's name is inscribed on the south wall of the Arc de Triomphe. In 1913, a statue of General Dumas was erected in Place Malesherbes (now Place du General Catroux) in Paris in Autumn 1912 after a long fundraising campaign spearheaded by Anatole France and Sarah Bernhardt. From the moment of its installation until some time after July 1913 the statue was covered by a shroud due to the difficulty of the numerous governmental agencies involved to reach agreement on the modalities of its official inauguration. It stood in Place Malesherbes for thirty years, alongside statues of Alexandre Dumas's descendants Alexandre Dumas, père (erected 1883) and Alexandre Dumas, fils (erected 1906), as well as of Sarah Bernhardt. Germans destroyed it in the winter of 1941-1942. In 2009, a sculpture in his honor, made by Driss Sans-Arcidet, was erected in Paris, Place du General Catroux (formerly Place Malesherbes). Representing broken slave shackles, it was unveiled on 4 April 2009. Critic Jean-Jo?l Bregeon claimed that the symbolism of the statue was inappropriate due to his noble upbringing, he had never been a slave. However, his father sold and then re-purchased Alexandre Dumas, disproving this. Dumas biographer Tom Reiss suggested that the monument is inappropriate for other reasons: "In the race politics of twenty-first-century France, the statue of General Dumas had morphed into a symbolic monument to all the victims of French colonial slavery ... There is still no monument in France commemorating the life of General Alexandre Dumas." In April 2009, writer Claude Ribbe started an internet petition, asking French President Nicolas Sarkozy to award General Dumas the Legion d'honneur. As of February 2014, the petition has gathered over 7,100 signatories. homas-Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars War of the First Coalition War in the Vendee Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars Siege of Mantua (1796-1797) French Campaign in Egypt and Syria Battle of the Pyramids Name: Nelson Biography: Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson(29 September 1758 - 21 October 1805) Allegiance: Great Britain，United Kingdom Branch/service: Royal Navy Rank: Vice-Admiral of the White Commands held Mediterranean Fleet Battles/wars American War of Independence Battle of Fort San Juan (1780) Battle of Grand Turk (1783) War of the First Coalition Siege of Calvi (1794) (WIA) Battle of Genoa (1795) Battle of Hyères Islands (1795) Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797) (WIA) Assault on Cádiz (1797) Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797) (WIA) Battle of the Nile (WIA) War of the Second Coalition Siege of Malta (1798-1800) Battle of Copenhagen (1801) Raid on Boulogne (1801) War of the Third Coalition Battle of Trafalgar (1805) (DOW) Awards Knight of the Order of the Bath Several others (see below) Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte, KB (29 September 1758 - 21 October 1805), also known simply as Admiral Nelson, was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. His inspirational leadership, grasp of strategy, and unconventional tactics brought about a number of decisive British naval victories, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He was wounded in combat, losing sight in one eye in Corsica at the age of 35, and most of one arm in the unsuccessful attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife when he was 38. He was fatally shot in 1805 shortly before his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar, which is often regarded as Britain's greatest naval victory. For these reasons, he is widely regarded as one of the greatest naval mariners in history. Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling, a high-ranking naval officer. Nelson rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command at the age of 20 in 1778. He developed a reputation for personal valour and firm grasp of tactics, but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean. He fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while in command of HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after that battle, Nelson took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where the attack failed and he was badly wounded, losing his right arm, and was forced to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion. In 1801 he was dispatched to the Baltic and won another victory, this time over the Danes at the Battle of Copenhagen. He commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelson's fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle became one of Britain's greatest naval victories, but Nelson, aboard HMS Victory, was fatally wounded by a French sharpshooter. His body was brought back to England where he was accorded a state funeral. Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. His signal just prior to the commencement of the battle, "England expects that every man will do his duty", is regularly quoted, paraphrased and referenced. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory, and his legacy remains highly influential. Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 in a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England, the sixth of eleven children of the Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine Suckling. He was named "Horatio" after his godfather Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford (1723-1809), the first cousin of his maternal grandmother Anne Turner (1691-1768). Horatio Walpole was a younger grandson of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Catherine Suckling lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles church, Suffolk, in 1749. Nelson's aunt, Alice Nelson was the wife of Reverend Robert Rolfe, Rector of Hilborough, Norfolk and grandmother of Sir Robert Monsey Rolfe. Rolfe twice served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain. Nelson attended Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI's Grammar School in Norwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate HMS Raisonnable as an ordinary seaman and coxswain under his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling, who commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from seasickness, a chronic complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life. West Indies, 1771-1780 Command, 1781-1796 Captain of Albemarle Island of Nevis and Marriage During the peace Nelson remained with Boreas until she was paid off in November that year. He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788, they settled at Nelson's childhood home at Burnham Thorpe. Now in reserve on half pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood, to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy and Hood did not intercede on his behalf. Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792 the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium), which were traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun HMS Agamemnon in January 1793. On 1 February France declared war. Mediterranean service In May 1793, Nelson sailed as part of a division under the command of Vice Admiral William Hotham, joined later in the month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet. The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and, with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean, made their way to Toulon, anchoring off the port in July. Toulon was largely under the control of moderate republicans and royalists, but was threatened by the forces of the National Convention, which were marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested that Hood take it under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced and sent Nelson to carry dispatches to Sardinia and Naples requesting reinforcements. After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia, Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There Nelson met King Ferdinand IV of Naples, followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom, William Hamilton. At some point during the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson was introduced to Hamilton's new wife, Emma Hamilton, the former mistress of Hamilton's nephew Charles Greville. The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 men and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed for Leghorn, and then to Corsica. He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found that a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari. Corsica See also: Invasion of Corsica (1794) Genoa and the fight of the ?a Ira Main article: Naval Battle of Genoa (1795) Skirmishes and the retreat from Italy Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout the summer of 1795. On 4 July Agamemnon sailed from St Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops, bound for Genoa. On 6 July Nelson ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several much larger ships-of-the-line. He retreated to St Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbour. Hotham pursued the French to the Hyères Islands, but failed to bring them to a decisive action. A number of small engagements were fought but to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action. Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchantmen and cutting-out suspicious vessels in both enemy and neutral harbours. Nelson formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to frustrate the progress of the French Army of Italy that was now advancing on Genoa, but could excite little interest in Hotham. In November Hotham was replaced by Sir Hyde Parker but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating: the French were raiding around Genoa and strong Jacobin sentiment was rife within the city itself. A large French assault at the end of November broke the allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the withdrawing army and prevent them from being surrounded, but he had too few ships and men to materially alter the strategic situation, and the British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed at the British failure and questioning his future in the navy. Jervis and the evacuation of the Mediterranean In January 1796 the position of commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as a commodore. Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite some minor successes in intercepting small French warships (e.g., in the action of 31 May 1796, when Nelson's squadron captured a convoy of seven small vessels), Nelson began to feel the British presence on the Italian peninsula was rapidly becoming useless. In June the Agamemnon was sent back to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed to the 74-gun HMS Captain. In the same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transported them to Corsica, after which Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port. In July he oversaw the occupation of Elba, but by September the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French. By October, the Genoese position and the continued French advances led the British to decide that the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied; they ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica, and by December 1796 was aboard the frigate HMS Minerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed for Gibraltar. During the passage, Nelson captured the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina and placed Lieutenants Jonathan Culverhouse and Thomas Hardy in charge of the captured vessel, taking the Spanish captain on board Minerve. Santa Sabina was part of a larger Spanish force, and the following morning two Spanish ships-of-the-line and a frigate were sighted closing fast. Unable to outrun them, Nelson initially determined to fight but Culverhouse and Hardy raised the British colours and sailed northeast, drawing the Spanish ships after them until being captured, giving Nelson the opportunity to escape. Nelson went on to rendezvous with the British fleet at Elba, where he spent Christmas. He sailed for Gibraltar in late January, and after learning that the Spanish fleet had sailed from Cartagena, stopped just long enough to collect Hardy, Culverhouse, and the rest of the prize crew captured with Santa Sabina, before pressing on through the straits to join Sir John Jervis off Cadiz. Admiral, 1797-1801 Battle of Cape St Vincent Main article: Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797) Action off Cadiz Main article: Blockade of Cádiz (1797) Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife Main article: Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797) Return to England Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October to seek expert medical attention concerning his amputated arm. Whilst in London news reached him that Admiral Duncan had defeated the Dutch fleet at the Battle of Camperdown. Nelson exclaimed that he would have given his other arm to have been present. He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London and a pension of ￡1,000 a year. He used the money to buy Round Wood Farm near Ipswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny. Despite his plans, Nelson was never to live there. Although surgeons had been unable to remove the central ligature in his amputated arm, which had caused considerable inflammation and poisoning, in early December it came out of its own accord and Nelson rapidly began to recover. Eager to return to sea, he began agitating for a command and was promised the 80-gun HMS Foudroyant. As she was not yet ready for sea, Nelson was instead given command of the 74-gun HMS Vanguard, to which he appointed Edward Berry as his flag captain. French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were raising concern among the Admiralty: Napoleon was gathering forces in Southern France but the destination of his army was unknown. Nelson and the Vanguard were to be dispatched to Cadiz to reinforce the fleet. On 28 March 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to join Earl St Vincent. St Vincent sent him on to Toulon with a small force to reconnoitre French activities. The Mediterranean Hunting the French Main article: Mediterranean campaign of 1798 The Battle of the Nile Main article: Battle of the Nile Rewards Neapolitan campaign Return to England The Baltic Shortly after his arrival in England Nelson was appointed to be second-in-command of the Channel Fleet under Lord St Vincent. He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blue on 1 January 1801 and travelled to Plymouth, where on 22 January he was granted the freedom of the city. On 29 January 1801, Emma gave birth to their daughter, Horatia. Nelson was delighted, but subsequently disappointed when he was instructed to move his flag from HMS San Josef to HMS St George in preparation for a planned expedition to the Baltic. Tired of British ships imposing a blockade against French trade and stopping and searching their merchantmen, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. On their arrival, Parker was inclined to blockade Denmark and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a pre-emptive attack on the Danish fleet at harbour in Copenhagen. He convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault and was given significant reinforcements. Parker himself would wait in the Kattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in case of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets. Battle of Copenhagen Main article: Battle of Copenhagen (1801) Leave in England 1801-1803 Witness at the treason trial of Edward Despard Return to sea, 1803 Main article: Trafalgar Campaign Battle of Trafalgar, 1805 Main article: Battle of Trafalgar Preparation The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered 33 ships of the line. Napoleon Bonaparte had intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover the planned invasion of Britain, but the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off the planned invasion and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve had been reluctant to risk an engagement with the British, and this reluctance led Napoleon to order Vice Admiral Fran?ois Rosily to go to Cádiz and take command of the fleet, sail it into the Mediterranean to land troops at Naples, before making port at Toulon. Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor arrived. On 20 October 1805, the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour by patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed that they appeared to be heading to the west. At four o'clock in the morning of 21 October, Nelson ordered the Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet, and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations. He then went below and made his will, before returning to the quarterdeck to carry out an inspection. Despite having 27 ships to Villeneuve's 33, Nelson was confident of success, declaring that he would not be satisfied with taking fewer than 20 prizes. He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer, after which he joined Victory's signal lieutenant, John Pasco. Mr Pasco, I wish to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty". You must be quick, for I have one more signal to make, which is for close action. Pasco suggested changing confides to expects which, being in the Signal Book, could be signalled by the use of a single code (using three flags), whereas confides would have to be spelt out letter by letter. Nelson agreed, and the signal was hoisted. As the fleets converged, Victory's captain, Thomas Hardy, suggested that Nelson remove the decorations on his coat, so that he would not be so easily identified by enemy sharpshooters. Nelson replied that it was too late "to be shifting a coat", adding that they were "military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy". Captain Henry Blackwood, of the frigate HMS Euryalus, suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also turned down Hardy's suggestion to let Eliab Harvey's HMS Temeraire come ahead of Victory and lead the line into battle. Battle is joined Victory came under fire, initially passing wide, but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased. A cannonball struck and killed Nelson's secretary, John Scott, nearly cutting him in two. Hardy's clerk took over, but he too was almost immediately killed. Victory's wheel was shot away, and another cannonball cut down eight marines. Hardy, standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, had his shoe buckle dented by a splinter. Nelson observed, "This is too warm work to last long." Victory had by now reached the enemy line, and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first. Nelson told him to take his pick, and Hardy moved Victory across the stern of the 80-gun French flagship Bucentaure. Victory then came under fire from the 74-gun Redoutable, lying off Bucentaure's stern, and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. As sharpshooters from the enemy ships fired onto Victory's deck from their rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued to walk about, directing and giving orders. Wounding and death Shortly after 1:00, Hardy realised that Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with his hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy rushed to him, at which point Nelson smiled: Hardy, I do believe they have done it at last .... my backbone is shot through. He had been hit by a marksman from Redoutable, firing at a range of 50 feet (15 m). The bullet had entered his left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches (5 cm) below his right shoulder blade in the muscles of his back. Nelson was carried below by sergeant-major of marines Robert Adair and two seamen. As he was being carried down, he asked them to pause while he gave some advice to a midshipman on the handling of the tiller. He then draped a handkerchief over his face to avoid causing alarm amongst the crew. He was taken to the surgeon William Beatty, telling him that You can do nothing for me. I have but a short time to live. My back is shot through. Nelson was made comfortable, fanned and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He asked several times to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma, his daughter and his friends. Hardy came belowdecks to see Nelson just after half-past two, and informed him that a number of enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told him that he was sure to die, and begged him to pass his possessions to Emma. With Nelson at this point were the chaplain Alexander Scott, the purser Walter Burke, Nelson's steward, Chevalier, and Beatty. Nelson, fearing that a gale was blowing up, instructed Hardy to be sure to anchor. After reminding him to "take care of poor Lady Hamilton", Nelson said "Kiss me, Hardy". Beatty recorded that Hardy knelt and kissed Nelson on the cheek. He then stood for a minute or two before kissing him on the forehead. Nelson asked, "Who is that?", and on hearing that it was Hardy, he replied "God bless you, Hardy." By now very weak, Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott, "fan, fan ... rub, rub ... drink, drink." Beatty heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty", and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak. He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country". Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after he had been shot. Return to England Nelson's body was placed in a cask of brandy mixed with camphor and myrrh, which was then lashed to the Victory's mainmast and placed under guard. Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle, and on arrival the body was transferred to a lead-lined coffin filled with spirits of wine. Collingwood's dispatches about the battle were carried to England aboard HMS Pickle, and when the news arrived in London, a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson's death to Emma Hamilton. She later recalled, They brought me word, Mr Whitby from the Admiralty. "Show him in directly", I said. He came in, and with a pale countenance and faint voice, said, "We have gained a great Victory." - "Never mind your Victory", I said. "My letters - give me my letters" - Captain Whitby was unable to speak - tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him. I believe I gave a scream and fell back, and for ten hours I could neither speak nor shed a tear. King George III, on receiving the news, is alleged to have said, in tears, "We have lost more than we have gained." The Times reported: We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice. The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England; but it has been dearly purchased. Funeral Nelson's body was unloaded from the Victory at the Nore. It was conveyed upriver in Commander Grey's yacht Chatham to Greenwich and placed in a lead coffin, and that in another wooden one, made from the mast of L'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile. He lay in state in the Painted Hall at Greenwich for three days, before being taken upriver aboard a barge originally used as Charles II's state barge, accompanied by Samuel, Lord Hood, chief mourner Sir Peter Parker, and the Prince of Wales. The Prince of Wales at first announced his intention of attending the funeral as chief mourner, but later attended in a private capacity with his brothers when his father George III reminded him that it was against protocol for the heir to the throne to attend the funerals of anyone except members of the royal family. The coffin was taken into the Admiralty for the night, attended by Nelson's chaplain, Alexander Scott. The next day, 9 January, a funeral procession consisting of 32 admirals, over a hundred captains, and an escort of 10,000 soldiers took the coffin from the Admiralty to St Paul's Cathedral. After a four-hour service, he was interred in the crypt within a sarcophagus originally carved for Cardinal Wolsey; the sarcophagus and its base had been previously taken over for the tomb of Henry VIII, which was never completed. The sailors charged with folding the flag draping Nelson's coffin and placing it in the grave instead tore it into fragments, with each taking a piece as a memento. Assessment Nelson was regarded as a highly effective leader, and someone who was able to sympathise with the needs of his men. He based his command on love rather than authority, inspiring both his superiors and his subordinates with his considerable courage, commitment and charisma, dubbed "the Nelson touch". Nelson combined this talent with an adept grasp of strategy and politics, making him a highly successful naval commander. Admiral Togo, himself often called "the Nelson of the East", placed Nelson as among the greatest naval commanders in history, second only to Admiral Yi Sun-sin. The memorandum he wrote before Trafalgar expresses his attitude well: "No captain can do very wrong if he places his ship alongside that of the enemy." Nelson's personality was complex, often characterised by a desire to be noticed, both by his superiors, and the public. He was easily flattered by praise, and dismayed when he felt he was not given sufficient credit for his actions. This led him to take risks, and to enthusiastically publicise his resultant successes, which was not always considered acceptable at the time. Nelson was also highly confident in his abilities, determined and able to make important decisions. His active career meant that he was considerably experienced in combat, and was a shrewd judge of his opponents, able to identify and exploit his enemies' weaknesses. He was often prone to insecurities, however, as well as violent mood swings, and was extremely vain: he loved to receive decorations, tributes, and praise. Despite his personality, he remained a highly professional leader and was driven all his life by a strong sense of duty. Nelson's fame reached new heights after his death, and he came to be regarded as one of Britain's greatest military heroes, ranked alongside the Duke of Marlborough and the Duke of Wellington. In the BBC's 100 Greatest Britons programme in 2002, Nelson was voted the ninth greatest Briton of all time. Aspects of Nelson's life and career were controversial, both during his lifetime and after his death. His affair with Emma Hamilton was widely remarked upon and disapproved of, to the extent that Emma was denied permission to attend his funeral and was subsequently ignored by the government, which awarded money and titles to Nelson's legitimate family. Nelson's actions during the reoccupation of Naples have also been the subject of debate: his approval of the wave of reprisals against the Jacobins who had surrendered under the terms agreed by Cardinal Ruffo, and his personal intervention in securing the execution of Caracciolo, are considered by some biographers, such as Robert Southey, to have been a shameful breach of honour. Prominent contemporary politician Charles James Fox was among those who attacked Nelson for his actions at Naples, declaring in the House of Commons I wish that the atrocities of which we hear so much and which I abhor as much as any man, were indeed unexampled. I fear that they do not belong exclusively to the French - Naples for instance has been what is called "delivered", and yet, if I am rightly informed, it has been stained and polluted by murders so ferocious, and by cruelties of every kind so abhorrent, that the heart shudders at the recital ... demanded that a British officer should be brought forward, and to him they capitulated. They made terms with him under the sanction of the British name. Before they sailed their property was confiscated, numbers were thrown into dungeons, and some of them, I understand, notwithstanding the British guarantee, were actually executed. Other pro-republican writers produced books and pamphlets decrying the events in Naples as atrocities. Later assessments, including one by Andrew Lambert, have stressed that the armistice had not been authorised by the King of Naples, and that the retribution meted out by the Neapolitans was not unusual for the time. Lambert also suggests that Nelson in fact acted to put an end to the bloodshed, using his ships and men to restore order in the city. Legacy Main articles: Legacy of Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson and Monuments and memorials to Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson See also: List of places named after Horatio Nelson, HMS Lord Nelson, and HMS Nelson Religious views Nelson was a devout Christian throughout his life Name: Rothschild Biography: Mayer Amschel Rothschild (23 February 1744 - 19 September 1812) Position: Financier, banker Allegiance: Hesse-Kassel , Holy Roman Empire，United Kingdom Known for: Rothschild banking dynasty Mayer Amschel Rothschild (23 February 1744 - 19 September 1812; also spelled Anschel), was a German Jewish banker and the founder of the Rothschild banking dynasty. Referred to as a "founding father of international finance," Rothschild was ranked seventh on the Forbes magazine list of "The Twenty Most Influential Businessmen of All Time" in 2005. On the day of Waterloo, when they learned that the French army was defeated, Rothschild's sons quickly crossed the English Channel in a speedboat from near the battlefield to the London Stock Exchange, which caused a sell-off of British bonds. When the price fell to the bottom, they bought in mass. . The next day, when the battle report was known to the world, British bonds quickly appreciated to an unprecedented peak. It was also on this day that the wealth of the Rothschild family instantly expanded. His sons played a legendary role in helping the British government fund military operations against Napoleon. Nathan's London home (NM Rothschild) deals in gold, silver and foreign exchange. His extraordinary achievements in these areas won him a contract from the British government to provide gold coins to Wellington's troops in 1814 and 1815 until Waterloo Battle. He and his five sons, the "Roche Five Tigers" successively opened banks in famous European cities such as London, Paris, Vienna, Austria, Frankfurt, Germany, and Naples, Italy. Rothschild's family motto, once money is heard, the bad talk stops abruptly. Mayer Amschel Rothschild was born in 1744 in the Judengasse, the Jewish ghetto of Frankfurt am Main, Holy Roman Empire, one of eight children of Amschel Moses Rothschild (d. 1755) and his wife Sch?nche Rothschild (nee Lechnich, d. 1756). The ancestry of the Rothschilds can be traced back to 1577 to Izaak Elchanan Rothschild (Isaac (Isaak) Elchanan Bacharach, zum Hahn), whose name is derived from the German zum rothen Schild (with the old spelling "th"), meaning "with the red shield", in reference to the house where the family lived for many generations. (At the time, houses were designated by signs with different symbols or colors, not numbers.) The name Rothschild in the Yiddish language means Red Coat, in reference to a heraldic coat of arms. His grandchildren and descendants took this name as the family name and kept it when they relocated in 1664 to another house in the Judengasse—Hinterpfann (" the back of the saucepan")—which became the family's home and place of business through to the early 19th century. Amschel's father had a business in goods-trading and currency exchange. He was a personal supplier of coins to the Prince of Hesse. The family home above the shop had a front wall 11 feet (3.4 m) wide, where more than 30 people lived at that time. Business career With the help of relatives, Rothschild secured an apprenticeship under Jacob Wolf Oppenheimer, at the banking firm of Simon Wolf Oppenheimer in Hanover, in 1757. The grandson of Samuel Oppenheimer taught Rothschild useful knowledge in foreign trade and currency exchange, before he returned to his brothers' business in Frankfurt in 1763. He became a dealer in rare coins and won the patronage of Crown Prince Wilhelm of Hesse (who had also earlier patronised his father), gaining the title of "Court Factor" in 1769. Rothschild's coin business grew to include a number of princely patrons, and then expanded through the provision of banking services to Crown Prince Wilhelm, who became Wilhelm IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel in 1785. Business expanded rapidly following the French Revolution when Rothschild handled payments from Britain for the hire of Hessian mercenaries. By the early years of the 19th century, Rothschild had consolidated his position as principal international banker to Wilhelm IX and began to issue his own international loans, borrowing capital from the Landgrave. In 1806, Napoleon invaded Hesse in response to Wilhelm's support for Prussia. The Landgrave went into exile in the Duchy of Holstein, but Rothschild was able to continue as his banker, investing funds in London. He also profited from importing goods in circumvention of Napoleon's continental blockade. Rothschild dynasty In 1798, third-born son Nathan Mayer Rothschild was sent to England to further the family interests in textile importing with ￡20,000 capital (equivalent of ￡2.1 million in 2020)—the first foreign branch. Nathan became a naturalized citizen in 1804 and established a bank in the City of London. In 1810, Mayer entered into a formal partnership agreement with his three eldest sons. The youngest son Jacob was sent to Paris in 1811, enhancing the family's ability to operate across Europe. This enabled them to profit from the opportunity of financing Wellington's armies in Portugal, requiring the sourcing of large quantities of gold on behalf of the British government. Rothschild died on 19 September 1812 in Frankfurt am Main. He was buried at the old Jewish cemetery in Frankfurt, located next to the Judengasse. His grave still exists. A park was named after him, and also a street (Rothschildallee). In 1817 he was posthumously ennobled by the emperor Francis I of Austria. His descendants furthered the family fortune across Europe—the "five arrows" of banking. Eldest son Amschel Mayer took over the Frankfurt bank and Salomon moved to Vienna. Nathan turned the London branch into one of Europe's most powerful banking institutions (N. M. Rothschild & Sons), Calmann (gentrified to "Carl") set up a branch in Naples and Jacob ("James") opened de Rothschild Frères, becoming a giant of finance in Paris. Name: Oudinot Biography: Nicolas Oudinot (25 April 1767 in Bar-le-Duc - 13 September 1847 in Paris) Position: Marshal of the Empire Allegiance: Kingdom of France，Kingdom of the French ，French First Republic，First French Empire，Bourbon Restoration，July Monarchy Branch/service: Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Commands: Grande Armee Grenadier Awards:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Nicolas Charles Oudinot, 1st Count Oudinot, 1st Duke of Reggio (25 April 1767 in Bar-le-Duc - 13 September 1847 in Paris), was a Marshal of the Empire. He is known to have been wounded 34 times in battle, being hit by artillery shells, sabers, and at least twelve bullets over the course of his military career. He been called the Father of French Grenadiers.Oudinot is one of the Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, Eastern pillar Columns 13, 14. Early life Nicolas Charles Oudinot was the son of Nicolas Oudinot and Marie Anne Adam, the only one of their nine children to live to adulthood. His father was a brewer, farmer and distiller of brandy in Bar-le-Duc, Lorraine. He decided upon a military career, and served in the regiment of Medoc from 1784 to 1787, when, having no hope of promotion on account of his non-noble birth, he retired with the rank of sergeant. French Revolutionary Wars The French Revolution changed his fortunes, and in 1792, on the outbreak of war, he was elected lieutenant-colonel of the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Meuse. His gallant defense of the little fort of Bitsch in the Vosges in 1792 drew attention to him; he was transferred to the regular army in November 1793, and after serving in numerous actions on the Belgian frontier he was promoted general of brigade, in June 1794 for his conduct at the Battle of Kaiserslautern. He continued to serve with distinction on the German frontier under Louis Lazare Hoche, Charles Pichegru and Jean Victor Marie Moreau, was repeatedly wounded and once (in 1795) taken prisoner after having been wounded again. He was Andre Massena's right hand all through the Swiss campaign of 1799, first as a general of division, then as chief of staff, and won extraordinary distinction at the Second Battle of Zurich. He was present under Massena at the Siege of Genoa, and so distinguished himself at the Battle of Monzambano that Napoleon presented him with a sword of honour (an especially uncommon award replaced later by the Legion d'Honneur). He was made inspector-general of infantry, and, on the establishment of the empire, given the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, but was not included in the first creation of marshals. Napoleonic Wars Oudinot was elected a member of the chamber of deputies, but had little time to devote to politics. He took a leading role in the war of 1805, commanding the famous division of "grenadiers Oudinot," made up of hand-picked troops and organized by him, with which he seized the Vienna bridges, received a wound at the Battle of Sch?ngrabern in Lower Austria against the Russians. In 1807, he participated in Joachim Murat's victory in the Battle of Ostrolenka in Poland and fought with resolution and success at the Battle of Friedland. In 1808 he was made governor of Erfurt and Count of the French Empire, and in 1809, after the Battle of Wagram, he was promoted to the rank of Marshal of France. He was made a titular duke in chief of the duche-grand fief of Reggio in the satellite Kingdom of Naples, and received a large money grant in April 1810. From 1810 to 1812 Oudinot administered the government of the former Kingdom of Holland, and commanded the II Corps of La Grande Armee in the Russian campaign. His corps was instrumental in building the bridge over the Berezina that allowed the evacuation of troops after the defeat at the Battle of Berezina. During this period he suffered another wounding in battle. He was present at the Battle of Lützen and the Battle of Bautzen, and when holding the independent command of the corps directed to take Berlin was defeated at the Battle of Grossbeeren. He was then superseded by Marshal Ney, but the latter was defeated at the Battle of Dennewitz. Oudinot was not disgraced. He held important commands at the Battle of Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. On Napoleon's abdication, he rallied to the new government, and was made a Peer of France by the Bourbon Restoration King Louis XVIII. Unlike many of his old comrades, he did not desert to his former master during Bonaparte's 1815 return. Later life His last active service was in the French invasion of Spain in 1823, in which he commanded a corps and was for a time governor of Madrid. He died as Governor of the Parisian veterans institution Les Invalides. Honours 1849 : Knight Grand Cross in the Order of Pope Pius IX. Commander of Elite Grenadiers In 1805 Oudinot was given command of an elite division of grenadiers and he received the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor. During a review at the Camp of Boulogne that year, Oudinot and his men proudly paraded past Emperor Napoleon. Suddenly, Oudinot's horse stopped, and refused to go forward. In vain he tried to spur it forward, but the horse refused to budge, and even went so far as to attempt to buck him off. Thoroughly annoyed, Oudinot dismounted, drew his sword, and slid it through the horse's neck, killing it almost instantly. Napoleon later asked him, "Is that way you treat all your horses?" "Sire, that is my way when I am not obeyed," Oudinot replied.1 As war broke out that year, Oudinot's elite division became part of Marshal Lannes' V Corps. That November, as the French were pursuing the Russians, Oudinot and his men encountered some of the Russian rearguard. As he and a squadron of cavalry were scouting the area, suddenly they were surprised by Russian infantry hiding in the woods. Oudinot rode straight up to them and ordered them to lay down their weapons, to which they complied.2 Continuing to campaign, Oudinot took part in the famous capture of the Tabor Bridge. As Lannes and Murat and a few aides walked straight across the bridge, talking about a cease fire and being a distraction, Oudinot and his elite soldiers snuck up across the bridge, disabled the fuses, and seized control of it. Oudinot was wounded shortly thereafter by a ball to the thigh at Hollabrun. He was recovering in Vienna when he learned of the imminent Battle of Austerlitz. Despite his wounds, he hurried to Napoleon and asked to be allowed to command his division in the battle. Napoleon was impressed by Oudinot's dedication, but knew his grenadier general was not up to full strength. Referring to Oudinot's wounds, Napoleon explained, "Your courage surpasses your strength. I have given your division to Duroc."3 Oudinot still wished to command his division, and went to Duroc to ask to serve under him. Duroc agreed and they shared the command for the battle. Oudinot again took command of a division during the campaign in Prussia in 1806, though initially he commanded a division of dismounted dragoons. That November he organized a division of grenadiers and voltigeurs, and he led them into action in February of 1807 at Ostrolenka, where he was almost taken prisoner. Next Oudinot and his division were sent to the Siege of Danzig , where they contributed to the success. One day during the siege, Oudinot and Lannes were on horseback talking, when a ricocheting ball flew into Oudinot's horse, killing it, then ricocheted and hit Lannes, then fell to the ground. Neither officer was hurt, but both were a little unnerved by just how lucky they had been.4 After the successful conclusion of the siege, Oudinot's grenadier division became part of Lannes' Reserve Corps. During the fighting at Heilsberg, Oudinot noticed that the Emperor was within range of the enemy fire, and warned him, "Sire, if you remain exposed to enemy fire, I will order my grenadiers to seize you and lock you inside a caisson." Napoleon was annoyed but moved to safety, convinced that Oudinot would actually carry out his threat despite protocol.5 A few days later Oudinot and his men were engaged in combat at Friedland, holding out against the Russian onslaught. Lannes had been frantically sending aides to Napoleon to bring the entire army to Friedland, but Napoleon, not appreciating the scope of what Lannes was facing, did not want to commit the entire army unless the entire Russian army was there, which it was. Frustrated by their desperate need of reinforcements and not getting any near as quickly as he would like, Oudinot sent one of his aides galloping off to Napoleon with the message, "Even my little eyes see the entire Russian army is here!"6 After the victory at Friedland and the following Treaty of Tilsit, Oudinot and Marshal Mortier occupied their time by having fun in Danzig, with the most notable of their activities being how they would attempt to put out candles with pistol shots. Despite surprisingly fighting at Friedland unscathed, Oudinot's luck with regards to injury was still not good. In December that year his horse fell, rolled over him, and broke his leg. Worse, the doctors failed to set it correctly and it did not heal correctly, forcing better doctors to then re-break his leg and re-set it, though the second time it healed correctly. In the meantime he received numerous rewards, becoming a Knight of the Order of the Iron Crown, a Commander of the Order of Saint Henry of Saxony, a Knight of the Order of Saint-Wladimir of Russia, a Grand Cross of the Black Eagle of Prussia, a Grand Cross fo the Red Eagle of Prussia, and a Count of the Empire. In 1809 General Oudinot returned to active campaigning when the Austrians declared war again. Taking command of a grenadier division again, he won at Pfaffenhofen and fought at Landshut and then his unit became part of Lannes' II Corps. He fought at Aspern-Essling that May and was wounded again. After Marshal Lannes' death, the command of II Corps was given to him, and he led them into battle at Wagram where he was again wounded, this time by a ball to the thigh. Further rewards followed for he was given the Grand Cross of the Order of Maximilien Joseph of Bavaria and created a Marshal of France alongside Marmont and Macdonald. The three new marshals were collectively nicknamed "Lannes small change" for being named marshals barely a month after Lannes' death. The army considered the three of them combined were equal to that of their now deceased marshal, Lannes. The next year Oudinot was given command of the Army of the North to peacefully transition the Dutch into the French Empire. After Louis Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of Holland, the French under Oudinot moved in to complete the transition . As the mayor of Amsterdam handed the keys of the city to Oudinot, he broke out in tears. Oudinot, who was sympathetic to the mayor, told him, "Oh come, don't cry like that, or I'll do the same, and then we'll both look silly!"7 Russian Campaign of 1812 In the meantime Marshal Oudinot received more rewards, including the Grand Cross of the Order of the Low Countries and becoming the Duke of Reggio. In 1812 Oudinot took command of the II Corps to lead them into Russia. That summer he won at Deweltowo, seized Dunabourg, was repulsed at Jboukowo, and won at Oboiarszina. Fighting at Polotsk in August, he was badly wounded by grapeshot to the shoulder and had to hand over his command to General Gouvion St. Cyr, who won the battle the following day and a marshal's baton. By October Oudinot had recovered enough to resume command of II Corps, and in November he and his men won at Lochnitza. As one of the more intact corps of the army, II Corps was given an important part during the Battle of the Berezina. As Oudinot and his corps fought off the Russians on the far side of the Berezina, he was struck by a bullet and immediately fell to the ground. Feared for dead, his men were happily surprised to realize he was still alive, and they improvised a stretcher and carried him to the doctors. Oudinot's surgeon attended to him, but penetrating six inches into the wound and being unable to find the bullet, he left the bullet inside Oudinot.8 The next day Oudinot set off with just his aides to return to France as quickly as possible to recover. As they were resting at a small cottage, a group of Cossacks surrounded the cottage and demanded their surrender. Oudinot stood up, reached for his pistols, and stated, "If they take me alive at least they will see who I am." He led his men in the defense of the cottage, and upon hearing the sound of battle, some French cavalry rode to the scene to assist in driving off the Cossacks. Oudinot again did not escape wounding, as just as the Cossacks began to flee, one of their shots hit the ceiling of the cottage, causing a beam to fall and hit Oudinot in the head.9 1813 - 1815 Marshal Oudinot returned to a command in April of 1813 when he took command of XII Corps in Germany. In May he fought at Bautzen and Hoyerswerda, and then in June at Luckau. That August he was ordered to march on Berlin and was beaten by his former colleague Bernadotte at Gross-Beeren. That September Napoleon gave him command of two divisions of the Young Guard which he led into battle at Leipzig and Freyburg. During the defense of France of 1814, Oudinot was again wounded, this time at Brienne. That February he took command of VII Corps and fought at La Rothière, Mormant, Mery-sur-Seine, and Bar-sur-Aube. The next month he fought at Veneuvre and then at Arcis-sur-Aube he was hit in the chest by a ball, his life being saved by the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor that absorbed the hit. Oudinot was one of the marshals who called for Napoleon's abdication, and afterwards the returning Bourbons made him a Commander of Saint Louis and Peer of France. When Napoleon escaped from exile, Oudinot went to Metz and tried to gauge the support of the people. When the people began to riot in favor of Napoleon, he realized that the king's rule was over. He retired to Bar-le-Duc but was summoned to Paris by Napoleon. Napoleon tried to convince him to rejoin the army for the upcoming campaign, but Oudinot refused. He told Napoleon, "Since I will not serve you, sire, I will not serve anyone." Name: Ney Biography: Michel Ney (10 January 1769 - 7 December 1815) Allegiance: Kingdom of France，Kingdom of the French，French First Republic，First French Empire (until 1814)，Bourbon Restoration (until 1815)，First French Empire (1815) Branch/service: Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Commands held : VI Corps，III Corps Awards : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour，Commander of the Order of the Iron Crown The "bravest of the brave", Michel Ney was the son of a cooper who would one day rise to being one of Napoleon's most famous marshals. After enlisting in a hussar regiment in February of 1787, Ney quickly gained prominence within his unit for being an excellent rider and fencer. His skill with a sword was so good that when his unit's fencing instructor was beaten in a duel by a rival regiment, he was selected to avenge the unit's honor. Just as the dual began, the colonel charged in and stopped the fight, disciplining Ney for dueling. But the men were not to be deterred, and another duel was arranged with more secrecy, where Ney successfully defeated the other regiment's fencer. Michel Ney (French pronunciation: ), 1st Duke of Elchingen, 1st Prince of the Moskva (10 January 1769 - 7 December 1815), popularly known as Marshal Ney, was a French military commander and Marshal of the Empire who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original 18 Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon I. He was known as Le Rougeaud? (red-faced or ruddy) by his men and Napoleon characterized him as le Brave des Braves (the Bravest of the Brave), a real paladin in the field, a braggart without judgment and decision in the workroom and after all is said, a Don Quixote. Ney was born in the town of Sarrelouis, in the French province of the Three Bishoprics, along the French-German border. He was the second son of Pierre Ney (1738-1826), a master cooper and veteran of the Seven Years' War, and his wife Marguerite Grevelinger. He was the paternal grandson of Matthias Ney (1700-1780) and wife Margarethe Becker (d. 1767), and the maternal grandson of Valentin Greiveldinger and wife Margaretha Ding. His hometown at the time of his birth comprised a French enclave in the predominantly German region of Saarland, and Ney grew up bilingual, due to his German roots. He was educated at the Collège des Augustins in Sarrelouis until 1782, when he began working as a clerk in a local notary's office, and in 1784 was employed in mines and forges. Military career French Revolutionary Wars Life as a civil servant did not suit Ney, and he enlisted in the Colonel-General Hussar Regiment in 1787. Under the Bourbon monarchy, entry to the officer corps of the French Army was restricted to those with four quarterings of nobility (i.e., several generations of aristocratic birth). However, Ney rapidly rose through the non-commissioned officer ranks. Following the French Revolution, Ney continued to serve in what was now the French Revolutionary Army, in the Army of the North. In September 1792 he saw action at the Battle of Valmy and in October was commissioned as an officer under the Republic. As an officer he participated in the Battle of Neerwinden in 1793 and was wounded at the Siege of Mainz, also in 1793. in June 1794, he was transferred to Army of Sambre-et-Meuse Ney was promoted to brigadier general in August 1796, and commanded cavalry on the German fronts. On 17 April 1797, during the Battle of Neuwied, Ney led a cavalry charge against Austrian lancers trying to seize French cannons. The lancers were beaten back, but Ney’s cavalry were counter-attacked by heavy cavalry. During the mêlee, Ney was thrown from his horse and captured in the vicinity of the municipality of Dierdorf; on 8 May he was exchanged for an Austrian general. Following the capture of Mannheim, Ney was promoted to general de division on 28 March 1799. Later in 1799, Ney commanded cavalry in the armies of Switzerland and the Danube. At Winterthur, Ney received wounds in the thigh and wrist. After recovering he fought at Hohenlinden under General Jean Victor Marie Moreau in December 1800. From September 1802, Ney commanded French troops in Switzerland and performed diplomatic duties. Napoleonic Wars On 19 May 1804, Ney received his marshal's baton, emblematic of his status as a Marshal of the Empire, the Napoleonic era's equivalent of Marshal of France. In the 1805 campaign, Ney took command of the VI Corps of the Grande Armee and was praised for his conduct at Elchingen. In November 1805, Ney invaded Tyrol, capturing Innsbruck from Archduke John. In the 1806 campaign, Ney fought at Jena and then occupied Erfurt. Later in the campaign, Ney successfully besieged Magdeburg. In the 1807 campaign, Ney arrived with reinforcements in time to save Napoleon from defeat at Eylau, although the battle ended in a draw. Later in the campaign, Ney fought at Güttstadt and commanded the right wing at Friedland. On 6 June 1808, Ney was made Duke of Elchingen. In August 1808, he was sent to Spain in command of the VI Corps and saw action in a number of minor engagements. In 1809, he skirmished with an Anglo-Portuguese force under Sir Robert Thomas Wilson at Puerto de Ba?os. In 1810, Ney joined Marshal Andre Massena in the invasion of Portugal, where he captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida, and saw further action on the River C?a, and at Bussaco. During the retreat from the Torres Vedras, Ney engaged Wellington's forces in a series of rearguard actions (Pombal, Redinha, Casal Novo, and Foz d'Arouce) through which he managed to delay the pursuing Coalition forces long enough to allow the main French force to retreat intact. He was ultimately removed from his command for insubordination. Russia to Fontainebleau Ney was given command of the III Corps of the Grande Armee during the invasion of Russia in 1812. At Smolensk, Ney was wounded in the neck but recovered enough to later fight in the central sector at Borodino. During the retreat from Moscow, Ney commanded the rearguard (and was accidentally known as "the last Frenchman on Russian soil" because of it). After being cut off from the main army during the Battle of Krasnoi, Ney managed to escape in a heavy fog over the Dnieper River, but not without heavy losses, and to rejoin it in Orsha, which delighted Napoleon. For this action Ney was given the nickname "the bravest of the brave" by the emperor. Ney fought at the Berezina and helped hold the vital bridge at Kovno (modern-day Kaunas), where legend portrays Ney as the last of the invaders to cross the bridge and exit Russia. On 25 March 1813, Ney was given the title of Prince of the Moskva. During the 1813 campaign, Ney fought at Weissenfels, was wounded at Lützen, and commanded the left wing at Bautzen. Ney later fought at Dennewitz and Leipzig, where he was again wounded. In the 1814 campaign in France, Ney fought various battles and commanded various units. At Fontainebleau, Ney became the spokesperson for the marshals' revolt on 4 April 1814, demanding Napoleon's abdication. Ney informed Napoleon that the army would not march on Paris; Napoleon responded, "the army will obey me!" to which Ney answered, "the army will obey its chiefs". When Paris fell and the Bourbons reclaimed the throne, Ney, who had pressured Napoleon to accept his first abdication and exile, was promoted, lauded, and made a Peer of France by the newly enthroned King Louis XVIII. Although Ney had pledged his allegiance to the restored monarchy, the Bourbon court looked down on him because he was a commoner by birth. Hundred Days When he heard of Napoleon's return to France, Ney, determined to keep France at peace and to show his loyalty to Louis XVIII, organized a force to stop Napoleon's march on Paris. Ney also pledged to bring Napoleon back alive in an iron cage. Napoleon, aware of Ney's plans, sent him a letter which said, in part, "I shall receive you as I did after the Battle of the Moskowa." Despite Ney’s promise to the king, he joined Napoleon at Auxerre on 18 March 1815. On 15 June 1815, Napoleon appointed Ney as commander of the left wing of the Army of the North. On 16 June, Napoleon's forces split up into two wings to fight two separate battles simultaneously. Ney attacked the Duke of Wellington at Quatre Bras (and received criticism for attacking slowly) while Napoleon attacked Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher Prussians at Ligny. Although Ney was criticized for not capturing Quatre Bras early, there is still debate as to what time Napoleon actually ordered Ney to capture the town. At Ligny, Napoleon ordered General Jean-Baptiste d'Erlon to move his corps (on Napoleon's left and Ney's right at the time) to the Prussians' rear in order to cut off their line of retreat. D'Erlon began to move into position, but suddenly stopped and began moving away, much to the surprise and horror of Napoleon. The reason for the sudden change in movement is that Ney had ordered d'Erlon to come to his aid at Quatre Bras. Without d'Erlon's corps blocking the Prussians' line of retreat, the French victory at Ligny was not complete, and the Prussians were not routed. At Waterloo on 18 June, Ney again commanded the left wing of the army. At around 3:30 p.m., Ney ordered a mass cavalry charge against the Anglo-Allied lines. Ney's cavalry overran the enemy cannons but found the infantry formed in cavalry-proof square formations. Ney, without infantry or artillery support, failed to break the squares. The action earned Ney criticism, and some argue that it led to Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. Debate continues as to the responsibility for the cavalry charge and why it went unsupported. Ney's cavalry also failed to spike the enemy cannons (driving iron spikes into the firing holes) while they were under French control (during the cavalry attack, the crews of the cannon retreated into the squares for protection, and then re-manned their pieces as the cavalry withdrew). Ney's cavalry carried the equipment needed to spike cannons, and spiking the cannons would probably have made them useless for the rest of the battle. The loss of a large number of cannon would have weakened the army and could have caused the Anglo-Allied Army to withdraw from the battle. Ney was seen during one of the charges beating his sword against the side of a British cannon in furious frustration. During the battle, he had five horses killed under him, and at the end of the day, Ney led one of the last infantry charges, shouting to his men: "Come and see how a marshal of France meets his death!" It was as though Ney was seeking death, but death did not want him, as many observers reported. Execution See also: Second White Terror When Napoleon was defeated, dethroned, and exiled for the second time in the summer of 1815, Ney was arrested on 3 August 1815. After a court-martial decided in November that it did not have jurisdiction, he was tried on 4 December 1815 for treason by the Chamber of Peers. In order to save Ney's life, his lawyer Andre Dupin declared that Ney was now Prussian and could not be judged by a French court for treason as Ney's hometown of Sarrelouis had been annexed by Prussia according to the Treaty of Paris of 1815. Ney ruined his lawyer's effort by interrupting him and stating: "Je suis Fran?ais et je resterai Fran?ais!" (I am French and I will remain French!). When the Peers were called to give their verdict, a hundred and thirty-seven voted for the death penalty, seventeen for deportation and five abstained. Only a single vote, that of the Duc de Broglie, was for acquittal. On 6 December 1815, Ney was condemned, and on 7 December 1815 he was executed by firing squad in Paris near the Luxembourg Gardens. He refused to wear a blindfold and was allowed the right to give the order to fire, reportedly saying: Soldiers, when I give the command to fire, fire straight at my heart. Wait for the order. It will be my last to you. I protest against my condemnation. I have fought a hundred battles for France, and not one against her ... Soldiers, fire! Ney's execution deeply divided the French public. It was an example intended for Napoleon's other marshals and generals, many of whom were eventually exonerated by the Bourbon monarchy. Ney was buried in Paris at Père Lachaise Cemetery. Alleged survival Records in Charleston, South Carolina, indicate the arrival of a "Peter Stewart Ney" the year following Ney's execution. Ney's father was named Peter, and his mother's maiden name was Stewart. "Peter Ney" served as a school teacher in Rowan County, North Carolina until his death on November 15, 1846. Supposedly, upon hearing of the death of Napoleon in 1821, "Peter Ney" slashed his own throat with a knife, nearly killing himself. Upon his death, his last words were "I am Ney of France". His body was exhumed twice, in 1887 and 1936, but both times no conclusive proof emerged. However, there is evidence contradicting this legend, the main being that the execution of Ney is well documented and verified. One researcher also claims evidence exists that Peter Stewart Ney was one Peter McNee, born in 1788 in Stirlingshire, Scotland. Family Ney married Aglae Louise (Paris, 24 March 1782 - Paris, 1 July 1854), daughter of Pierre Cesar Auguie (1738-1815) and Adela?de Henriette Genet (1758-1794, sister of Henriette Campan and Citizen Genêt), at Thiverval-Grignon on 5 August 1802. they had four sons: Joseph Napoleon, 2nd Prince de la Moskowa (Paris, 8 May 1803 - Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 25 July 1857). He married Albine Laffitte (Paris, 12 May 1805 - Paris, 18 July 1881) in Paris on 26 January 1828. Albine was the daughter of Jacques Laffitte, Governor of the Bank of France. They had two children, whose male blood line ended. Joseph also had an illegitimate son who was married and died childless. Michel Louis Felix, recognized as 2nd Duc d'Elchingen in 1826 (born 24 August 1804 in Paris - died 14 July 1854 at Gallipoli, during the Crimean War). He married Marie-Josephine (Lubersac (20 December 1801 - Versailles, 1 July 1889), daughter of Joseph Souham, in Paris on 19 January 1833. Eugène Michel (Paris, 12 July 1806 - Paris, 25 October 1845). He died unmarried. Edgar Napoleon Henry, recognized as 3rd Prince de la Moskowa 1857 (Paris, 12 April 1812 - Paris, 4 October 1882). He married Clotilde de La Rochelambert (Saint-Cloud, 29 July 1829 - Paris, 1884) in Paris on 16 January 1869. Their marriage was childless and the title of Prince de la Moskowa then reverted to Michel's descendants. In literature Ney is a character in Leo Tolstoy's epic novel War and Peace. See List of War and Peace characters. Ney is mentioned and/or appears in several of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard stories, including Brigadier Gerard at Waterloo (1903). Ney's patriotism, his intelligence, and his courage during the Battle of Waterloo was extensively mentioned and praised by Victor Hugo in his novel Les Miserables. Ney appears as a minor character in two volumes of Bernard Cornwell's Richard Sharpe series, Sharpe's Siege and Sharpe's Revenge In film and television Ney has been portrayed by (among others): Carl de Vogt in the 1929 film Waterloo. Aleksandr Stepanov in the 1944 Russian film Kutuzov. Dan O'Herlihy in the 1970 film Waterloo. John Baker in the 1972 British series War and Peace. Colin Bean in the episode "A Soldier's Farewell" of the British sitcom Dad's Army. Alain Doutey in the miniseries Napoleon. Jordi Martínez in the episode "El ministerio del tiempo" of the Spanish television series El ministerio del tiempo. John Burton in the 1938 film Bravest of the Brave. See also HMS Marshal Ney, a British warship named after Ney Only five years later Wellington was again to come face to face with his Masonic reputation. Marshal Michel Ney, who famously met his end during the White Terror as a traitor, executed by a firing squad on the 7th December, 1815 in a Paris public park, recognized Wellington as a full-fledged Masonic brother. In a document now apparently lost between Apsley House and the Southampton University archives, Marshal Ney appealed to Wellington as a Brother to assist and save his life.Wellington was not in a position to intervene. Ney had been initiated in Le Trinosophes Lodge number 494 in Paris under the Grand Orient of France and a legend has persisted that the Bravest of the Brave, as he had been referred to by Napoleon, escaped execution with the help of French {Freemason}s and the Duke of Wellington. Picture Marshal Michel Ney, {Freemason} (10th January, 1769 - 7th December, 1815) The legend is perpetrated by the inscription on Peter Stuart Ney's tomb in the Third Creek Presbyterian Church in rural Rowan County, North Carolina, USA: In memory of Peter Stuart Ney, a native of France and soldier of the French Revolution under Napoleon Bonaparte, who departed this life Dec. 15, 1846, aged 77 years. Peter Stuart Ney, a schoolmaster, was buried there in 1846. His last words on his deathbed are reported to have been: By all that is holy, I am Marshal Ney of France!. Name: Murat Biography: Joachim Murat Position: Brother-in-law to Napoleon, Marshal of France, King of Naples, and dashing cavalry leader Allegiance: French First Republic，First French Empire Branch/service: French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Joachim Murat (French pronunciation: ; 25 March 1767 - 13 October 1815) was a French military commander and statesman who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. Under the French Empire he received the military titles of Marshal of the Empire and Admiral of France, and was also the 1st Prince Murat, Grand Duke of Berg from 1806 to 1808, and, as Joachim-Napoleon (Italian: Gioacchino Napoleone), King of Naples from 1808 to 1815. He was the brother-in-law of emperor Napoleon I, who characterized him as exceptionally brave in the face of the enemy, a weakling when he was on his own, a braggart dressed in gold and feathers, continually escaping as by a miracle and admired by the cossacks for his bravery. Early life Murat was born on 25 March 1767 in La Bastide-Fortunière (later renamed Labastide-Murat after him), in Guyenne (present-day French department of Lot) to Pierre Murat-Jordy (d. 27 July 1799), an affluent yeoman innkeeper, postmaster and Roman Catholic churchwarden, and his wife Jeanne Loubières (1722 - 11 March 1806), daughter of Pierre Loubières and of his wife Jeanne Viellescazes. Pierre Murat-Jordy was the son of Guillaume Murat (1692-1754) and his wife Marguerite Herbeil (d. 1755), paternal grandson of Pierre Murat (b. 1634) and his wife Catherine Badourès (d. 1697), and maternal grandson of Bertrand Herbeil and his wife Anne Roques. Murat's parents intended that he pursue a vocation in the church, and he was taught by the parish priest, after which he won a place at the College of Saint-Michel at Cahors when he was ten years old. He then entered the seminary of the Lazarists at Toulouse, but when a regiment of cavalry passed through the city in 1787, he ran away and enlisted on 23 February 1787 in the Chasseurs des Ardennes, which the following year became known as the Chasseurs de Champagne, or the 12th Chasseurs. In 1789, an affair forced him to resign, and he returned to his family, becoming a clerk to a haberdasher at Saint-Cere. French Revolutionary Wars Further information: French Revolutionary Wars By 1790, Murat had joined the National Guard, and the Canton of Montaucon sent him as its representative to the celebration of the first anniversary of Bastille Day (la Fête nationale). He was subsequently reinstated in his former regiment. Because part of the 12th Chasseurs had been sent to Montmedy to protect the royal family on its flight to Varennes, the regiment had to defend its honor and loyalty to the Republic; Murat and the regiment's adjutant made a speech to the assembly at Toul to that effect. In 1792, Murat joined the Constitutional Guard, but left it that same year. His departure was attributed to various causes, including his constant quarreling and dueling, although he claimed he left to avoid punishment for being absent without leave. An ardent Republican, Murat wrote to his brother in 1791 stating he was preoccupied with revolutionary affairs and would sooner die than cease to be a patriot. Upon his departure from the Constitutional Guard, he reported to the Committee of Surveillance of the Constitutional Assembly that the Guard was guilty of treason and that his lieutenant colonel, a man named Descours, had encouraged him to serve in the emigre army of Louis Joseph, Prince of Conde, then stationed in Koblenz. This garnered for him the support of the Republicans, for Murat rejoined his former regiment and was promoted to corporal in April that year, and later to sergeant in May. By 19 November 1792, Murat was 25-years-old and elated at his latest promotion. As a sous-lieutenant, he thought, his family must recognize that he had no great propensity for the priesthood, and he was hoping to prove that he had not been wrong in wishing to be a soldier. One of the ministers had accused him of being an aristocrat, confusing him with the noble family of Murat d'Auvergne, an accusation that continued to haunt him for the next several years. 13 Vendemiaire Further information: 13 Vendemiaire In the autumn of 1795, two years after King Louis XVI of France had been guillotined, royalists and counter-revolutionaries organised an armed uprising. On 3 October, General Napoleon Bonaparte, who was stationed in Paris, was named commander of the French National Convention's defending forces. Bonaparte tasked Murat, who had offered himself voluntarily, with the gathering of artillery from a suburb outside the control of the government's forces. Murat managed to take the cannons of the Camp des Sablons and transport them to the centre of Paris while avoiding the rioters. The use of these cannons - the famous "whiff of grapeshot" - on 5 October allowed Bonaparte to save the members of the National Convention. Napoleon’s report later mentioned Murat not at all. But Napoleon did not forget him as Murat was made a marshal, the “First Horseman of Europe,” Grand Duke of Berg, and King of Naples. Italian and Egyptian campaigns Further information: Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars and French campaign in Egypt and Syria In 1796 Joachim Murat went with Bonaparte to northern Italy, initially as his aide-de-camp, and was later named commander of the cavalry during the many campaigns against the Austrians and their allies. Murat commanded the cavalry of the French Egyptian expedition of 1798, again under Bonaparte. On 25 July 1799 at the Battle of Abukir, he successfully led the cavalry charge that broke the Ottoman line. In 1799, some remaining staff officers, including Murat, and Bonaparte returned to France, eluding various British fleets in five frigates. A short while later, Murat played an important, even pivotal, role in Bonaparte's "coup within a coup" of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799), when he first assumed political power. Murat married Caroline Bonaparte in a civil ceremony on 20 January 1800 at Mortefontaine and religious one on 4 January 1802 in Paris, thus becoming a son-in-law of Letizia Ramolino as well as brother-in-law to Napoleon Bonaparte, Joseph Bonaparte, Lucien Bonaparte, Elisa Bonaparte, Louis Bonaparte, Pauline Bonaparte, and Jer?me Bonaparte. Napoleonic Wars Further information: Napoleonic Wars Napoleon made Murat a Marshal of the Empire on 18 May 1804, and also granted him the title of "First Horseman of Europe". He was made Prince of the Empire and Admiral of the Empire in 1805, despite having very little knowledge about naval warfare. After several territorial concessions made by Prussia, the Grand Duchy of Berg was set up, he was appointed Grand Duke of Berg and Duke of Cleves on 15 March 1806, and held this title until 1 August 1808, when he was named King of Naples. Murat was in charge of the French Army in Madrid when the popular Dos de Mayo Uprising that started the Peninsular War broke out. Murat proved to be equally useful in the Russian campaign of 1812, where he distinguished himself as the best cavalry commander of the Grande Armee at battles such as Smolensk and Borodino. But although he was a great horseman, Murat showed a total lack of concern for the well-being of the horses. Napoleon had created the greatest forage problem known in military history by putting together a cavalry of 40,000 men and horses. The long marches and the lack of rest meant that the horses suffered from hunger, bad fodder, saddle sores and exhaustion, but these factors were aggravated by Murat himself. He also failed to forge caulkin shoes for the horses to enable them to traverse roads that had become iced over for the retreat. The Polish cavalry and Caulaincourt knew and acted accordingly. He continued to serve Napoleon during the German Campaign of 1813. However, following Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig, Murat reached a secret agreement with the Allies in order to save his own throne and switched sides to the Coalition. In March 1815, he declared war on Austria in the proclamation to Italian patriots in Rimini, moved north to fight against the Austrians in the Neapolitan War in order to strengthen his rule in Italy by military means. However, he was defeated by Austrian general Frederick Bianchi at the Battle of Tolentino (2-3 May 1815). Death Murat fled to Corsica and thence to Pizzo. Soon he was captured by forces of King Ferdinand IV of Naples. He was tried for treason and sentenced to death by firing squad. On being asked if he had any request to make, he said he wished to have a bath prepared for him and perfumed with a bottle of eau-de-Cologne, and, as a last request, that his eyes should not be bandaged. Both wishes were granted, and, by order sent by King Ferdinand, twelve of his own soldiers were selected to shoot him. When the fatal hour came, seeing the emotion of his men, Murat said: "My friends, if you wish to spare me, aim at my heart." It was the 13th of October, 1815. Children Murat and Caroline had four children: Achille Charles Louis Napoleon Murat, Hereditary Prince of Berg, Prince of Naples, 2nd Prince Murat (Paris, 21 January 1801 - Jefferson County, Florida, 15 April 1847), m. Tallahassee, Florida, 12 July 1826 Catherine Daingerfield Willis (near Fredericksburg, Virginia, 17 August 1803 - Tallahassee, Florida, 7 August 1867), daughter of Colonel Byrd C. Willis (29 August 1781 - 1846) and wife Mary Lewis, and great-grandniece of George Washington, without issue Princess Marie Letizia Josephine Annonciade Murat (Paris, 26 April 1802 - Bologna, 12 March 1859), m. Venice, 27 October 1823 Guido Taddeo Pepoli, Marchese Pepoli, Conte di Castiglione (Bologna, 7 September 1789 - Bologna, 2 March 1852), and had issue Lucien Charles Joseph Napoleon Murat, 2nd Sovereign Prince of Pontecorvo, 3rd Prince Murat (Milan, 16 May 1803 - Paris, 10 April 1878), m. Bordentown, New Jersey, 18 August 1831 Caroline Georgina Fraser (Charleston, South Carolina, 13 April 1810 - Paris, 10 February 1879), daughter of Thomas Fraser and wife Anne Lauton, and had issue; he was an associate of his first cousin Napoleon III of France. Ancestor of Rene Auberjonois Princess Louise Julie Caroline Murat (Paris, 21 March 1805 - Ravenna, 1 December 1889), m. Trieste, 25 October 1825 Giulio Conte Rasponi (Ravenna, 19 February 1787 - Florence, 19 July 1876) and had issue. Relatives Murat had a brother named Pierre (La Bastide-Fortunière, 27 November 1748 - La Bastide-Fortunière, 8 October 1792), who married at La Bastide-Fortunière on 26 February 1783 Louise d'Astorg (La Bastide-Fortunière, 23 October 1762 - 31 May 1832), daughter of Aymeric d'Astorg, born in 1721, and wife Marie Alanyou, paternal granddaughter of Antoine d'Astorg, born 18 November 1676, and wife Marie de Mary (4 May 1686 - 7 October 1727) and maternal granddaughter of Jean Alanyou and wife Louise de Valon. Pierre and Louise were the parents of Marie Louise, Pierre Adrien (d. 1805), Marie Radegonde (d. 1800), Thomas Joachim and Marie Antoinette Murat, whom Emperor Napoleon I arranged to marry Charles, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; Karl III and Marie were the parents of Charles Anthony, Prince of Hohenzollern from whom descended Stephanie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Queen of Portugal; her brother Carol I of Romania and her nephew Albert I of Belgium. Another descendant of note is his great-great-great-grandson, American actor Rene Auberjonois. Beginnings The son of an innkeeper, Joachim Murat would one day go on to become a cavalry general, a king, and Napoleon's brother-in-law. But his family never envisioned such lofty goals and instead intended for him to become a priest, securing a scholarship for him to attend the seminary at Cahors. After studying at Cahors, Joachim Murat was sent to Toulouse to further his study in theology, where in February of 1787 he ran away from the school for a girl he loved, or so the rumors claimed. With little to no support from his family, he enlisted with a regiment of chasseurs and was promoted to sergeant major due to his ability to read and write. The next notable event of his military career came five years later when in February of 1792 Murat was selected to join the Constitutional Guard of the King. Ostensibly this unit was formed to protect the king but it was really intended to prevent further escape attempts by the royal family. A month later he missed roll call and when questioned, he requested to leave the guard, citing royalist plots within the organization. His request was granted and he returned to his former regiment, now known as the 12th Chasseurs à Cheval. In October of that year, Murat was promoted to lieutenant and learned of the death of his brother Pierre, and thereafter he helped support Pierre's widow and children. The next year General Dumouriez defected to the Austrians, and his immediate replacement General Dampierre thought highly of Murat, promoting him to capitaine in April. Less than a month later Captain Murat received another promotion, this time to chef d'escadrons, joining the newly formed 16th Chasseurs à Cheval. Unfortunately for Murat, his colonel denounced him as a noble, and to counter this for a time Murat signed his name Marat after the martyr Marat, but eventually he was cleared of all suspicion. Alongside Napoleon Murat's star began to shine when his regiment was posted to Paris in 1795. That October a royalist mob formed to violently overthrow the government, and General Napoleon Bonaparte was appointed to lead the defense. Napoleon ordered Murat to retrieve the artillery guns from the Place de Sablons, but when Murat and his men rode for the guns they encountered a group of soldiers of the National Guard who were also trying to take the guns. Some of the National Guard's leadership had declared the government as invalid, and in response Murat threatened to cut them down if they took the guns. The guardsmen backed off and abandoned the guns to Murat and his men. Murat's men rushed the guns back to Napoleon, who was now armed with artillery whereas the mob had none, and Napoleon successfully dispersed the mob with a "whiff of grapeshot", thereby saving the government. From then on, Murat's career was tied to Napoleon's. He received a promotion to chef de brigade less than two weeks later, and when Napoleon was appointed the commander of the Army of Italy in 1796, Murat requested to go along and became an aide-de-camp to Napoleon. On the Italian campaign of 1796, Murat proved he could lead cavalry well into battle. His first cavalry charge was at the Battle of Dego , and he fought the next week at Ceva and Mondovi . In May he was promoted to general de brigade and alongside Junot he was given the honor of taking captured enemy flags back to Paris. Back in action with the Army of Italy, Murat commanded the cavalry at Borghetto, traveled to Genoa and Livorno, seized the camp at Migliaretto, fought at Lavis, Bassano , and Cerea, and was wounded at Saint-Georges. In December of 1796 he was placed in charge of all the cavalry of General Rey's division and then later the advance guard, and he fought at Monte Baldo in January. In March Murat fought at Tagliamento and Gradisca, and then for the rest of 1797 he bounced between various units. In January of 1798 Murat was named commander of a brigade of dragoons in Baraguey d'Hilliers division in the Army of England that would later become the Army of the Orient. Taking part in the expedition to Egypt, Murat and his men fought and participated in many of the major battles, including Alexandria, the Battle of the Pyramids , Salahieh, and at the Siege of Acre. By this time Murat had already cemented his reputation as the epitome of a cavalry officer, daring and full of style. He designed his own uniforms, colorful and sometimes gaudy, but always unique and eye catching. In the summer of 1799, a Turkish force threatened the French and Napoleon gave Murat command of the advance guard for the Battle of Abukir. As the French exploited a gap in the Turkish lines, Murat saw an opportunity and galloped to the Turkish commander's tent, intent on taking the enemy commander prisoner. Leaping off his horse, he then strode into the commander's tent. As the Turkish commander thought he was about to be killed, he raised a pistol and fired at Murat, hitting him in the mouth. Murat, in a dramatic gesture, spit out the pieces of his flesh that were no longer attached to his cheek and slashed at the Turkish commander's hand, slicing off two fingers and disarming the commander of the pistol. Later that day Napoleon promoted Murat to general de division for his performance throughout the battle, and when Napoleon decided to leave Egypt and return to France, he included Murat as one of the select few to accompany him. Once back in France, Murat assisted Napoleon's coup d'etat in November and then in December he was appointed commander of the Consular Guard. The next month he married Napoleon's sister Caroline, becoming even more tied to Napoleon's future. When Napoleon led the Army of the Reserve over the Alps to battle the Austrians, Murat was given command of the cavalry. In this command Murat seized Verceil and won at Turbigo, then seized Plaisance and took part in the Battle of Marengo. Afterwards he received a sabre of honor for his conduct during the battle. Later that year Murat took command of a corps of troops that occupied Tuscany and drove the Neapolitans out of the Papal States, and then in 1801 he signed an armistice with the King of Naples. Marshal of the Empire 1804 was a year of change for Murat, when he was first named as Governor of Paris and he was later ordered to form the commission that judged the Duke of Enghien. When the French Empire was established, Murat was one of the first marshals of the empire. Due to his marriage to Napoleon's sister, he was considered senior to all the other marshals except Berthier. This seniority combined with his lack of understanding of his strategy sometimes led to resentment towards Murat from the other marshals. He remained at heart a cavalry commander, more comfortable and more qualified at leading a charge than making strategic decisions. By this time Napoleon had formed much of his opinion of his brother-in-law. Napoleon often complained of Murat's need of women, saying that Murat needed women like he needed food. And he disapproved of Murat's lack of strategic planning, but held Murat's leadership and combat abilities in high enough regard to give him important commands of cavalry. Early in 1805 Murat received the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor. That summer, as hostilities resumed between France and the Third Coalition, Murat was given command of the Cavalry Reserve of the Grande Armee. Initially he disguised himself and traveled ahead of the army to scout out the terrain and enemy movements. He and his cavalry were essential to screening the army's movements and they entered numerous combats throughout the campaign, fighting at Donauworth, Wertingen, Langenau, Trochtelfingen, Neresheim, Ried, Lambach, and Amstetten. During that campaign, Marshals Murat and Lannes were ordered to take a key bridge over the Danube intact, and seeing the prepared explosives, they attempted to bluff their way into possession of the bridge. The Austrians were armed and ready to destroy the bridge the moment the French attempted to take it. Lannes, Murat, Bertrand, Belliard, and a few other officers crossed the bridge, telling the Austrians that an armistice had been signed that gave the French the bridge. Sending Bertrand with the Austrians to meet the Austrian commander, Murat and Lannes talked to the Austrians in an attempt to distract them from Oudinot's grenadiers who were sneaking up. One Austrian noticed the approaching grenadiers and lit a match to fire the artillery, but Lannes immediately seized his arm and demanded how dare he break the armistice without higher authority. Bertrand returned with Austrian General Auersperg, whom Murat and Lannes explained the same story to, and the Austrian general agreed to not fire upon them. Oudinot's grenadiers finished coming up, cut the fuses to blow the bridge, and with that the bridge was in French hands without a shot being fired.1 After entering Vienna, Murat's cavalry fought at Hollabrunn and Guntersdorf before fighting at the Battle of Austerlitz and contributing to the victory. In 1806 Murat received more rewards, becoming a grand dignitary of the Order of the Iron Crown and also becoming one of the first of the new nobility of the empire, the Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves. In October of 1806 Prussia declared war and Murat's cavalry again took the field. After fighting at the Battle of Jena, his cavalry vigorously pursued the broken and scattered remnants of the Prussian army, leaving them little respite. His troops seized Erfurt, then broke the enemy at Zehdenick and Wigneensdorf, took Hohenlohe's surrender at Prenzlow, and then finally took Blücher's surrender at Lubeck. However, the Russians continued to fight on, and Murat participated in the fighting at Golymin in December of 1806 and then at Hoff in early 1807. Shortly after Hoff at the Battle of Eylau, as Marshal Augereau's VII Corps was nearly wiped out, Napoleon ordered Murat and his 10,000 soldiers of the Cavalry Reserve to charge directly at the Russians. What followed was one of the largest cavalry charges of all time, with Murat leading a glorious charge that decimated the Russian center and saved the French from disaster. Given the heavy casualties and struggle to march in the winter, both armies went into winter quarters rather than continue the campaign. When the campaign resumed in the spring, Murat fought at Guttstadt and then at the Battle of Heilsberg, where he and General Lasalle rescued each other. After peace was signed with Russia at Tilsit, Murat received numerous awards, including the Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Joseph of Wurzburg, becoming a Knight of the Order of the Crown of Saxony, and joining the Order of the Black Eagle of Prussia and the Order of Saint Andrew of Russia. King of Naples In 1808 as the French moved into Spain, Marshal Murat was named the commander-in-chief of the Army of Spain. As Napoleon's chief lieutenant in Spain, when the Spanish revolted against the French presence in Madrid on May 2nd, Murat imposed martial law and put down the revolt, but his forceful response only fueled growing resentment against the French. Napoleon had already placed his brother Joseph on the throne of Naples, but now he decided to make Joseph the new King of Spain, hoping to spread some of the ideals of the French Revolution to Spain and establish a solid ally. For this reason, Napoleon needed a new King of Naples, and he selected his brother-in-law Joachim Murat to be the new king. Murat left for Naples and was proclaimed king on August 1st. Two months later Murat led a successful attack to take Capri and forced the British under Sir Hudson Lowe to surrender. Encouraged by that success, the next year Murat led an attack to take Sicily but failed to make any progress. His wife Caroline assisted with governing Naples and proved herself a more capable administrator than her husband. In 1812 Napoleon was preparing to campaign against Russia for its failure to adhere to the Treaty of Tilsit, and Napoleon asked Murat to return to the Grande Armee to command the cavalry in another campaign. Murat returned to the army and took command of the advance guard, but the Russians repeatedly refused to do battle and kept falling back. Nevertheless, Murat took the opportunity to dazzle his opponents, often riding ahead of the army in his glittering uniform, dazzling Russian Cossacks with his appearance, nerve, and swordsmanship. He so impressed the Cossacks that they passed around word that no one was to harm the King of Naples, but they did hope to take him prisoner.2 During the campaign that summer, Murat fought at Ostrowno, Krasnoe, Smolensk , and the Battle of Borodino. At Borodino, as the French struggled to take the notorious redoubt, Murat dismounted as French soldiers began to retreat around him, daring them to leave him to the Russians, refusing to retreat. His leadership halted the retreat and helped to secure the great redoubt. During the retreat from Russia, Murat's forces were beaten at Winkowo in October. On December 5th, 1812, Napoleon finally left the army to return to Paris and left Marshal Murat in charge. Murat, more concerned with Naples and despairing of the turn of events in Russia, began to privately denounce Napoleon's leadership, but he stayed with the army until January 18th when he turned over command to Napoleon's stepson, Prince Eugene. Murat hurried back to Naples and secretly opened negotiations with the Austrians and British to retain his kingdom. Napoleon personally wrote to his brother-in-law Joachim and appealed to him to return and defend their gains, and Murat agreed and rejoined the Grande Armee in August of 1813. He was given command of the cavalry, and he went on to serve at Dresden that August before fighting at the Battle of Leipzig in October. The French retreat from Leipzig was a turning point where Murat no longer believed Napoleon could possibly win, and he told his brother-in-law that he needed to return to Naples to raise more troops. Napoleon allowed him to depart and the two would never see each other again. Fall from Power Murat reopened secret negotiations with Great Britain and Austria, and they agreed to let him keep Naples in exchange for bringing 30,000 troops from Naples against France. Murat agreed and his troops began to maneuver against Prince Eugene's French troops, forcing Eugene to defend the Kingdom of Italy along a second front, holding back the Austrians in the northeast and the Neapolitans in the south. In April Napoleon unexpectedly abdicated in favor of his son, altering the political balance of power in Europe. Unfortunately for Murat, most of the Allies had no intention of holding to their agreements with him, and they began to maneuver both politically and militarily to renege on their earlier agreement. It seemed the only way for Murat to hold onto his kingdom was through military force, but just then Napoleon left Elba in March of 1815 and reclaimed the throne of France without a shot being fired. Suddenly the Allies were interested in pleasing Murat again, though now he knew the value of their word and would have none of it. Murat published a manifesto calling for independence and a unified Italy, and he did not wait to coordinate his campaign with Napoleon and France. Instead he immediately moved his army to take Modène and Florence, and his forces experienced success until he lost the Battle of Tolentino. Badly beaten, he returned to Naples and realized he could no longer hold onto his kingdom. Murat decided to disguise himself and return to France to offer Napoleon his services as a cavalry commander like the old days. However, Napoleon had not forgotten Murat's betrayal of the previous year and ordered him to not come to Paris. Murat waited in Lyon where he learned of the French defeat at Waterloo and a price the Allies had put on his head. To avoid the bounty hunters, Murat bought passage to Corsica but missed the boat and instead he was forced to hide in a hut of an old soldier by the coast. Finally he escaped to Corsica, where he learned that the Emperor of Austria had offered him and his family asylum in Austria. But he had enough of Allied promises and still held the ambition to retake his crown. Murat set sail with 250 men for Naples, but a rough storm separated the ships of his small force. When the captain of his vessel refused to go further without provisioning, they stopped at Pizzo, where Murat and 30 of his men went ashore to buy provisions. Murat was recognized by some fishermen who began shouting, "Long live King Joachim!" and a crowd soon gathered to stare at his entourage. Sensing a dark shift in the mood of the crowd, Murat and his men made a run for the beach but were caught before they could reach the relative safety of the boats. Thrown into prison, Murat was put on trial. He argued that none of his soldiers should be tried with him, for their only crime was being loyal to him. He then gave his defense that the court was incompetent to try him, they couldn't try him as a Frenchman, and if they considered him a Neapolitan then he was their king. Within half an hour, he was judged guilty and condemned to death. On the day of his execution, Murat refused to sit down or wear the blindfold provided to him. He told the firing squad to aim at his heart, and then gave the command to fire. Name: Larrey Biography: Dominique Jean Larrey(8 July 1766 - 25 July 1842) Position: Inventor of battlefield ambulances and Chief Surgeon to the Imperial Guard，Surgeon to Napoleon's Imperial Guard, Military Physician Allegiance: France Branch/service: French Army Rank: Baron of the Empire Baron Dominique Jean Larrey (French: ; 8 July 1766 - 25 July 1842) was a French surgeon and military doctor, who distinguished himself in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. An important innovator in battlefield medicine and triage, he is often considered the first modern military surgeon. Early life and career Larrey was born in the little village of Beaudean, in the Pyrenees as the son of a shoemaker, who later moved to Bordeaux. He was orphaned at the age of 13, and was then raised by his uncle Alexis, who was chief surgeon in Toulouse. After an 8-year apprenticeship, he went to Paris to study under Pierre-Joseph Desault, who was chief surgeon at the H?tel-Dieu de Paris. Larrey then went to Brest, where he was appointed surgeon in the navy and began lecturing. In 1787 he boarded a ship deployed to the defense of Newfoundland, and was, at nearly 21 years-old at the time, the youngest medical officer in the French Royal Navy. While in America, Larrey took an interest in the local environment, writing observations on the local flora, fauna, climate and manners, which were published years later in his Memoires de chirurgie militaire et campagnes du baron D.J. Larrey. In 1789, Larrey was back in Paris, where he worked with Jean-Nicolas Corvisart, Xavier Bichat and Rapha?l Bienvenu Sabatier in Les Invalides. On 14 July, during the Storming of the Bastille, he improvised an ambulance to treat the wounded. Revolutionary Wars A supporter of the ideas of the Revolution, Larrey joined the French Army of the Rhine in 1792, during the War of the First Coalition. In Mainz he met with Samuel Thomas von S?mmerring. During this time, Larrey initiated the modern method of army surgery, field hospitals and the system of army ambulance corps. After seeing the speed with which the carriages of the French flying artillery maneuvered across the battlefields, Larrey adapted them as ambulance volantes ("Flying ambulances") for rapid transport of the wounded and manned them with trained crews of drivers, corpsmen and litterbearers. At the Battle of Metz (1793) Larrey successfully demonstrated the value of field ambulances. The quartermaster-general Jacques-Pierre Orillard de Villemanzy ordered prototypes to be built, after which ambulances would be supplied to all the Republic's armies. The politicians heard of this, and ordered a national contest to find the best design, thus delaying their delivery by over two years. Larrey also increased the mobility and improved the organization of field hospitals, effectively creating a forerunner of the modern MASH units. He established a rule for the triage of war casualties, treating the wounded according to the seriousness of their injuries and urgency of need for medical care, regardless of their rank or nationality. Soldiers of enemy armies, as well as those of the French and their allies, were treated. In 1794 he was sent to Toulon, where he met for the first time with Napoleon Bonaparte. He married the painter Marie-elisabeth Laville-Leroux. In Spain he fell ill and was sent back to Paris, where he worked as a professor of anatomy at the Val-de-Grace Medical School for a short time, in 1796, before being appointed surgeon-in-chief of the Revolutionary armies in Italy. Larrey departed with the Egyptian campaign in 1798. Following the victory at the Battle of Abukir, he stablished a medical school for army physicians in Cairo. Many of his patients at the time were affacted by ophthalmy, a disease known in Europe since the Crusades, which Larrey studied and wrote about in his memoirs. He improved the transportation of wounded soldiers through the use of dromedaries, with two chests attached to each side of their hump to carry the wounded, instead of horses of difficult movement in the desert. He was wounded during the Siege of Acre. Larrey returned to France in October 1801. Napoleonic Wars Larrey was made a Commander of the Legion d'honneur on 12 May 1807. He joined in the Battle of Aspern-Essling, where he operated on Marshall Jean Lannes and amputated one of his legs in two minutes. He became the favorite of the Emperor, who commented, "If the army ever erects a monument to express its gratitude, it should do so in honor of Larrey", he was ennobled as a Baron on the field of Wagram in 1809. In 1811, Baron Larrey co-led the surgical team that performed a pre-anesthetic mastectomy on Frances Burney in Paris. Her detailed account of this operation gives insight into early 19th century doctor-patient relationships, and early surgical methods in the home of the patient. Larrey was involved in the French invasion of Russia. When Napoleon was sent to Elba, Larrey proposed to join him, but the former Emperor refused. At Waterloo in 1815 his courage under fire was noticed by the Duke of Wellington who ordered his soldiers not to fire in his direction so as to "give the brave man time to gather up the wounded" and saluted "the courage and devotion of an age that is no longer ours". Trying to escape to the French border, Larrey was taken prisoner by the Prussians who wanted to execute him on the spot. Larrey was recognized by one of the German surgeons, who pleaded for his life. Perhaps partly because he had saved the life of Blücher's son when he was wounded near Dresden and taken prisoner by the French, he was pardoned, invited to Blücher's dinner table as a guest and sent back to France with money and proper clothes. Later career He devoted the remainder of his life to writing, but after the death of Napoleon he started a new medical career in the army as chief-surgeon. In 1826 he visited England, received well by British surgeons. In 1829 he was appointed in the Institut de France. A year later, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 1842 he went to Algiers for a health inspection, together with his son, but contracted pneumonia on his way back, dying in Lyon on 25 July. His body was taken to Paris and buried at the Père-Lachaise Cemetery. His remains were transferred to Les Invalides and re-interred near Napoleon's tomb in December 1992. Larrey's writings are still regarded as valuable sources of surgical and medical knowledge and have been translated into all modern languages. Between 1800 and 1840 at least 28 books or articles were published. His son Hippolyte (born 1808) was surgeon-in-ordinary to the emperor Napoleon III. Works Relation historique et chirurgicale de l’expedition de l’armee d’orient, en Egypte et en Syrie. Demonville, Paris 1803. Memoires de chirurgie militaire, et campagnes. J. Smith, Paris 1812. (digitalized books: Volume1, Volume 2, Volume 3) Richard H. Willmott: Memoirs of military surgery. Cushing, Baltimore 1814. (volumes 1-3, digitalized book) John C. Mercer: Surgical memoirs of the campaigns of Russia, Germany, and France. Carey & Lea, Philadelphia 1832. (volume 4, digitalized Book) NATO Award The Dominique-Jean Larrey Award is the North Atlantic Alliance's highest medical honour. It is bestowed annually by NATO's senior medical body, the Committee of Chiefs of Military Medical Services in NATO (COMEDS), which is composed of the Surgeons General of NATO and partner nations. It is awarded in recognition of a significant and lasting contribution to NATO multi-nationality and/or interoperability, or to improvements in the provision of health care in NATO missions in the areas of medical support or healthcare development. Beginnings Known for his humane treatment of wounded soldiers, regardless of their nation, Dominique-Jean Larrey was the son of a shoemaker who began his medical career when his father died and he was sent to live with his uncle. Trained as a surgeon by his uncle, Larrey served aboard a ship for a brief time but by the time of the Revolution he had arrived in Paris. Believing in the ideals of the Revolution, Larrey led a group of medical students and took part in the storming of the Bastille. During the violent days of the Revolution, he practiced his skills and became convinced of the need to immediately amputate if necessary, instead of the tradition of delaying the surgery. In the meantime he met his sweetheart Charlotte Laville whom he would later marry in 1794. In 1792 Larrey received a position with the Army of the Rhine and he traveled to Strasbourg. After witnessing the speed at which the horse-drawn artillery could move on a battlefield, he proposed to General Custine the construction of a similar system, an ambulance to transport wounded soldiers from the battlefield for medical treatment. General Custine, anxious to show concern for his citizen soldiers, approved Larrey's plans. Initially the ambulance was a simple horse-drawn cart which Larrey led into battle to save the lives of wounded soldiers. Despite being exposed to danger, he worked tirelessly to rescue soldiers, sometimes participating in combat. At one battle in 1793, a group of French soldiers began to run away from the battle. Larrey drew his sword and charged after them, yelling at them for so cowardly leaving their comrades to fight while they ran, and this act convinced them to return to the battle. Later during the same battle, seeing four wounded soldiers being stripped of valuables by the Prussians, Larrey led a charge of his dragoon escort against the Prussians and rescued the soldiers. The wounded were loaded into his ambulances and escorted to the rear, where he operated on them and saved all their lives. In 1797 General Bonaparte requested Larrey be attached to the Army of Italy. During this time, Larrey began to establish a clear policy on the ambulances. In the midst of battle and at risk to themselves, teams of his ambulances would hurry around the battlefield, picking up the wounded whose lives might be saved and transporting them to the rear of the battle where they could be operated upon. While at times his teams would perform first aid right there in the middle of the battle, the most critically wounded were usually retrieved and taken to relative safety before operating on them. This kept the best surgeons safely out of harm's way while enabling them to perform their duties at stations set up specifically for saving lives. Overall, his system of transporting wounded soldiers away from the battlefield significantly reduced death rates, as almost all critically wounded soldiers were operated on within 24 hours, oftentimes before the fighting had ceased. Expedition to Egypt In 1798 Larrey was appointed Surgeon-in-Chief to the expedition to Egypt. As the army disembarked from its long voyage west of Alexandria, General Maximillien Cafffarelli du Falga unfortunately got his wooden leg caught in the rigging and fell overboard. Larrey immediately dove into the water after him and dragged him to the beach, saving his life. Later that month at the Battle of the Pyramids , as during all times, Larrey was willing to treat enemy wounded. One wounded mameluke came to the French for help, and Larrey treated his wound. Thankful, the man gave Larrey a brilliant ruby ring, which Larrey wore until it was taken from him years later at the Battle of Waterloo. Before the Army of the Orient began its march into Syria, Larrey noticed the plight of some British prisoners of war who had been captured when their ship ran aground. Held in deplorable conditions, Larrey asked General Dupas to improve their treatment, but he refused. Undeterred, Larrey went to General Bonaparte and told him of their conditions, and Bonaparte allowed for the men to be returned to the British on the grounds that they had not directly fought the French. As the army besieged Jaffa, one day an Egyptian entertainer who was caught in a skirmish came to the temporary French hospital for treatment. After treating the man, Larrey noticed the man's pet monkey, both his companion and his livelihood, was also wounded and Larrey offered to patch the animal up. With tears streaming down his face from happiness at this unexpected gentleness and generosity, the man accepted and held the monkey while Larrey bandaged it up. The monkey returned many times to have its bandages replaced, and each time it would run up and hug Larrey. Later during the campaign during the Siege of Acre, one evening the senior officers including General Bonaparte and Dr. Larrey were invited to General Verdier's quarters for a dinner. As everyone but Larrey had arrived, Madame Verdier began to signal that dinner would be served, as it would be rude to keep General Bonaparte waiting. Napoleon insisted that dinner not start without Larrey, to which the Verdiers replied that Larrey was at the hospital and no one knew when his work would be completed. Bonaparte continued to insist that they wait for him, and the dinner finally went ahead when Larrey arrived an hour later. During the fighting at Acre, Arrighi de Casanova arrived at the front only to be hit by a ball that passed through his neck. Blood spurting everywhere, he fell to the ground, and a soldier rushed to him and put a finger in each hole on the sides of his neck, slowing the bleeding. Dr. Larrey was called for, and he quickly applied bandages while ignoring the shots falling all around them. Larrey didn't even bother to look up from his patient when his hat was shot off, and he saved Arrighi de Casanova's life. When Napoleon decided to leave Egypt and return to France, Larrey was one of the select few chosen to accompany Napoleon. However, Larrey informed Napoleon that if Napoleon insisted he would accompany him, but in his opinion the army needed him more than the general did. Napoleon accepted Larrey's suggestion, and Larrey stayed in Egypt with the army. After the French surrendered in August of 1801, Larrey returned to France to receive the position of Surgeon-in-Chief to the Consular Guard. When Napoleon became Emperor of the French, Larrey became the Chief Surgeon to the Imperial Guard and he was named an Officer of the Legion of Honor. Battle of Eylau Over the next few years, Larrey fulfilled his duties in treating the wounded during the campaigns across Europe of 1805 through 1807. Before the Battle of Eylau in 1807, Caulaincourt attempted to commandeer the building Larrey had set up as a hospital for the Emperor's quarters. Larrey refused to surrender his hospital, and Caulaincourt threatened to go to Napoleon, to which Larrey replied, "As you please, but you may be sure that his majesty will decide in my favor."1 When Caulaincourt did go to Napoleon, Napoleon sided with Larrey, preferring that Larrey's work for the wounded take priority over his own comfort. During the battle, the Russian attack on the French left flank almost overran Larrey's hospital. As French soldiers reeled back from the Russian onslaught, Larrey calmly finished the operation he was performing and announced that he would die with his casualties if need be. That very morning Larrey had assisted General Lepic with his arthritis so Lepic could fight, and it was lucky that he had done so. As the French soldiers reeled back, Lepic's cavalry rode to the rescue in a successful counterattack, driving the Russians back and keeping the hospital out of harm's way. Later the same day, a colonel badly wounded at Eylau had to have his leg amputated, but as Larrey attempted to perform the operation, the man's leg would not stop shaking from his fear of the operation. Larrey slapped him in the face, and the officer demanded satisfaction for such an insult to his honor. As the man angrily spoke of honor, Larrey performed the operation, then apologized and explained that he knew the affront to the man's honor would cause him to forget the operation for a moment which was all the time Larrey needed to carry out the operation. As the Emperor and Larrey left Eylau on the 17th, Napoleon noticed that Larrey no longer wore a sword. "You don't have a sword?" Napoleon asked. Larrey explained that his sword was lost during the battle as the Russians had overrun his baggage wagon. Napoleon removed his own sword and held it out to Larrey, telling him, "Here is mine. Accept it as a reminder of the services you rendered me at the Battle of Eylau."2 Campaigns of 1808 - 1814 Rewards followed for Larrey, as he was made a Commander of the Legion of Honor and given the military rank of general. The next year he traveled with the Imperial Guard to Spain, and after participating in the campaigning, he returned with them to address the new threat from Austria. During the Danube campaign of 1809, at the Battle of Aspern-Essling Larrey personally amputated one of the legs of his good friend Marshal Lannes whom he had patched up numerous times before. Despite the emotions of performing such a procedure on a good friend, Larrey carried out the operation successfully, though the wound became infected and Lannes died within a matter of days. After the Battle of Wagram , Larrey was further recognized for his contributions by being named a Baron of the Empire. He spent the new few years in relative peace in Paris before being named Surgeon-in-Chief to the Grande Armee for the 1812 campaign against Russia. Accompanying the army, at the Battle of Borodino Larrey performed about 200 amputations throughout the day. Once Napoleon realized the Tsar Alexander would not negotiate, he ordered the retreat from Russia which was almost stopped by the Berezina River. At the crossing of the Berezina, the temporary bridge for vehicles was twice swept away, and Larrey was unable to bring his ambulances across the bridge. He repeatedly crossed the other bridge, carrying as many medical supplies as he could. As the bridge began to break, panic and a mad stampede erupted. Recognizing Larrey caught in the stampede, the soldiers began to cry out, "Let us save him who has saved us!"3 A group of soldiers pushed their way through the crowds, grabbed Larrey, held him up above themselves, and passed him above themselves to safety. Larrey continued in his role as Chief Surgeon to the army during the campaign in Germany in 1813. In the midst of the campaign, many young soldiers were showing up with wounds on their hands. Suspecting an attempt to avoid fighting, Napoleon ordered two men from each corps to be shot as an example, and told Larrey to inspect their wounds and determine the individuals whose wounds were clearly self-inflicted. Larrey refused to do so, arguing that there wasn't enough evidence, so the Emperor ordered an inquiry into the wounds. Larrey and the surgeons analyzed the evidence and determined that none of the suspects had self-inflicted wounds. When he told Napoleon, Napoleon was very grateful and thanked Larrey for having the courage to stick to his beliefs, saying, "Happy indeed is a sovereign in having a man like you at his side."4 The Hundred Days After Napoleon's abdication in April of 1814, Larrey was well treated by the restored Bourbons. But the next year when Napoleon returned from exile for the Hundred Days, Larrey eagerly greeted him and welcomed him back to Paris. However, when Dr. Percy was selected as Chief Surgeon to the Army, Larrey refused to accept the position of Chief Surgeon to the Imperial Guard until his friend General Drouot convinced him otherwise. He set out to join the army on the 10th of June. During the fighting at the Battle of Waterloo, the Duke of Wellington noticed a surgeon working on the wounded while under fire. Upon asking who it was and learning that it was Larrey, he directed his men to not fire in Larrey's direction and took off his hat in a salute to Larrey. When asked who he was saluting, Wellington pointed at Larrey and explained, "I salute the courage and devotion of an age that is no longer ours."5 After the French loss at Waterloo, Larrey, his ambulances, and his escort found their retreat blocked by a Prussian unit. They launched a charge to break through the Prussians, but Larrey was hit, knocked unconscious, and left for dead. Upon waking, he set off on his own, only to have a Prussian cavalry squadron hunt him down. All alone, he surrendered, but he was immediately manhandled and stripped of almost everything on him. The Prussians then took Larrey to their general, who ordered that he be shot. As a Prussian surgeon stepped forward to bandage his wound before his imminent execution, the surgeon recognized Larrey and convinced the general to not execute Larrey. Larrey was sent first to General Bülow, who improved his condition, giving him new clothes and untying his hands, and then sent him on to Field Marshal Blücher. Larrey had previously treated Blücher's son at Dresden, and Blücher treated him with respect and sent word to his wife that he was alive, as the French had thought Larrey was killed in the retreat from Waterloo. In Napoleon's will, he called Larrey, "the most virtuous man I have ever known."6 At another time, Napoleon said, "If the Army were to erect a monument of the memory of any one man, it should be that of Larrey. All the wounded are his family." Name: Wellington Biography: Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington(1 May 1769 - 14 September 1852) Position: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom，Leader of the House of Lords，Commander-in-Chief of the British Army Allegiance: United Kingdom Branch/service: British Army Rank: Field Marshal Battles/wars Flanders Campaign Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Second Anglo-Maratha War English Wars Peninsular War Cotiote War Waterloo campaign Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (1 May 1769 - 14 September 1852) was an Anglo-Irish soldier and Tory statesman who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister. He is one of the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Wellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons. He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803. Wellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world. After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834. He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death. Early life Family Wellesley was born into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, in Ireland as The Hon. Arthur Wesley. Wellesley was born the son of Anne Wellesley, Countess of Mornington and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington. His father, Garret Wesley, was the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington and had a short career in politics representing the constituency Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as 2nd Baron Mornington in 1758. Garret Wesley was also an accomplished composer and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760. Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named. Wellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington. His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley (20 June 1760 - 26 September 1842); later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington and The Hon. William Wellesley (20 May 1763 - 22 February 1845); later William Wellesley-Pole, 3rd Earl of Mornington, 1st Baron Maryborough. Birth date and place The exact date and whereabouts of Wellesley's birth is not known however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St Peters Church, Dublin. As to the whereabouts of Wellesley's birth, he was most likely to be born at his parents' townhouse, 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, now the Merrion Hotel. This is contrary to reports that his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. Other places have been put forward as the location of his birth, including Mornington House (the house next door on Upper Merrion), as his father had asserted; the Dublin packet boat; and the mansion in the family estate of Athy (consumed in the fires of 1916), as the Duke apparently put on his 1851 census return. Childhood Wellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle, 3 miles (5 km) north of Summerhill in County Meath. In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom. He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784. His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", a quotation which is often attributed to him. Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, "I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur." A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful. Upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement. Early military career Further information: Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Netherlands Further information: Flanders Campaign India Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Main article: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Second Anglo-Maratha War Main article: Second Anglo-Maratha War Back in Britain, meeting Nelson In September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public. He reported to the office of the Secretary at War to request a new assignment. In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a legendary figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months chasing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back. Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found "almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me". Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals. On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, "I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more". This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later. Wellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe. He then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806. A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland, under the Duke of Richmond. At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor. While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic Emancipation. War against Denmark-Norway Main article: Battle of Copenhagen (1807) Peninsular War Main article: Peninsular War Further information: British Army during the Napoleonic Wars and Anglo-Portuguese Army Aftermath Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made Duke of Wellington, in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of Marquess Douro, in the said County. He received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of "Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo" and "Grandee of Spain") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French. His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz. His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs. His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality. His personal style influenced the fashions on Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular. In late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada and with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States. Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe. He stated: I think you have no right, from the state of war, to demand any concession of territory from America... You have not been able to carry it into the enemy's territory, notwithstanding your military success, and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack. You cannot on any principle of equality in negotiation claim a cession of territory except in exchange for other advantages which you have in your power... Then if this reasoning be true, why stipulate for the uti possidetis? You can get no territory: indeed, the state of your military operations, however creditable, does not entitle you to demand any. He was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna, where he strongly advocated allowing France to keep its place in the European balance of power. On 2 January 1815 the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order. Hundred Days Waterloo Main article: Hundred Days On 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France. He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign. He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. Napoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived. In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished. He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia. The French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras. The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo. On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought. This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British. Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish. Battle Main article: Battle of Waterloo Controversy Much historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield. Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, 8.1 mi (13.0 km) away at Halle, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road. The campaign led to numerous other controversies, especially concerning the Prussians. For example: Were Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands sound? Did Wellington somehow mislead or betray Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny? Who deserved the lion's share of credit for the victory—Wellington or the Prussians? These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a major strategic-level study by the famous Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815, English title: The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign. Written c.1827, this study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses. It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write his only published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, "The Waterloo Dispatch"), his 1842 "Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo". While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, the Prussian writer largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him by nationalistic German axe-grinders. This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century (it was heavily discussed in, for example, Chesney's Waterloo Lectures (1868).) It seems, however, to have been systematically ignored by British historians writing since 1914, which is odd considering that it was one of only two discussions of the battle that Wellington wrote. The explanation, unfortunately, is probably that it drew too much attention to the decisive German role in Wellington's victory—which Wellington himself was perfectly happy to acknowledge, but which became an awkward subject given Anglo-German hostilities in the 20th century. Political career Wellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818. He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827. Prime Minister Further information: Wellington-Peel ministry Reform Catholic emancipation His term was marked by Catholic emancipation: the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland. The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, an Irish Catholic proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career. He was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Catholic communities there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as "mildly" as possible. In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105. Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs. Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if the King (George IV) did not give his Royal Assent. The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of "an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State". Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields. When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down. The Duke fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in dueling as a delope. Wellington claimed he did. However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology. The nickname "Iron Duke" originates from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity. Its repeated use in Freeman's Journal throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830. Reform Act The Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed. An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority. A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords. Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country. Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed. Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed. The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England. This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership. Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not. Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said "I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life". Jewish emancipation Main article: Emancipation of the Jews in England Family Wellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St Georges Church, Dublin on 10 April 1806. They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808. The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterward. Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners. The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House. Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. Retirement Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the spotlight in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during that year of European revolution. The Conservative Party had split over the Repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance. Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting "Who? Who?" as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords. He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850. He was also colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827. Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after "half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end". He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot. Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband. The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House. Personality Wellington always rose early; he "couldn't bear to lie awake in bed", even if the army was not on the march. Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts; it remains on display in Walmer Castle. General Miguel de álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march "at daybreak" and dine on "cold meat", that he began to dread those two phrases. While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner. During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on "cold meat and bread", to the despair of his staff who dined with him. He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day). He rarely showed emotion in public, and often appeared condescending to those less competent or less well-born than himself (which was nearly everyone). However, álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca. Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass. He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there. He threw the drumstick in the air and shouted "Les fran?ais sont perdus!" ("The French are lost!"). After the Battle of Toulouse, an aide brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers. Military historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, "I am going to dine with Wellington tonight", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by. "Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name," Wellington said. "My Lord," replied the officer, "we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr. Wellington?" His stern countenance and iron-handed discipline were renowned; he was said to disapprove of soldiers cheering as "too nearly an expression of opinion." Nevertheless, Wellington cared for his men; he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain. The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz; he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches. In this context, his famous dispatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the "scum of the earth," can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger. He expressed his grief openly the night after Waterloo before his personal physician, and later with his family; unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss. Wellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him. (A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a note pad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke. It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879-1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon. Holman is recorded as a servant of the Dukes of Wellington from 1871 to 1905). Following an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems. In 1822, he had an operation to improve the hearing of the left ear. The result, however, was that he became permanently deaf on that side. It is claimed that he was "never quite well afterwards". Wellington had a "vigorous sexual appetite" and many amorous liaisons during his marriage to Kitty. He enjoyed the company of intellectual and attractive women for many decades, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris. The British press lampooned this side of the national hero. In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money. It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, "Publish and be damned". However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it. It is certain that Wellington did reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail. He was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely. In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open. His advice to Queen Victoria was "Sparrowhawks, ma'am". Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse). However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture. Titles and tributes Main article: Arms, titles, honours and styles of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington See also: Batons of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington See also: List of monuments to Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington See also: Cultural depictions of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Nicknames The Iron Duke This section is about a nickname of Wellington. For the metaphor it is based upon, see Iron (metaphor). For other uses, see Iron Duke (disambiguation). This commonly used nickname originally related to his consistent political resolve rather than to any particular incident. In various cases its editorial use appears to be disparaging. It is likely that its use became more widespread after an incident in 1832 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at Apsley House. The term may have been made increasingly popular by Punch cartoons published in 1844-45. Other nicknames In the popular ballads of the day Wellington was called "Nosey" or "Old Nosey". Tsar Alexander I of Russia called Wellington "Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase "the world's conqueror" referring to Napoleon. Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington", referring to him as "the great World-victor's victor". Officers under his command called him "The Beau", as he was a fine dresser. Spanish troops called him "The Eagle", while Portuguese troops called him "Douro Douro" after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809. "Beau Douro"; Wellington found this amusing when hearing it used by a Colonel of the Coldstream Guards. "Sepoy General"; Napoleon used this term as an insult to Wellington's military service in India, publicly considering him an unworthy opponent. The name was used in the French newspaper Le Moniteur Universel, as a means of propaganda. "The Beef"; It is a theory that the Beef Wellington dish is a reference to Wellington, although some chefs dispute this. "Europe's Liberator" "Saviour of the Nations" Name: Schulmeister Biography: Karl Ludwig Schulmeister (August 5, 1770- May 8, 1853) Position: Napoleon's spymaster who provided intelligence and contributed to the successful maneuver of Ulm Allegiance: First French Republic, First French Empire Branch/service: French army Napoleon's famous spymaster, Karl Ludwig Schulmeister, called Charles by the French, was the son of a man with a variety of careers. His father worked as a pastor, metalworker, grocer, shopkeeper, and smuggler, and Charles Schulmeister most likely learned the art of smuggling from his father. Due to the clandestine nature of his trade, much of his life and achievements are shrouded in mystery. Charles Schulmeister initially started as an agent in the service of Austria, though at some point during the wars of the Revolution he most likely began to work for French Republic as a double agent. During his time as a smuggler he had acquired a number of contacts and agents and he made the acquaintance of French officer Anne-Jean-Marie-Rene Savary. When war was brewing in 1805, General Savary, now an aide-de-camp to Napoleon, was sent on reconnaissance into Germany in August. Savary recruited Schulmeister at Strasbourg and both men went into Germany in disguise.1 After the pair of spies returned to Strasbourg, in October they went undercover again, and this time Schulmeister traveled to Ulm to meet an old acquaintance who was serving on the intelligence staff of the Austrian army. Schulmeister offered to assist the Austrian intelligence services, providing false documents of Napoleon's plans and news of discontent with Napoleon's rule within France. Intrigued by this information, his acquaintance introduced him to the commander of the Austrian forces, General Mack, who also desired the information and agreed to add Schulmeister to the staff. Before long, two letters from reliable sources in Stuttgart arrived that added to the information Schulmeister had provided, indicating that the British were landing a force in France and there were uprisings against Napoleon. The letters were actually forgeries sent by Schulmeister before he had arrived, but Mack then sent Schulmeister to Stuttgart to verify the authenticity of the intelligence. Mack had been planning to withdraw from Ulm, but due partially to his belief that Napoleon was retreating to France he decided to hold his position.2 Unbeknownst to General Mack, the Grande Armee was closing the trap around his forces at Ulm, and his delay in maneuvering and overconfidence led to the trap being closed. When it became clear that no help was coming, Mack had no choice but to surrender his forces at Ulm with barely a shot being fired. Recognizing that Schulmeister had contributed to Mack's inactivity at Ulm, Napoleon told his officers, "Gentlemen, all respect to Charles, who I estimate highly, because he was worth an army corps of 40,000 men to me."3 However, the campaign was far from over, as the Russian Army was advancing to join another Austrian army. At the end of October, Schulmeister and a colleague set out into Austria to gain more information. While there, they added a third agent to their group, but this agent revealed to the authorities that the two were spies. Seized and arrested, the two spies were transported to Vienna and interrogated, then ordered to the fortress of Koniggratz. Four soldiers were detailed to transport the prisoners, but disregarding their orders they beat the two spies and left them for dead by the side of the road. Both men survived and attempted to make their way to safety, but Schulmeister's partner died a few days later in a hospital, while Schulmeister himself traveled in disguise to Vienna.4 After the French took Vienna, Schulmeister met up with General Savary and he was appointed commissioner of the police of Vienna. During his time in Vienna, he continued to gather intelligence but also kept the city safe from crime or looting. After the conclusion of the campaign, Schulmeister grew rich with rewards and returned to France, but Napoleon refused to award him the Legion of Honor. In 1806 Schulmeister took part in the campaign against Prussia, continuing to supply Napoleon and his staff with intelligence about enemy movements. After the collapse of the Prussian army, Schulmeister led a small contingent of cavalry soldiers in convincing the town of Wismer and its garrison to surrender. He continued to use his contacts and his own skills to gather intelligence into 1807, and he was present at the Battle of Friedland where he was wounded by a shot across his forehead.5 By 1809, Schulmeister's fame had grown such that he could no longer move about freely in enemy territory despite his skill with disguises. During the Danube campaign against the Austrians that year, after the French took Vienna he was again appointed to run the police of Vienna to prevent crime and looting. Afterwards, when Savary was appointed the Minister of Police, he employed Schulmeister in the Ministry of Police back in Paris. During the defense of France of 1814, the Austrians ordered Schulmeister's arrest and the invading armies ransacked his properties. Nevertheless, he evaded capture by going into hiding within France. When Napoleon returned to power in 1815 for the Hundred Days, Schulmeister rallied to him and served in intelligence duties during the campaign that June. However, this time he was captured by the Prussians and thrown in prison, and he had to pay a vast fortune to buy his release. Returning to France, he was placed under police surveillance and all of his attempts at starting businesses failed, eventually leaving him quite poor. Finally an old friend provided a tobacco shop in Strasbourg for Schulmeister to earn a small income until his death due to heart failure.6 Name: Austen Biography: Jane Austen (16 December 1775 - 18 July 1817) Position: novelist Education:Reading Abbey Girls' School Masterpiece: "Pride and Prejudice" “From the very beginning— from the first moment, I may almost say— of my acquaintance with you, your manners, impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form the groundwork of disapprobation on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike; and I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry.”- Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice Pride and Prejudice is an 1813 romantic novel of manners written by Jane Austen. Though it is mostly called a romantic novel, it can also be considered a satirical book. The novel follows the character development of Elizabeth Bennet, the dynamic protagonist of the book who learns about the repercussions of hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between superficial goodness and actual goodness. The satire lies in its honest depiction of manners, education, marriage, and money during the Regency era in England. Jane Austen (/??st?n, ???s-/; 16 December 1775 - 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. Her use of biting irony, along with her realism, humour, and social commentary, have long earned her acclaim among critics, scholars, and popular audiences alike. With the publication of Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814) and Emma (1816), she achieved success as a published writer. She wrote two other novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the short epistolary novel Lady Susan, and another unfinished novel, The Watsons. Her six full-length novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously and brought her moderate success and little fame during her lifetime. A significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1833, when her novels were republished in Richard Bentley's Standard Novels series, illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering, and sold as a set. They gradually gained wider acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced a compelling version of her writing career and supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Austen has inspired many critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940's Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions like Sense and Sensibility (1995), Emma (1996), Mansfield Park (1999), Pride & Prejudice (2005), Love & Friendship (2016), and Emma (2020). Her novels have also inspired many TV adaptations, most notably Pride & Prejudice (1995), starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth. There is little biographical information about Jane Austen's life except the few letters that survived and the biographical notes her family members wrote. During her lifetime, Austen may have written as many as 3,000 letters, but only 161 survived. Many of the letters were written to Austen's older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Ostensibly, Cassandra destroyed or censored her sister's letters to prevent their falling into the hands of relatives and ensuring that "younger nieces did not read any of Jane Austen's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members". Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Jane's penchant for forthrightness, these details should be destroyed. The paucity of record of Austen's life leaves modern biographers little with which to work. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitised the already opaque details of Austen's biography. The heirs of Jane's brother, Admiral Francis Austen, destroyed more letters; details were excised from the "Biographical Notice" her brother wrote in 1818; and family details continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew's A Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biography Jane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913. The legend the family and relatives created reflects their biases in favour of "good quiet Aunt Jane", portraying a woman whose domestic situation was happy and whose family was the mainstay of her life. Austen scholar Jan Fergus explains that modern biographies tend to include details excised from the letters and family biographical materials, but that the challenge is to avoid the polarising view that Austen experienced periods of deep unhappiness and was "an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family". Life Further information: Timeline of Jane Austen Family Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected; her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother "certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago". He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as "a future companion to her sister". The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church with the single name Jane. For much of Jane's life, her father, George Austen (1731-1805), served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon and at nearby Deane. He came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances, their wealth was divided, and George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St John's College, Oxford on a fellowship, where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739-1827). She came from the prominent Leigh family; her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that he change his name to Leigh-Perrot. George and Cassandra exchanged miniatures in 1763 and probably were engaged around that time. George received the living for the Steventon parish from the wealthy husband of his second cousin, Thomas Knight, who owned Steventon and its associated farms, one of which the Austen family rented to live in. Two months after Cassandra's father died, they married on 26 April 1764 at St Swithin's Church in Bath, by licence, in a simple ceremony. They left for Hampshire the same day. Their income was modest, with George's small per annum living; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. The Austens took up temporary residence at the nearby Deane rectory until Steventon, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to three children while living at Deane: James in 1765, George in 1766, and Edward in 1767. Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby to nurse and raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon. Henry was the first child to be born there, in 1771. At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George was developmentally disabled. He was subject to seizures, may have been deaf and mute, and she chose to send him out to be fostered. In 1773, Cassandra was born, followed by Francis in 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to Honan, the atmosphere of the Austen home was an "open, amused, easy intellectual" one, where the ideas of those with whom the Austens might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members. Cassandra Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughter Eliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs Walter and her daughter Philly. Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, "the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in rural Hampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works." Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them in Bath in 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents on her return, "... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet the chaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it." Le Faye writes that "Mr Austen's predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other." From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home. The Reverend Austen had an annual income of ￡200 from his two livings. This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about ￡100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between ￡1,000 and ￡5,000. During this period of her life, Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and neighbours, and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at the assembly rooms in the town hall. Her brother Henry later said that "Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it". Education In 1783, Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Mrs Ann Cawley who took them with her to Southampton when she moved there later in the year. In the autumn both girls were sent home when they caught typhus and Austen nearly died. Austen was from then home educated, until she attended boarding school in Reading with her sister from early in 1785 at the Reading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle, who possessed a cork leg and a passion for theatre. The school curriculum probably included some French, spelling, needlework, dancing and music and, perhaps, drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family. After 1786, Austen "never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment". The remainder of her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry. Irene Collins believes that Austen "used some of the same school books as the boys" her father tutored. Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend, Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risque experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in the rectory barn, including Richard Sheridan's The Rivals (1775) and David Garrick's Bon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant. Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated. At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia (1787-1793) From the age of eleven, and perhaps earlier, Austen wrote poems and stories for her own and her family's amusement. In these works, the details of daily life are exaggerated, common plot devices are parodied, and the "stories are full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits", according to Janet Todd. Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, Austen compiled fair copies of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as the Juvenilia. She called the three notebooks "Volume the First", "Volume the Second" and "Volume the Third", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years. The Juvenilia are often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, "boisterous" and "anarchic"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century novelist Laurence Sterne. Among these works are a satirical novel in letters titled Love and Freindship , written at age fourteen in 1790, in which she mocked popular novels of sensibility. The next year she wrote The History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen's History parodied popular historical writing, particularly Oliver Goldsmith's History of England (1764). Honan speculates that not long after writing Love and Freindship , Austen decided to "write for profit, to make stories her central effort", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen started writing Catharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especially Northanger Abbey; it was left unfinished and the story picked up in Lady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring than Catharine. A year later, she began, but abandoned a short play, later titled Sir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel, The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753), by Samuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time at age eighteen, she sent new-born niece Fanny-Catherine Austen-Knight "five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'". For niece Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793) Jane Austen wrote "two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'" There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty) Austen wrote Lady Susan, a short epistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work. It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographer Claire Tomalin describes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of the Restoration dramatists who may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have been Eliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty, Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as a barrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: "I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together." Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a "very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man". Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an "offer" from her "friend" and that "I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat", going on to write "I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence" and refuse all others. The next day, Austen wrote: "The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him. The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on a great-uncle in Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again. In November 1798, Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796-1798) After finishing Lady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novel Elinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family "before 1796" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 as Sense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel, First Impressions (later published as Pride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an "established favourite". At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote to Thomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishing First Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it "Declined by Return of Post". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts. Following the completion of First Impressions, Austen returned to Elinor and Marianne and from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated the epistolary format in favour of third-person narration and produced something close to Sense and Sensibility. In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law), Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen. The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of the French Revolution that lasted for the rest of her life. Bath and Southampton In December 1800 George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4, Sydney Place in Bath. While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving from the only home she had ever known. An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived at Bath. She was able to make some revisions to Susan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel, The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795-1799. Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died. It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels. The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued. Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel. Austen sold the rights to publish Susan to a publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her ￡10. The Crosby & Company advertised Susan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons. In December 1802 Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived near Basingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance. No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal. Irvine described Bigg-Wither as a somebody who "...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece, Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that "having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection". The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had "had a very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love". A possible autobiographical element in Sense and Sensibility occurs when Elinor Dashwood contemplates that "the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novel The Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as "a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives". Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters. For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon and Godmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort of Worthing, on the Sussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage. It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy of Lady Susan and added its "Conclusion". In 1806 the family moved to Southampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move to Chawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript of Susan if needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the ￡10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time, but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809 Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage in Chawton village that was part of Edward's nearby estate, Chawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved into Chawton cottage on 7 July 1809. Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise with gentry and entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as "a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write." Published author Further information: Styles and themes of Jane Austen Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication of Persuasion and Northanger Abbey as a set. Henry Austen contributed a Biographical Note dated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as "a loving and polished eulogy". Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of what might now be called fan fiction (or real person fiction) using her as a character appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor in The Lady's Magazine. It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832 Richard Bentley purchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of his Standard Novels series. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Main article: Styles and themes of Jane Austen Reception Main articles: Reception history of Jane Austen, Janeite, and Jane Austen in popular culture Honours Austen is on the ￡10 note which was introduced in 2017, replacing Charles Darwin. List of works Novels Sense and Sensibility (1811) Pride and Prejudice (1813) Mansfield Park (1814) Emma (1815) Northanger Abbey (1818, posthumous) Persuasion (1818, posthumous) Lady Susan (1871, posthumous) Unfinished fiction The Watsons (1804) Sanditon (1817) Other works Sir Charles Grandison (adapted play) (1793, 1800) Plan of a Novel (1815) Poems (1796-1817) Prayers (1796-1817) Letters (1796-1817) Juvenilia—Volume the First (1787-1793) Frederic & Elfrida Jack & Alice Edgar & Emma Henry and Eliza The Adventures of Mr. Harley Sir William Mountague Memoirs of Mr. Clifford The Beautifull Cassandra Amelia Webster The Visit The Mystery The Three Sisters A Fragment A beautiful description The generous Curate Ode to Pity Juvenilia—Volume the Second (1787-1793) Love and Freindship Lesley Castle The History of England A Collection of Letters The female philosopher The first Act of a Comedy A Letter from a Young Lady A Tour through Wales A Tale Juvenilia—Volume the Third (1787-1793) Evelyn Catharine, or The Bower Name: Pius VII Biography: Pope Pius VII (14 August 1742 - 20 August 1823), Position: Bishop of Rome Venerated in Catholic Church Title as Saint Servant of God Attributes Papal vestments Papal tiara Pope Pius VII (14 August 1742 - 20 August 1823), born Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 14 March 1800 to his death in 1823. Chiaramonti was also a monk of the Order of Saint Benedict in addition to being a well-known theologian and bishop throughout his life. Chiaramonti was made Bishop of Tivoli in 1782, and resigned that position upon his appointment as Bishop of Imola in 1785. That same year, he was made a cardinal. In 1789, the French Revolution took place, and as a result a series of anti-clerical governments came into power in the country. In 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Rome and captured Pope Pius VI, taking him as a prisoner to France, where he died in 1799. The following year, after a sede vacante period lasting approximately six months, Chiaramonti was elected to the papacy, taking the name Pius VII. Pius at first attempted to take a cautious approach in dealing with Napoleon. With him he signed the Concordat of 1801, through which he succeeded in guaranteeing religious freedom for Catholics living in France, and was present at his coronation as Emperor of the French in 1804. In 1809, however, during the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon once again invaded the Papal States, resulting in his excommunication through the papal bull Quum memoranda. Pius VII was taken prisoner and transported to France. He remained there until 1814 when, after the French were defeated, he was permitted to return to Rome, where he was greeted warmly as a hero and defender of the faith. Pius lived the remainder of his life in relative peace. His papacy saw a significant growth of the Catholic Church in the United States, where Pius established several new dioceses. Pius VII died in 1823 at age 81. In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI began the process towards canonizing him as a saint, and he was granted the title Servant of God. Biography Early life Barnaba Niccolò Maria Luigi Chiaramonti was born in Cesena in 1742, the youngest son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti (30 April 1698 - 13 September 1750). His mother, Giovanna Coronata (d. 22 November 1777), was the daughter of the Marquess Ghini; through her, the future Pope Pius VII was related to the Braschi family of Pope Pius VI after marriage on 10 November 1713. Though his family was of noble status, they were not wealthy but rather, were of middle-class stock. His maternal grandparents were Barnaba Eufrasio Ghini and Isabella de' conti Aguselli. His paternal grandparents were Giacinto Chiaramonti (1673-1725) and Ottavia Maria Altini; his paternal great-grandparents were Scipione Chiaramonti (1642-1677) and Ottavia Maria Aldini. His paternal great-great grandparents were Chiaramonte Chiaramonti and Polissena Marescalchi. His siblings were Giacinto Ignazio (19 September 1731 - 7 June 1805), Tommaso (19 December 1732 - 8 December 1799) and Ottavia (1 June 1738 - 7 May 1814). Like his brothers, he attended the Collegio dei Nobili in Ravenna but decided to join the Order of Saint Benedict at the age of 14 on 2 October 1756 as a novice at the Abbey of Santa Maria del Monte in Cesena. Two years after this on 20 August 1758, he became a professed member and assumed the name of Gregorio. He taught at Benedictine colleges in Parma and Rome, and was ordained a priest on 21 September 1765. Episcopate and cardinalate A series of promotions resulted after his relative, Giovanni Angelo Braschi, was elected Pope Pius VI (1775-99). A few years before this election occurred, in 1773, Chiaramonti became the personal confessor to Braschi. In 1776, Pius VI appointed the 34-year-old Dom Gregory, who had been teaching at the Monastery of Sant'Anselmo in Rome, as honorary abbot in commendam of his monastery. Although this was an ancient practice, it drew complaints from the monks of the community, as monastic communities generally felt it was not in keeping with the Rule of St. Benedict. In December 1782, the pope appointed Dom Gregory as the Bishop of Tivoli, near Rome. Pius VI soon named him, in February 1785, the Cardinal-Priest of San Callisto, and as the Bishop of Imola, an office he held until 1816. When the French Revolutionary Army invaded Italy in 1797, Cardinal Chiaramonti counseled temperance and submission to the newly created Cisalpine Republic. In a letter that he addressed to the people of his diocese, Chiaramonti asked them to comply "... in the current circumstances of change of government (...)" to the authority of the victorious general Commander-in-Chief of the French army. In his Christmas homily that year, he asserted that there was no opposition between a democratic form of government and being a good Catholic: "Christian virtue makes men good democrats.... Equality is not an idea of philosophers but of Christ...and do not believe that the Catholic religion is against democracy." Papacy Election Main article: Papal conclave, 1799-1800 Following the death of Pope Pius VI, by then virtually France's prisoner, at Valence in 1799, the conclave to elect his successor met on 30 November 1799 in the Benedictine Monastery of San Giorgio in Venice. There were three main candidates, two of whom proved to be unacceptable to the Habsburgs, whose candidate, Alessandro Mattei, could not secure sufficient votes. However, Carlo Bellisomi also was a candidate, though not favoured by Austrian cardinals; a "virtual veto" was imposed against him in the name of Franz II and carried out by Cardinal Franziskus Herzan von Harras. After several months of stalemate, Jean-Sifrein Maury proposed Chiaramonti as a compromise candidate. On 14 March 1800, Chiaramonti was elected pope, certainly not the choice of die-hard opponents of the French Revolution, and took as his pontifical name Pius VII in honour of his immediate predecessor. He was crowned on 21 March, in the adjacent monastery church, by means of a rather unusual ceremony, wearing a papier-mache papal tiara. The French had seized the tiaras held by the Holy See when occupying Rome and forcing Pius VI into exile. The new pope then left for Rome, sailing on a barely seaworthy Austrian ship, the Bellona, which lacked even a galley. The twelve-day voyage ended at Pesaro and he proceeded to Rome. Negotiations and exile One of Pius VII's first acts was appointing the minor cleric Ercole Consalvi, who had performed so ably as secretary to the recent conclave, to the College of Cardinals and to the office of Cardinal Secretary of State. Consalvi immediately left for France, where he was able to negotiate the Concordat of 1801 with the First Consul Napoleon. While not effecting a return to the old Christian order, the treaty did provide certain civil guarantees to the Church, acknowledging "the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion" as that of the "majority of French citizens". The main terms of the concordat between France and the pope included: A proclamation that "Catholicism was the religion of the great majority of the French" but was not the official religion, maintaining religious freedom, in particular with respect to Protestants. The Pope had the right to depose bishops. The state would pay clerical salaries and the clergy swore an oath of allegiance to the state. The church gave up all claims to church lands that were taken after 1790. Sunday was reestablished as a "festival", effective Easter Sunday, 18 April 1802. As pope, he followed a policy of cooperation with the French-established Republic and Empire. He was present at the coronation of Napoleon I in 1804. He even participated in France's Continental Blockade of Great Britain, over the objections of his Secretary of State Consalvi, who was forced to resign. Despite this, France occupied and annexed the Papal States in 1809 and took Pius VII as their prisoner, exiling him to Savona. On 15 November 1809 Pius VII consecrated the church at La Voglina, Valenza Po, Piemonte with the intention of the villa La Voglina becoming his spiritual base whilst in exile. Unfortunately his residency was short lived once Napoleon became aware of his intentions of establishing a permanent base and he was soon exiled to France. Despite this, the pope continued to refer to Napoleon as "my dear son" but added that he was "a somewhat stubborn son, but a son still". This exile ended only when Pius VII signed the Concordat of Fontainebleau in 1813. One result of this new treaty was the release of the exiled cardinals, including Consalvi, who, upon re-joining the papal retinue, persuaded Pius VII to revoke the concessions he had made in it. This Pius VII began to do in March 1814, which led the French authorities to re-arrest many of the opposing prelates. Their confinement, however, lasted only a matter of weeks, as Napoleon abdicated on 11 April of that year. As soon as Pius VII returned to Rome, he immediately revived the Inquisition and the Index of Condemned Books. Cardinal Bartolomeo Pacca, who was kidnapped along with Pope Pius VII, took the office of Pro-Secretary of State in 1808 and maintained his memoirs during his exile. His memoirs, written originally in Italian, have been translated into English (two volumes) and describe the ups and down of their exile and the triumphant return to Rome in 1814. Pius VII's imprisonment did in fact come with one bright side for him. It gave him an aura that recognized him as a living martyr, so that when he arrived back in Rome in May 1814, he was greeted most warmly by the Italians as a hero. Relationship with Napoleon I Main article: Napoleon and the Catholic Church From the time of his election as pope to the fall of Napoleon in 1815, Pius VII's reign was completely taken up in dealing with France. He and the Emperor were continually in conflict, often involving the French military leader's wishes for concessions to his demands. Pius VII wanted his own release from exile as well as the return of the Papal States, and, later on, the release of the 13 "Black Cardinals", i.e., the cardinals, including Consalvi, who had snubbed the marriage of Napoleon to Marie Louise, believing that his previous marriage was still valid, and had been exiled and impoverished in consequence of their stand, along with several exiled or imprisoned prelates, priests, monks, nuns and other various supporters. Restoration of the Jesuits Main article: Suppression of the Society of Jesus On 7 March 1801, Pius VII issued the brief "Catholicae fidei" that approved the existence of the Society of Jesus in Russia and appointed its first superior general as Franciszek Kareu. This was the first step in the restoration of the order. On 31 July 1814, he signed the papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum which universally restored the Society of Jesus. He appointed Tadeusz Brzozowski as the Superior General of the order. Opposition to slavery Pius VII joined the declaration of the 1815 Congress of Vienna, represented by Cardinal Secretary of State Ercole Consalvi, and urged the suppression of the slave trade. This pertained particularly to places such as Spain and Portugal where slavery was economically very important. The pope wrote a letter to King Louis XVIII of France dated 20 September 1814 and to the King John VI of Portugal in 1823 to urge the end of slavery. He condemned the slave trade and defined the sale of people as an injustice to the dignity of the human person. In his letter to the King of Portugal, he wrote: "the pope regrets that this trade in blacks, that he believed having ceased, is still exercised in some regions and even more cruel way. He begs and begs the King of Portugal that it implement all its authority and wisdom to extirpate this unholy and abominable shame." Reinstitution of Jewish Ghetto Under Napoleonic rule, the Jewish Roman Ghetto had been abolished and Jews were free to live and move where they would. Following the restoration of Papal rule, Pius VII re-instituted the confinement of Jews to the Ghetto, having the doors closed at nighttime. Other activities Pius VII issued an encyclical "Diu satis" in order to advocate a return to the values of the Gospel and universalized the feast of Our Lady of Sorrows for 15 September. He condemned {{Freemason}ry} and the movement of the Carbonari in the encyclical Ecclesiam a Jesu Christo in 1821. Pius VII asserted that {Freemason}s must be excommunicated and it linked them with the Carbonari, an anti-clerical revolutionary group in Italy. All members of the Carbonari were also excommunicated. Pius VII was multilingual and had the ability to speak Italian, French, English and Latin. Cultural innovations Pius VII was a man of culture and attempted to reinvigorate Rome with archaeological excavations in Ostia which revealed ruins and icons from ancient times. He also had walls and other buildings rebuilt and restored the Arch of Titus. He ordered the construction of fountains and piazzas and erected the obelisk at Monte Pincio. The pope also made sure Rome was a place for artists and the leading artists of the time like Antonio Canova and Peter von Cornelius. He also enriched the Vatican Library with numerous manuscripts and books. It was Pius VII who adopted the yellow and white flag of the Holy See as a response to the Napoleonic invasion of 1808. Canonizations and beatifications Throughout his pontificate, Pius VII canonized a total of five saints. On 24 May 1807, Pius VII canonized Angela Merici, Benedict the Moor, Colette Boylet, Francis Caracciolo and Hyacintha Mariscotti. He beatified a total of 27 individuals including Joseph Oriol, Berardo dei Marsi, Giuseppe Maria Tomasi and Crispin of Viterbo. Consistories Pius VII created 99 cardinals in nineteen consistories including notable ecclesial figures of that time such as Ercole Consalvi, Bartolomeo Pacca, and Carlo Odescalchi. The pope also named his two immediate successors as cardinals: Annibale della Genga and Francesco Saverio Castiglioni (the latter of whom it is said Pius VII and his successor would refer to as "Pius VIII"). The possible miracle of Pius VII On 15 August 1811 - the Feast of the Assumption - it is recorded that the pope celebrated Mass and was said to have entered a trance and began to levitate in a manner that drew him to the altar. This particular episode aroused great wonder and awe among attendants which included the French soldiers guarding him who were in disbelief of what had occurred. Relationship with the United States On the United States' undertaking of the First Barbary War to suppress the Muslim Barbary pirates along the southern Mediterranean coast, ending their kidnapping of Europeans for ransom and slavery, Pius VII declared that the United States "had done more for the cause of Christianity than the most powerful nations of Christendom have done for ages." For the United States, he established several new dioceses in 1808 for Boston, New York City, Philadelphia and Bardstown. In 1821, he also established the dioceses of Charleston, Richmond and Cincinnati. Condemnation of heresy On 3 June 1816, Pius VII condemned the works of Melkite bishop Germanos Adam. Adam's writings supported conciliarism, the view that the authority of ecumenical councils was greater than that of the papacy. Death and burial In 1822, Pius VII reached his 80th birthday and his health was visibly declining. On 6 July 1823, he fractured his hip in a fall in the papal apartments and was bedridden from that point onward. In his final weeks he would often lose consciousness and would mutter the names of the cities that he had been ferried away to by the French forces. With the Cardinal Secretary of State Ercole Consalvi at his side, Pius VII died on 20 August at 5 a.m. He was briefly interred in the Vatican grottoes but was later buried in a monument in Saint Peter's Basilica after his funeral on 25 August. Beatification process An application to commence beatification proceedings were lodged to the Holy See on 10 July 2006 and received the approval of Cardinal Camillo Ruini (Vicar of Rome) who transferred the request to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints. The Congregation - on 24 February 2007 - approved the opening of the cause responding to the call of the Ligurian bishops. On 15 August 2007, the Holy See contacted the diocese of Savona-Noli with the news that Pope Benedict XVI had declared "nihil obstat" (nothing stands against) the cause of beatification of the late pontiff, thus opening the diocesan process for this pope's beatification. He now has the title of Servant of God. The official text declaring the opening of the cause was: "Summus Pontifex Benedictus XVI declarat, ex parte Sanctae Sedis, nihil obstare quominus in Causa Beatificationis et Canonizationis Servi Dei Pii Barnabae Gregorii VII Chiaramonti". Work on the cause commenced the following month in gathering documentation on the late pope. He has since been elected as the patron of the Diocese of Savona and the patron of prisoners. In late 2018 the Bishop of Savona announced that the cause for Pius VII would continue following the completion of initial preparation and investigation. The bishop named a new postulator and a diocesan tribunal which would begin work into the cause. The first postulator for the cause was Father Giovanni Farris (2007-18) and the current postulator since 2018 is Fr. Giovanni Margara. Monuments Pope Pius VII's monument (1831) in St. Peter's Basilica, adorning his tomb, was created by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Name: Joseph Biography: Joseph Bonaparte (7 January 1768 - 28 July 1844) Position: King of Spain，King of Naples House:Bonaparte Religion: Roman Catholicism Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte (born Giuseppe di Buonaparte, Italian: ; Corsican: Ghjuseppe Nabulione Bonaparte; Spanish: Jose Napoleón Bonaparte; 7 January 1768 - 28 July 1844) was a French statesman, lawyer, diplomat and older brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the Napoleonic Wars, the latter made him King of Naples (1806-1808), and then King of Spain (1808-1813). After the fall of Napoleon, Joseph styled himself Comte de Survilliers and emigrated to the United States, where he settled near Bordentown, New Jersey on an estate overlooking the Delaware River not far from Philadelphia. Early years and personal life Joseph was born in 1768 to Carlo Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino at Corte, the capital of the Corsican Republic. In the year of his birth, Corsica was invaded by France and conquered the following year. His father was originally a follower of the Corsican patriot leader, Pasquale Paoli, but later became a supporter of French rule. Bonaparte trained as a lawyer. In that role and as a politician and diplomat, he served in the Cinq-Cents and as the French ambassador to Rome. On 30 September 1800, as Minister Plenipotentiary, he signed a treaty of friendship and commerce between France and the United States at Morfontaine, alongside Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu, and Pierre Louis Roederer. In 1795 Bonaparte was a member of the Council of Ancients. Four years later, he used this position to help his brother Napoleon to overthrow the Directory. The Chateau de Villandry had been seized by the French Revolutionary government. In the early 19th century, his brother as Emperor Napoleon acquired the chateau for him. King of Naples Main articles: Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic) and Invasion of Naples (1806) Upon the outbreak of war between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand IV of Naples had agreed a treaty of neutrality with Napoleon but, a few days later, declared his support for Austria. He permitted a large Anglo-Russian force to land in his kingdom. Napoleon, however, was soon victorious. After the War of the Third Coalition was shattered on 5 December at the Battle of Austerlitz, Ferdinand was subject to Napoleon's wrath. On 27 December 1805, Napoleon issued a proclamation from the Sch?nbrunn declaring Ferdinand to have forfeited his kingdom. He said that a French invasion would soon follow to ensure 'that the finest of countries is relieved from the yoke of the most faithless of men.' On 31 December Napoleon commanded Joseph Bonaparte to move to Rome, where he would be assigned to command the army sent to dispossess Ferdinand of his throne. Although Bonaparte was the nominal commander-in-chief of the expedition, Marshal Massena was in effective command of operations, with General St. Cyr second. But, St. Cyr, who had previously held the senior command of French troops in the region, soon resigned in protest at being made subordinate to Massena and left for Paris. An outraged Napoleon ordered St. Cyr to return to his post at once. On 8 February 1806 the French invasion force of forty-thousand men crossed into Naples. The centre and right of the army under Massena and General Reynier advanced south from Rome, while Giuseppe Lechi led a force down the Adriatic coast from Ancona. On his brother's recommendation, Bonaparte attached himself to Reynier. The French advance faced little resistance. Even before any French troops had crossed the border, the Anglo-Russian forces had beaten a prudent retreat, the British withdrawing to Sicily, and the Russians to Corfu. Abandoned by his allies, King Ferdinand had also already set sail for Palermo on 23 January. Queen Maria-Carolina lingered a little longer in the capital but, on 11 February, fled to join her husband. The first obstacle the French encountered was the fortress of Gaeta; its governor, Prince Louis of Hesse-Philippsthal, refused to surrender his charge. There was no meaningful delay of the invaders, as Massena detached a small force to besiege the garrison before continuing south. Capua opened its gates after only token resistance. On 14 February Massena took possession of Naples and, the following day, Bonaparte staged a triumphant entrance into the city. Reynier was quickly dispatched to seize control of the Strait of Messina and, on 9 March, inflicted a crushing defeat of the Neapolitan Royal Army at the Battle of Campo Tenese, effectively destroying it as a fighting force and securing the entire mainland for the French. On 30 March 1806 Napoleon issued a decree installing Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples and Sicily; the decree said as follows: "Napoleon, by the Grace of God and the constitutions. Emperor of the French and King of Italy, to all those to whom these presents come, greetings. The interests of our people, the honour of our Crown, and the tranquillity of the Continent of Europe requiring that we should assure, in a stable and definite manner, the lot of the people of Naples and of Sicily, who have fallen into our power by the right of conquest, and who constitute a part of the Grand Empire, we declare that we recognise, as King of Naples and of Sicily, our well-beloved brother, Joseph Napoleon, Grand Elector of France. This Crown will be hereditary, by order of primogeniture, in his descendants male, legitimate, and natural, etc." Joseph's arrival in Naples was warmly greeted with cheers and he was eager to be a monarch well liked by his subjects. Seeking to win the favour of the local elites, he maintained in their posts the vast majority of those who had held office and position under the Bourbons and was anxious to not in any way appear a foreign oppressor. With a provisional government set up in the capital, Joseph then immediately set off, accompanied by General Lamarque, on a tour of his new realm. The principal object of the tour was to assess the feasibility of an immediate invasion of Sicily and the expulsion of Ferdinand and Maria-Carolina from their refuge in Palermo. But, upon reviewing the situation at the Strait of Messina, Joseph was forced to admit the impossibility of such an enterprise, the Bourbons having carried off all boats and transports from along the coast and concentrated their remaining forces, alongside the British, on the opposite side. Unable to possess himself of Sicily, Joseph was nevertheless master of the mainland and he continued his progress through Calabria and on to Lucania and Apulia, visiting the main villages and meeting the local notables, clergy and people, allowing his people to grow accustomed to their new king and enabling himself to form first-hand a picture of the condition of his kingdom. Upon returning to Naples, Bonaparte received a deputation from the French Senate congratulating him upon his accession. The King formed a ministry staffed by many competent and talented men; he was determined to follow a reforming agenda and bring Naples the benefits of the French Revolution, without its excesses. Saliceti was appointed Minister of Police, Roederer Minister of Finance, Miot Minister of the Interior and General Dumas Minister of War. Marshal Jourdan was also confirmed as Governor of Naples, an appointment made by Napoleon, and served as Bonaparte's foremost military adviser. Bonaparte embarked on an ambitious programme of reform and regeneration, in order to raise Naples to the level of a modern state in the mould of Napoleonic France. Monastic orders were suppressed, their property nationalised, and their funds confiscated to steady the royal finances. Feudal privileges and taxes were abolished; however, the nobility was compensated by an indemnity in the form of a certificate that could be exchanged in return for lands nationalised from the Church. Provincial intendants were instructed to engage those dispossessed former monks who were willing to work in public education, and to ensure that elderly monks no longer able to support themselves could move into communal establishments founded for their care. A college for the education of young girls was established in each province. A central college was founded at Aversa for the daughters of public functionaries, and the ablest from the provincial schools, to be admitted under the personal patronage of Queen Julie. The practice of forcibly recruiting prisoners into the army was abolished. To suppress and control robbers in the mountains, military commissions were established with the power to judge and execute, without appeal, all those brigands arrested with arms in their possession. Public works programmes were begun to provide employment to the poor and invest in improvements to the kingdom. Highways were built to Reggio. The project of a Calabrian road was completed under Bonaparte within the year after decades of delay. In the second year of his reign, Bonaparte installed the first system of public street-lighting in Naples, modelled on that operating in Paris. Although the kingdom was not at that time furnished with a constitution, and thus Joseph's will as monarch reigned supreme, there is yet no instance of him ever adopting a measure of policy without prior discussion of the matter in the Council of State and the passing of a majority vote in favour his course of action by the counsellors. Joseph thus presided over Naples in the best traditions of Enlightened absolutism, doubling the revenue of the crown from seven to fourteen million ducats in his brief two-year reign while all the time seeking to lighten the burdens of his people rather than increase them. Joseph ruled Naples for two years before being replaced by his sister's husband, Joachim Murat. Joseph was then made King of Spain in August 1808, soon after the French invasion. King of Spain Main articles: Spain under Joseph Bonaparte, Peninsular War, and Bayonne Constitution Joseph somewhat reluctantly left Naples, where he was popular, and arrived in Spain, where he was extremely unpopular. Joseph came under heavy fire from his opponents in Spain, who tried to smear his reputation by calling him Pepe Botella (Joe Bottle) for his alleged heavy drinking, an accusation echoed by later Spanish historiography, despite the fact that Joseph was abstemious. His arrival sparked a Spanish revolt against French rule, and the beginning of the Peninsular War. Thompson says the Spanish revolt was, "a reaction against new institutions and ideas, a movement for loyalty to the old order: to the hereditary crown of the Most Catholic kings, which Napoleon, an excommunicated enemy of the Pope, had put on the head of a Frenchman; to the Catholic Church persecuted by republicans who had desecrated churches, murdered priests, and enforced a "loi des cultes" (law of religion); and to local and provincial rights and privileges threatened by an efficiently centralized government. Joseph temporarily retreated with much of the French Army to northern Spain. Feeling himself in an ignominious position, Joseph then proposed his own abdication from the Spanish throne, hoping that Napoleon would sanction his return to the Neapolitan Throne he had formerly occupied. Napoleon dismissed Joseph's misgivings out of hand, and to back up the raw and ill-trained levies he had initially allocated to Spain, the Emperor sent heavy French reinforcements to assist Joseph in maintaining his position as King of Spain. Despite the easy recapture of Madrid, and nominal control by Joseph's government over many cities and provinces, Joseph's reign over Spain was always tenuous at best, and constantly resisted by pro-Bourbon guerrillas. Joseph and his supporters never established complete control over the country. King Joseph's Spanish supporters were called josefinos or afrancesados (frenchified). During his reign, he ended the Spanish Inquisition, partly because Napoleon was at odds with Pope Pius VII at the time. Despite such efforts to win popularity, Joseph's foreign birth and support, plus his membership of a Masonic lodge, virtually guaranteed he would never be accepted as legitimate by the bulk of the Spanish people. During Joseph's rule of Spain, Venezuela declared independence from Spain. The king had virtually no influence over the course of the ongoing Peninsular War: Joseph's nominal command of French forces in Spain was mostly illusory, as the French commanders theoretically subordinate to King Joseph insisted on checking with Napoleon before carrying out Joseph's instructions. King Joseph abdicated and returned to France after the main French forces were defeated by a British-led coalition at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. During the closing campaign of the War of the Sixth Coalition Napoleon left his brother to govern Paris with the title Lieutenant General of the Empire. As a result, he was again in nominal command of the French Army at the Battle of Paris. He was seen by Bonapartists as the rightful Emperor of the French after the death of Napoleon's own son Napoleon II in 1832, although he did little to advance his claim. Later life in the United States & Europe In the period 1817-1832, Bonaparte lived primarily in the United States (where he sold the jewels he had taken from Spain). He first settled in New York City and Philadelphia, where his house became the centre of activity for French expatriates. In 1823, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. Later he purchased an estate, called Point Breeze and formerly owned by Stephen Sayre. It was in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the east side of the Delaware River. It was located near the confluence of Crosswicks Creek and the Delaware. He considerably expanded Sayre's home and created extensive gardens in the picturesque style. When his first home was destroyed by fire in January 1820 he converted his stables into a second grand house. On completion, it was generally viewed - perhaps diplomatically - as the "second-finest house in America" after the White House. At Point Breeze, Bonaparte entertained many of the leading intellectuals and politicians of his day. In the summer of 1825, the Quaker scientist Reuben Haines III described Bonaparte's estate at Point Breeze, in a letter to his cousin: "I partook of royal fare on solid silver and attended by six waiters who supplied me with 9 courses of the most delicious viands, many of which I could not possibly tell what they were composed of; spending the intermediate time in Charles' private rooms looking over the Herbarium and Portfolios of the Princess, or riding with her and the Prince drawn by two Elegant Horses along the ever varying roads of the park amidst splendid Rhododendrons on the margin of the artificial lake on whose smooth surface gently glided the majestic European swans. Stopping to visit the Aviary enlivened by the most beautiful English pheasants, passing by alcoves ornamented with statues and busts of Parian marble, our course enlivened by the footsteps of the tame deer and the flight of the Woodcock, and when alighting stopping to admire the graceful form of two splendid Etruscan vases of Porphyry 3 ft. high & 2 in diameter presented by the Queen of Sweden or ranging through the different appartments of the mansion through a suite of rooms 15 ft. in decorated with the finest productions of the pencils of Coregeo ! Titian! Rubens! Vandyke! Vernet! Tenniers and Paul Potter and a library of the most splended books I ever beheld." Reputedly some Mexican revolutionaries offered to crown Bonaparte as Emperor of Mexico in 1820, but he declined. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. In 1832, Bonaparte moved to London, returning to his estate in the United States only intermittently. In 1844, he died in Florence, Italy. Bonaparte's body was returned to France and buried in Les Invalides, in Paris. Family Bonaparte married Marie Julie Clary, daughter of Fran?ois Clary and his wife, on 1 August 1794 in Cuges-les-Pins, France. They had three daughters: Julie Josephine Bonaparte (29 February 1796 - 6 June 1797). Zena?de Laetitia Julie Bonaparte (8 July 1801 - 1854); married in 1822 to Charles Lucien Bonaparte. Charlotte Napoleone Bonaparte (31 October 1802 - 2 March 1839); married in 1826 to Napoleon Louis Bonaparte. He identified the two surviving daughters as his heirs. He also fathered two children with Maria Giulia Colonna, the Countess of Atri: Giulio (1806-1838) Teresa (1808-died in infancy). Bonaparte had two American daughters born at Point Breeze, his estate in Bordentown, New Jersey, by his mistress, Annette Savage ("Madame de la Folie"): Pauline Anne; died young. Catherine Charlotte (1822-1890); married Col. Zebulon Howell Benton of Jefferson County, New York, and had four daughters and three sons. Son Louis Joseph Benton (1848-1940) had one son, Frederick Joseph Benton (1901-1967). {{Freemason}ry} Joseph Bonaparte was admitted to Marseille's lodge la Parfaite Sincerite in 1793. He was asked by his brother Napoleon to monitor {{Freemason}ry} as Grand Master of the Grand Orient of France (1804-1815). With Cambacerès, he encouraged the post-Revolution rebirth of the {{Freemason}ry} Order in France. Legacy Joseph Bonaparte Gulf in the Northern Territory of Australia is named after him. Lake Bonaparte, located in the town of Diana, New York, United States, is also named after him. Representation in other media A main character in the play Golden Boy (1937), by Clifford Odets, is named Joe Bonaparte. The romantic web among Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Julie Clary and Desiree Clary was the subject of the novel Desiree (1951), by Annemarie Selinko. The novel was adapted as a film of the same name, Desiree (1954), with Marlon Brando as Napoleon, Jean Simmons as Desiree, and Cameron Mitchell as Joseph Bonaparte. In Thomas B. Costain's historical novel The Tontine, (1955), he describes a visit by one of his protagonists to Joseph Bonaparte's estate Point Breeze in Bordentown, New Jersey. The character was involved there in some minor Napoleonic intrigue. Name: LaFayette Biography: Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette(6 September 1757 - 20 May 1834) Nickname(s) : The Hero of the Two Worlds (Le Heros des Deux Mondes) Allegiance: Kingdom of France (1771-1777, 1781-1791)，United States (1777-1781)，Kingdom of France (1791-1792)，French First Republic (1792)，Kingdom of France (1830) Branch/service: French Army，Continental Army，National Guard (France) Rank: Major general (U.S.)，Lieutenant general (France) Battles/wars : American Revolutionary WarBattle of BrandywineBattle of Gloucester Valley ForgeBattle of Barren HillBattle of Rhode IslandBattle of MonmouthBattle of Green SpringSiege of YorktownFrench RevolutionThe March on VersaillesDay of DaggersChamp de Mars massacreWar of the First CoalitionJuly Revolution Awards: Order of Saint Louis Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (6 September 1757 - 20 May 1834), known in the United States as Lafayette (/?lɑ?fi???t, ?l?f-/, French: ), was a French aristocrat and military officer who fought in the American Revolutionary War, commanding American troops in several battles, including the siege of Yorktown. After returning to France, he was a key figure in the French Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of 1830. He has been considered a national hero in both countries. Lafayette was born into a wealthy land-owning family in Chavaniac in the province of Auvergne in south central France. He followed the family's martial tradition and was commissioned an officer at age 13. He became convinced that the American revolutionary cause was noble, and he traveled to the New World seeking glory in it. He was made a major general at age 19, but he was initially not given American troops to command. He was wounded during the Battle of Brandywine but still managed to organize an orderly retreat, and he served with distinction in the Battle of Rhode Island. In the middle of the war, he sailed for home to lobby for an increase in French support. He returned to America in 1780 and was given senior positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troops under his command in Virginia blocked forces led by Cornwallis until other American and French forces could position themselves for the decisive siege of Yorktown. Lafayette returned to France and was appointed to the Assembly of Notables in 1787, convened in response to the fiscal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates General of 1789, where representatives met from the three traditional orders of French society: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. After forming the National Constituent Assembly, he helped to write the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen with Thomas Jefferson's assistance. This document was inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence and invoked natural law to establish basic principles of the democratic nation-state. He also advocated the end of slavery, in keeping with the philosophy of natural rights. After the storming of the Bastille, he was appointed commander-in-chief of France's National Guard and tried to steer a middle course through the years of revolution. In August 1792, radical factions ordered his arrest, and he fled into the Austrian Netherlands. He was captured by Austrian troops and spent more than five years in prison. Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonaparte secured his release in 1797, though he refused to participate in Napoleon's government. After the Bourbon Restoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies, a position which he held for most of the remainder of his life. In 1824, President James Monroe invited him to the United States as the nation's guest, where he visited all 24 states in the union and met a rapturous reception. During France's July Revolution of 1830, he declined an offer to become the French dictator. Instead, he supported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against him when the monarch became autocratic. He died on 20 May 1834 and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris, under soil from Bunker Hill. He is sometimes known as "The Hero of the Two Worlds" for his accomplishments in the service of both France and the United States. Early life Further information: House of La Fayette Departure from France Finding a cause After the marriage contract was signed in 1773, Lafayette lived with his young wife in his father-in-law's house in Versailles. He continued his education, both at the riding school Versailles (his fellow students included the future Charles X) and at the prestigious Academie de Versailles. He was given a commission as a lieutenant in the Noailles Dragoons in April 1773, the transfer from the royal regiment being done at the request of Lafayette's father-in-law. In 1775, Lafayette took part in his unit's annual training in Metz, where he met Charles-Fran?ois de Broglie, Marquis de Ruffec, the Army of the East's commander. At dinner, both men discussed the ongoing revolt against British rule by Britain's North American colonies. One historiographical perspective suggests that the marquis was disposed to hate the British for killing his father, and felt that a British defeat would diminish that nation's stature internationally. Another notes that the marquis had recently become a {Freemason}, and talk of the rebellion "fired his chivalric—and now Masonic—imagination with descriptions of Americans as 'people fighting for liberty'". In September 1775, when Lafayette turned 18, he returned to Paris and received the captaincy in the Dragoons he had been promised as a wedding present. In December, his first child, Henriette, was born. During these months, Lafayette became convinced that the American Revolution reflected his own beliefs, saying "My heart was dedicated." The year 1776 saw delicate negotiations between American agents, including Silas Deane, and Louis XVI and his foreign minister, Comte Charles de Vergennes. The king and his minister hoped that by supplying the Americans with arms and officers, they might restore French influence in North America, and exact revenge against Britain for the loss in the Seven Years' War. When Lafayette heard that French officers were being sent to America, he demanded to be among them. He met Deane, and gained inclusion despite his youth. On 7 December 1776, Deane enlisted Lafayette as a major general. The plan to send French officers (as well as other aid) to America came to nothing when the British heard of it and threatened war. Lafayette's father-in-law, de Noailles, scolded the young man and told him to go to London and visit the Marquis de Noailles, the ambassador to Britain and Lafayette's uncle by marriage, which he did in February 1777. In the interim, he did not abandon his plans to go to America. Lafayette was presented to George III, and spent three weeks in London society. On his return to France, he went into hiding from his father-in-law (and superior officer), writing to him that he was planning to go to America. De Noailles was furious, and convinced Louis to issue a decree forbidding French officers from serving in America, specifically naming Lafayette. Vergennes may have persuaded the king to order Lafayette's arrest, though this is uncertain. Departure for America Lafayette learned that the Continental Congress lacked funds for his voyage, so he bought the sailing ship Victoire with his own money for 112,000 pounds. He journeyed to Bordeaux, where Victoire was being prepared for her trip, and he sent word asking for information on his family's reaction. The response threw him into emotional turmoil, including letters from his wife and other relatives. Soon after departure, he ordered the ship turned around and returned to Bordeaux, to the frustration of the officers traveling with him. The army commander there ordered Lafayette to report to his father-in-law's regiment in Marseilles. De Broglie hoped to become a military and political leader in America, and he met with Lafayette in Bordeaux and convinced him that the government actually wanted him to go. This was not true, though there was considerable public support for Lafayette in Paris, where the American cause was popular. Lafayette wanted to believe it, and pretended to comply with the order to report to Marseilles, going only a few kilometres east before turning around and returning to his ship. Victoire set sail out of Pauillac on the shores of the Girondin on 25 March 1777. However, Lafayette was not onboard in order to avoid being identified by English spies and the king of France; the vessel moored in Pasaia on the Basque coast, and was supplied with 5,000 rifles and ammunition from the factories in Gipuzkoa. He joined the Victoire, departing to America on 26 April 1777. The two-month journey to the New World was marked by seasickness and boredom. The ship's captain Lebourcier intended to stop in the West Indies to sell cargo, but Lafayette was fearful of arrest, so he bought the cargo to avoid docking at the islands. He landed on North Island near Georgetown, South Carolina on 13 June 1777. American Revolution Main articles: Franco-American alliance and France in the American Revolutionary War Brandywine, Valley Forge, and Albany Further information: Battle of Brandywine and Valley Forge Barren Hill, Monmouth, and Rhode Island Further information: Battle of Barren Hill, Battle of Monmouth, and Battle of Rhode Island Return to France Lafayette reached Paris in February 1779 where he was placed under house arrest for eight days for disobeying the king by going to America. This was merely face-saving by Louis XVI; Lafayette was given a hero's welcome and was soon invited to hunt with the king. The American envoy was ill, so Benjamin Franklin's grandson William Temple Franklin presented Lafayette with the gold-encrusted sword commissioned by the Continental Congress. Lafayette pushed for an invasion of Britain, with himself to have a major command in the French forces. Spain was now France's ally against Britain and sent ships to the English Channel in support. The Spanish ships did not arrive until August 1779 and were met by a faster squadron of British ships that the combined French and Spanish fleet could not catch. In September, the invasion was abandoned, and Lafayette turned his hopes toward returning to America. In December 1779, Adrienne gave birth to Georges Washington Lafayette. Lafayette worked with Benjamin Franklin to secure the promise of 6,000 soldiers to be sent to America, commanded by General Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau. Lafayette would resume his position as a major general of American forces, serving as liaison between Rochambeau and Washington, who would be in command of both nations' forces. In March 1780, he departed from Rochefort for America aboard the frigate Hermione, arriving in Boston on 27 April 1780. Second voyage to America On his return, Lafayette found the American cause at a low ebb, rocked by several military defeats, especially in the south. Lafayette was greeted in Boston with enthusiasm, seen as "a knight in shining armor from the chivalric past, come to save the nation". He journeyed southwest and on 10 May 1780 had a joyous reunion with Washington at Morristown, New Jersey. The general and his officers were delighted to hear that the large French force promised to Lafayette would be coming to their aid. Washington, aware of Lafayette's popularity, had him write (with Alexander Hamilton to correct his spelling) to state officials to urge them to provide more troops and provisions to the Continental Army. This bore fruit in the coming months, as Lafayette awaited the arrival of the French fleet. However, when the fleet arrived, there were fewer men and supplies than expected, and Rochambeau decided to wait for reinforcements before seeking battle with the British. This was unsatisfactory to Lafayette, who proposed a grandiose schemes for the taking of New York City and other areas, and Rochambeau briefly refused to receive Lafayette until the young man apologized. Washington counseled the marquis to be patient. That summer Washington placed Lafayette in charge of a division of troops. The marquis spent lavishly on his command, which patrolled Northern New Jersey and adjacent New York State. Lafayette saw no significant action, and in November, Washington disbanded the division, sending the soldiers back to their state regiments. The war continued badly for the Americans, with most battles in the south going against them, and General Benedict Arnold abandoning them for the British side. Lafayette spent the first part of the winter of 1780-81 in Philadelphia, where the American Philosophical Society elected him its first foreign member. Congress asked him to return to France to lobby for more men and supplies, but Lafayette refused, sending letters instead. After the Continental victory at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina in January 1781, Washington ordered Lafayette to re-form his force in Philadelphia and go south to Virginia to link up with troops commanded by Baron von Steuben. The combined force was to try to trap British forces commanded by Benedict Arnold, with French ships preventing his escape by sea. If Lafayette was successful, Arnold was to be summarily hanged. British command of the seas prevented the plan, though Lafayette and a small part of his force (the rest left behind in Annapolis) was able to reach von Steuben in Yorktown, Virginia. Von Steuben sent a plan to Washington, proposing to use land forces and French ships to trap the main British force under Lord Cornwallis. When he received no new orders from Washington, Lafayette began to move his troops north toward Philadelphia, only to be ordered to Virginia to assume military command there. An outraged Lafayette assumed he was being abandoned in a backwater while decisive battles took place elsewhere, and objected to his orders in vain. He also sent letters to the Chevalier de la Luzerne, French ambassador in Philadelphia, describing how ill-supplied his troops were. As Lafayette hoped, la Luzerne sent his letter on to France with a recommendation of massive French aid, which, after being approved by the king, would play a crucial part in the battles to come. Washington, fearing a letter might be captured by the British, could not tell Lafayette that he planned to trap Cornwallis in a decisive campaign. Virginia and Yorktown Further information: Yorktown campaign and Siege of Yorktown Hero of two worlds Yorktown was the last major land battle of the American Revolution, but the British still held several major port cities. Lafayette wanted to lead expeditions to capture them, but Washington felt that he would be more useful seeking additional naval support from France. Congress appointed him its advisor to America's envoys in Europe, Benjamin Franklin in Paris, John Jay in Madrid, and John Adams in The Hague, instructing them "to communicate and agree on everything with him". Congress also sent Louis XVI an official letter of commendation on the marquis's behalf. Lafayette left Boston for France on 18 December 1781 where he was welcomed as a hero, and he was received at the Palace of Versailles on 22 January 1782. He witnessed the birth of his daughter, whom he named Marie-Antoinette Virginie upon Thomas Jefferson's recommendation. He was promoted to marechal de camp, skipping numerous ranks, and he was made a Knight of the Order of Saint Louis. He worked on a combined French and Spanish expedition against the British West Indies in 1782, as no formal peace treaty had yet been signed. The Treaty of Paris was signed between Great Britain and the United States in 1783, which made the expedition unnecessary; Lafayette took part in those negotiations. Lafayette worked with Jefferson to establish trade agreements between the United States and France which aimed to reduce America's debt to France. He joined the French abolitionist group Society of the Friends of the Blacks which advocated the end of the slave trade and equal rights for free blacks. He urged the emancipation of slaves and their establishment as tenant farmers in a 1783 letter to Washington, who was a slave owner. Washington declined to free his slaves, though he expressed interest in the young man's ideas, and Lafayette purchased a plantation in French Guiana to house the project. Lafayette visited America in 1784-1785 where he enjoyed an enthusiastic welcome, visiting all the states. The trip included a visit to Washington's farm at Mount Vernon on 17 August. He addressed the Virginia House of Delegates where he called for "liberty of all mankind" and urged emancipation of slaves, and he urged the Pennsylvania Legislature to help form a federal union (the states were then bound by the Articles of Confederation). He visited the Mohawk Valley in New York to participate in peace negotiations with the Iroquois, some of whom he had met in 1778. He received an honorary degree from Harvard, a portrait of Washington from the city of Boston, and a bust from the state of Virginia. Maryland's legislature honored him by making him and his male heirs "natural born Citizens" of the state, which made him a natural-born citizen of the United States after the 1789 ratification of the Constitution. Lafayette later boasted that he had become an American citizen before the concept of French citizenship existed. Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Virginia also granted him citizenship. Lafayette made the H?tel de La Fayette in Paris's rue de Bourbon the headquarters of Americans there. Benjamin Franklin, John and Sarah Jay, and John and Abigail Adams met there every Monday and dined in company with Lafayette's family and the liberal nobility, including Clermont-Tonnerre and Madame de Sta?l. Lafayette continued to work on lowering trade barriers in France to American goods, and on assisting Franklin and Jefferson in seeking treaties of amity and commerce with European nations. He also sought to correct the injustices that Huguenots in France had endured since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes a century before. French Revolution Assembly of Notables and Estates-General Main articles: Assembly of Notables and Estates-General of 1789 National Guard, Versailles, and Day of Daggers Flight to Varennes Champs de Mars massacre Conflict and exile Prisoner Retreat from politics Bourbon restoration In 1814, the coalition that opposed Napoleon invaded France and restored the monarchy; the comte de Provence (brother of the executed Louis XVI) took the throne as Louis XVIII. Lafayette was received by the new king, but the staunch republican opposed the new, highly restrictive franchise for the Chamber of Deputies that granted the vote to only 90,000 men in a nation of 25 million. Lafayette did not stand for election in 1814, remaining at La Grange. There was discontent in France among demobilized soldiers and others. Napoleon had been exiled only as far as Elba, an island in the Tuscan archipelago; seeing an opportunity, he landed at Cannes on 1 March 1815 with a few hundred followers. Frenchmen flocked to his banner, and he took Paris later that month, causing Louis to flee to Ghent. Lafayette refused Napoleon's call to serve in the new government, but accepted election to the new Chamber of Representatives under the Charter of 1815. There, after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, Lafayette called for his abdication. Responding to the emperor's brother Lucien, Lafayette argued: By what right do you dare accuse the nation of ... want of perseverance in the emperor's interest? The nation has followed him on the fields of Italy, across the sands of Egypt and the plains of Germany, across the frozen deserts of Russia. ... The nation has followed him in fifty battles, in his defeats and in his victories, and in doing so we have to mourn the blood of three million Frenchmen. On 22 June 1815, four days after Waterloo, Napoleon abdicated. Lafayette arranged for the former emperor's passage to America, but the British prevented this, and Napoleon ended his days on the island of Saint Helena. The Chamber of Representatives, before it dissolved, appointed Lafayette to a peace commission that was ignored by the victorious allies who occupied much of France, with the Prussians taking over La Grange as a headquarters. Once the Prussians left in late 1815, Lafayette returned to his house, a private citizen again. Lafayette's homes, both in Paris and at La Grange, were open to any Americans who wished to meet the hero of their Revolution, and to many other people besides. Among those whom Irish novelist Sydney, Lady Morgan met at table during her month-long stay at La Grange in 1818 were the Dutch painter Ary Scheffer and the historian Augustin Thierry, who sat alongside American tourists. Others who visited included philosopher Jeremy Bentham, American scholar George Ticknor, and writer Fanny Wright. During the first decade of the Bourbon Restoration, Lafayette lent his support to a number of conspiracies in France and other European countries, all of which came to nothing. He was involved in the various Charbonnier plots, and agreed to go to the city of Belfort, where there was a garrison of French troops, and assume a major role in the revolutionary government. Warned that the royal government had found out about the conspiracy, he turned back on the road to Belfort, avoiding overt involvement. More successfully, he supported the Greek Revolution beginning in 1821, and by letter attempted to persuade American officials to ally with the Greeks. Louis' government considered arresting both Lafayette and Georges Washington, who was also involved in the Greek efforts, but were wary of the political ramifications if they did. Lafayette remained a member of the restored Chamber of Deputies until 1823, when new plural voting rules helped defeat his bid for re-election. Grand tour of the United States Main article: Visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the United States Revolution of 1830 Main article: July Revolution Final years and death Beliefs Lafayette was a firm believer in a constitutional monarchy. He believed that traditional and revolutionary ideals could be melded together by having a democratic National Assembly work with a monarch, as France always had. His close relationships to American Founding Fathers such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson gave him the ability to witness the implementation of a democratic system. His views on potential government structures for France were directly influenced by the American form of government, which was in turn influenced by the British form of government. For example, Lafayette believed in a bicameral legislature, as the United States had. The Jacobins, however, detested the idea of a monarchy in France, which led the National Assembly to vote against it. This idea contributed to his fall from favor, especially when Maximilien Robespierre took power. Lafayette was the author of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 and a staunch opponent of slavery. His work never specifically mentioned slavery, but he made his position clear on the controversial topic through letters addressed to friends and colleagues such as Washington and Jefferson. He proposed that slaves not be owned but rather work as free tenants on the land of plantation owners, and he bought a plantation in the French colony of Cayenne in 1785 to put his ideas into practice, ordering that no slaves be bought or sold. He spent his lifetime as an abolitionist, proposing that slaves be emancipated slowly and recognizing the crucial role that slavery played in many economies. Lafayette hoped that his ideas would be adopted by Washington in order to free the slaves in the United States and spread from there, and his efforts were not in vain, as Washington eventually began implementing those practices on his own plantation in Mount Vernon—though he freed no slaves in his lifetime. Lafayette's grandson Gustave de Beaumont later wrote a novel discussing the issues of racism. Lafayette played a significant role in the abolition of slavery in France in 1794, as riots had erupted in Haiti because of the circulation two years earlier of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Assessment Further information: Honors and memorials to the Marquis de Lafayette Throughout his life, Lafayette was an exponent of the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, especially on human rights and civic nationalism, and his views were taken very seriously by intellectuals and others on both sides of the Atlantic. His image in the United States was derived from his "disinterestedness" in fighting without pay for the freedom of a country that was not his own. Samuel Adams praised him for "foregoing the pleasures of Enjoyment of domestick Life and exposing himself to the Hardship and Dangers" of war when he fought "in the glorious cause of freedom". This view was shared by many contemporaries, establishing an image of Lafayette seeking to advance the freedom of all mankind rather than the interests of just one nation. During the French Revolution, Americans viewed him as an advocate for American ideals, seeking to transport them from New World to Old. This was reinforced by his position as surrogate son and disciple of George Washington, who was deemed the Father of His Country and the embodiment of American ideals. Novelist James Fenimore Cooper befriended Lafayette during his time in Paris in the 1820s. He admired his patrician liberalism and eulogized him as a man who "dedicated youth, person, and fortune to the principles of liberty." Lafayette became an American icon in part because he was not associated with any particular region of the country; he was of foreign birth, did not live in America, and had fought in New England, the mid-Atlantic states, and the South, making him a unifying figure. His role in the French Revolution enhanced this popularity, as Americans saw him steering a middle course. Americans were naturally sympathetic to a republican cause, but also remembered Louis XVI as an early friend of the United States. When Lafayette fell from power in 1792, Americans tended to blame factionalism for the ouster of a man who was above such things in their eyes. In 1824, Lafayette returned to the United States at a time when Americans were questioning the success of the republic in view of the disastrous economic Panic of 1819 and the sectional conflict resulting in the Missouri Compromise. Lafayette's hosts considered him a judge of how successful independence had become. According to cultural historian Lloyd Kramer, Lafayette "provided foreign confirmations of the self-image that shaped America's national identity in the early nineteenth century and that has remained a dominant theme in the national ideology ever since: the belief that America's Founding Fathers, institutions, and freedom created the most democratic, egalitarian, and prosperous society in the world". Historian Gilbert Chinard wrote in 1936: "Lafayette became a legendary figure and a symbol so early in his life, and successive generations have so willingly accepted the myth, that any attempt to deprive the young hero of his republican halo will probably be considered as little short of iconoclastic and sacrilegious." That legend has been used politically; the name and image of Lafayette were repeatedly invoked in 1917 to gain popular support for America's entry into World War I, culminating with Charles E. Stanton's famous statement "Lafayette, we are here". This occurred at some cost to Lafayette's image in America; veterans returned from the front singing "We've paid our debt to Lafayette, who the hell do we owe now?" According to Anne C. Loveland, "Lafayette no longer served as a national hero-symbol" by the end of the war. In 2002, however, Congress voted to grant him honorary citizenship. Lafayette's reputation in France is more problematic. Thomas Gaines notes that the response to Lafayette's death was far more muted in France than in America, and suggested that this may have been because Lafayette was the last surviving hero of America's only revolution, whereas the changes in the French government had been far more chaotic. Lafayette's roles created a more nuanced picture of him in French historiography, especially in the French Revolution. 19th-century historian Jules Michelet describes him as a "mediocre idol", lifted by the mob far beyond what his talents deserved. Jean Tulard, Jean-Fran?ois Fayard, and Alfred Fierro note Napoleon's deathbed comment about Lafayette in their Histoire et dictionnaire de la Revolution fran?aise; he stated that "the king would still be sitting on his throne" if Napoleon had Lafayette's place during the French Revolution. They deemed Lafayette "an empty-headed political dwarf" and "one of the people most responsible for the destruction of the French monarchy". Gaines disagreed and noted that liberal and Marxist historians have also dissented from that view. Lloyd Kramer related 57 percent of the French deemed Lafayette the figure from the Revolution whom they most admired, in a survey taken just before the Revolution's bicentennial in 1989. Lafayette "clearly had more French supporters in the early 1990s than he could muster in the early 1790s". Marc Leepson concluded his study of Lafayette's life: The Marquis de Lafayette was far from perfect. He was sometimes vain, naive, immature, and egocentric. But he consistently stuck to his ideals, even when doing so endangered his life and fortune. Those ideals proved to be the founding principles of two of the world's most enduring nations, the United States and France. That is a legacy that few military leaders, politicians, or statesmen can match. Name: Caulaincourt Biography: Armand-Augustin-Louis de Caulaincourt Position: Aide-de-camp to Napoleon and notable ambassador to Moscow Allegiance: Kingdom of France，Kingdom of the French，French First Republic，First French Empire，Bourbon Restoration (1814-1815) Branch/service: French Army Rank: General of Division Battles/wars: French Revolutionary Wars,Napoleonic Wars Awards : Name inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe,Duke of Vicenza Armand-Augustin-Louis, Marquis de Caulaincourt (9 December 1773 - 19 February 1827), Duc de Vicence was a French military officer, diplomat, grand officer of the Grand Orient de France and close advisor to Napoleon I. Early life and family Armand de Caulaincourt was born to an old noble family on 9 December 1773, in the village of Caulaincourt, province of Picardy, in the family's Chateau de Caulaincourt, as the eldest son of Louis-Gabriel de Caulaincourt (1740-1808) and Anne-Josephine de Barandier de la Chausse d'Eu (1851-1830), married in 1770. His father served in the French army through the ancien regime and into the First Republic, being made Count of the Empire by Napoleon shortly before his death in 1808, and his grandfather, Marc-Louis de Caulaincourt, fought in the Third Silesian War and the Seven Years' War, reaching the rank of marechal de camp. Military career Coulaincourt began his military service on 13 January 1788, at the age of 14, when he joined the Regiment Royal-etranger stationed in Arras, at the time commanded by Alexandre de Lameth, a distant relative. On November 1789 he was promoted to second lieutenant in the now renamed 7th Cavalry Regiment, and two years later was requested by his father to serve as his aide-de-camp, which was approved by Minister of war Louis Duportail on November 1791. By the time of the declaration of war in 1792 Caulaincourt had been promoted to captain and was serving as an adjutant on the staff of his uncle, Harville. His lineage as a noble made him suspect by the revolutionaries, causing Caulaincourt to volunteer to serve in the French Garde Nationale in Paris as a common soldier. While on his way to join his regiment he was denounced as an aristocrat and thrown into prison. He escaped prison, and returned to serving in the army. In three years he had regained his previous rank and was serving General Lazare Hoche. He attained the rank of colonel in the Army of the Rhine. By 1801 Caulaincourt had been involved in thirteen campaigns and wounded twice. Diplomatic career Caulaincourt was fluent in a number of languages, including Russian. After the peace of Luneville in 1801 he was sent to Saint Petersburg by First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte. His mission was primarily to check British influence in the Russian court. On his return he was named aide-de-camp of Napoleon. At this juncture an event occurred which was to profoundly affect his life. In 1804 Caulaincourt had been sent by Napoleon across the Rhine to seize some agents of the British government who were in Baden. He was used to pass on orders calling for the seizure and transport to Paris of Louis Antoine de Bourbon, the Duke of Enghien. Once in Paris the Duke of Enghien was tried for treason by a military tribunal and summarily executed. Caulaincourt, an aristocrat, had been used as a means to deliver a fellow aristocrat to his death. When Caulaincourt returned to Paris he learned of the Duke's execution, and wept openly over it. He was incensed that he had been used in this way, and the event forever gave supporters of the Bourbon monarchy a means by which to impugn Caulaincourt's integrity and honor. The shroud of idealism which had earlier colored his view of Napoleon was forever pulled away. From then on, though he treated Napoleon with courtesy, there was always a reserve, and he made a point to be frank in informing the Emperor of what he felt were the true motives behind the Emperor's policies. The event was a point of shame that would haunt Caulaincourt for the rest of his days. After the establishment of the empire he received various honors and in 1808 was given the title of Duke of Vicenza, a duche grand-fief. In 1807, Napoleon sent him as ambassador to St. Petersburg, where Caulaincourt endeavored to maintain the alliance of Tilsit between France and Russia. During this time he developed a friendship with the Tsar Alexander I. His tasks as ambassador included attempting to arrange a marriage between Napoleon and one of the sisters of the Tsar. Though nothing came of it, he was able to manage the negotiations without engendering an embarrassing rebuff upon the Emperor. In 1811, with Napoleon preparing to declare a change in policy with Russia, Caulaincourt was sent for to return to France. Napoleon wrote the Tsar to say the Duke was recalled to France because of the Duke's "poor state of health." Russian campaign In 1812, Caulaincourt strongly advised Napoleon against his proposed campaign into Russia. He was unsuccessful in dissuading the Emperor. He accompanied Napoleon as Grand ecuyer, or Master of the Horse, in which he was tasked with maintaining the horses of the Emperor and his close guard, and he had charge of the despatch riders and orderlies. He rode at the Emperor's left side, and was prepared to surrender his horse to him in case there was need. He was with the Emperor at the Battle of Borodino, when Caulaincourt's younger brother, Major-General Auguste-Jean-Gabriel de Caulaincourt, was killed while pressing forward the assault following the capture of the great redoubt. During the French occupation of Moscow that followed, Caulaincourt repeatedly warned the Emperor of the dangers of wintering in Russia. The Emperor wanted to send him to St. Petersburg to negotiate terms of an armistice, but Caulaincourt declined, noting that the Tsar would not negotiate peace terms with the French while they were still in Moscow. During the subsequent French retreat from Moscow, Caulaincourt noted the disintegration of the army, and implored Napoleon to return directly to France to stabilize the political situation in Europe. Napoleon eventually did so, choosing Caulaincourt to travel alongside him in December 1812. Return to France The following month Caulaincourt was assigned the position of Grand Marshal of the Palace and charged with all diplomatic negotiations. He assumed this position following the death of the previous office holder, General Geraud Duroc. Caulaincourt signed the armistice of Pleswitz, June 1813, which suspended hostilities between France and Prussia and Russia for seven weeks. In the following negotiations, he represented France at the congress of Prague in August 1813, and at the Treaty of Fontainebleau on 10 April 1814. The provision for Napoleon on the island of Elba after his abdication is credited to Caulaincourt, who reportedly was able to influence the Tsar Alexander I for this disposition. During the First Restoration of the Bourbons that followed, Caulaincourt lived in obscure retirement. With Napoleon's escape from Elba and his regaining power in France, Caulaincourt was chosen to serve as Napoleon's minister of foreign affairs. Caulaincourt tried to persuade Europe of the emperor's peaceful intentions during the Hundred Days, but he was unsuccessful in this, culminating in the War of the Seventh Coalition. Following Napoleon's second fall from power Caulaincourt's name was on the list of those proscribed for arrest and execution in what came to be known as the Second White Terror during the Second Restoration of the Bourbons. His name was removed from the list by the personal intervention of the Tsar Alexander I. Later life Caulaincourt lived in retirement in Paris. Of the politicians of the First Empire, he was one of the most loyal and faithful to Napoleon. Caulaincourt's name is engraved on the Arc de Triomphe's West pillar, and a street in Paris is named Rue Caulaincourt in his honor. His eldest son served as a senator during the rule of Napoleon III. Caulaincourt died in Paris in 1827 at the age of 53, following an illness with cancer of the stomach. Memoir Caulaincourt had kept copious notes on his conversations with the Emperor Napoleon. In the 1820s a number of memoirs of the First Empire were published, written by individuals who had served with Napoleon. These seemed to rely on the retelling of events by Hugues-Bernard Maret, Duke of Bassano, who had served as a personal secretary of Napoleon. Caulaincourt believed these badly misrepresented conversations, individuals and events. In response Caulaincourt wrote his own memoir using his notes as reference. The work consisted of two independent parts. The first work records the discussions between the author and Napoleon just prior to the campaign in Russia, the events of the campaign, the occupation of Moscow, the fire that destroyed the city and the retreat that destroyed the Grande Armee. Following this is a recitation of Napoleon's analysis of events and the world situation as told to the author in the course of their journey to Paris. The second part of the memoir covered the period of 1813 through Napoleon's first abdication, and was still being worked upon at the time of the author's death. The publication of Caulaincourt's memoir was delayed for a variety of reasons, and the work was eventually lost. Following the First World War the work was rediscovered, and efforts were made to prepare it for publication. After several years of work the entire memoir was published by Jean Hanoteau in 1933 with the title With Napoleon in Russia. The work developed new found significance with the events of the Second World War. Following the initial astonishing success of the German invasion of Russia in June 1941, military historian and theorist B. H. Liddell Hart coolly appraised the difficulties awaiting the Wehrmacht, citing Caulaincourt's work extensively in an article he published in the British magazine The Strand in October 1941. After the war, it was learned that Caulaincourt's With Napoleon in Russia was read with great interest by many German officers during their invasion of Russia. Friedrich von Mellenthin made reference to it in his memoir while describing the character of the Russian soldier, his stubbornness in defense, and his capacity to endure bombardments. General Günther von Kluge, commander of Army Group Center, reportedly often referred to the work. Liddell-Hart interviewed a great many German commanders after the war, and though Kluge did not survive he states General Günther Blumentritt recounted: "I can still see von Kluge trudging through the mud from his sleeping quarters to his office, and standing there before the map with Caulaincourt's book in his hand. That went on day after day." Name: Davout Biography: Louis-Nicolas Davout (10 May 1770 - 1 June 1823) Position: The Iron Marshal, known for his discipline and unblemished record，Minister of War of the French Empire Allegiance: Kingdom of France，Kingdom of the French，French First Republic，First French Empire Branch/service: French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Unit Commander of the Consular Guard Grenadiers (1801),III Corps (1804-1807 and 1809), Observation Corps of the Elbe (1810-1811),I Corps (1812),XIII Corps (1813-1814),Army of the Loire (1815) Commands held : III Corps (Grande Armee) Other work: General inspector for cavalry (1801),Colonel general of the Imperial Guard Grenadiers (from 1804),Governor-general of the Duchy of Warsaw,Minister of War (Hundred Days),Mayor of Savigny-sur-Orge Louis-Nicolas d'Avout (10 May 1770 - 1 June 1823), better known as Davout, 1st Duke of Auerstaedt, 1st Prince of Eckmühl, was a French military commander and Marshal of the Empire who served during both the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. His talent for war, along with his reputation as a stern disciplinarian, earned him the nickname "The Iron Marshal" (Le Marechal de fer) . He is ranked along with Marshals Andre Massena and Jean Lannes as one of Napoleon's finest commanders. His loyalty and obedience to Napoleon were absolute. During his lifetime, Davout's name was commonly spelled Davoust - this spelling appears on the Arc de Triomphe and in much of the correspondence between Napoleon and his generals. Biography Davout was born at Annoux (Yonne), the son of Jean-Fran?ois d'Avout (1739-1779) and his wife (married in 1768) Fran?oise-Adela?de Minard de Velars (1741-1810).:4 He was educated at the ecole de Brienne in Brienne-le-Chateau, the military academy also attended by Napoleon, before also transferring to the ecole Militaire in Paris on 29 September 1785. He graduated on 19 February 1788 and was appointed a sous-lieutenant in the Royal-Champagne Cavalry Regiment in garrison at Hesdin.:94 On the outbreak of the French Revolution, Davout embraced its principles. He was chef de bataillon in a volunteer corps in the campaign of 1792, and distinguished himself at the Battle of Neerwinden the following spring. He had just been promoted to general of brigade when he was removed from the active list because of his noble birth. He nevertheless served in the campaigns of 1794-1797 on the Rhine, and accompanied General Louis Desaix in the Egyptian expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte. On his return he did not take part in the Battle of Marengo, where his friend Desaix was killed while making a decisive contribution to the victory.:65 Napoleon, who had great confidence in his abilities, finally promoted him to general of division and arranged his marriage to his sister Pauline's sister-in-law Aimee Leclerc, thus making him part of Napoleon's extended family, and gave him a command in the consular guard. At the accession of Napoleon as emperor in 1804, Davout was named as one of the original 18 Marshals of the Empire. Davout was the youngest and least experienced of the generals promoted to marshal, which earned him the hostility of other generals throughout his career. As commander of the III Corps of the Grande Armee, Davout rendered his greatest services. At the Battle of Austerlitz, following a forced march of 48 hours, the III Corps bore the brunt of the allies' attack. In the subsequent War of the Fourth Coalition, Davout, with a single corps, fought and won the Battle of Auerst?dt against the main Prussian Army, which had more than twice as many soldiers at its disposal (more than 63,000, to Davout's 28,000). Historian Fran?ois-Guy Hourtoulle writes: "At Jena, Napoleon won a battle he could not lose. At Auerst?dt, Davout won a battle he could not win". As a reward, Napoleon let Davout and his men enter first in Berlin on 25 October 1806. Davout added to his renown in the battles of Eylau and Friedland. Napoleon left him as governor-general of the newly created Duchy of Warsaw following the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, and the next year awarded him with the title of Duke of Auerst?dt. During the War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809, Davout took part in the Battle of Eckmühl, and also distinguished himself in the Battle of Wagram, where he commanded the right wing. He was later made Prince of Eckmühl following the campaign. Davout was entrusted by Napoleon with the task of organizing the "corps of observation of the Elbe", which would become the gigantic army with which Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812. In this, he commanded the I Corps, numbering over 70,000, and defeated the Russians at Mohilev before he joined the main army, with which he continued throughout the campaign and the retreat from Moscow. During the retreat he conducted the rear guard, which was deemed too slow by the emperor, and was replaced by Marshal Michel Ney. His inability to hold out at Krasny until the arrival of Ney and his corps led him into disgrace and he would not meet with the emperor again until his return from Elba. In 1813, Davout commanded the Hamburg military district, and defended Hamburg, a poorly fortified and provisioned city, through a long siege, only surrendering on direct order by King Louis XVIII, who had come to the throne after Napoleon's abdication in April 1814. During the siege, he expelled up to 25,000 of Hamburg's poorest citizens out of the city into the cold winter, many of whom perished of cold and starvation. Between 1806 and 1814, when the French occupation came to an end by Davout's surrender, the population decreased by nearly one-half, to 55,000. Davout's military character has been interpreted as cruel and he had to defend himself against many attacks upon his conduct at Hamburg. He was a stern disciplinarian, who exacted rigid and precise obedience from his troops, and consequently his corps was more trustworthy and exact in the performance of its duty than any other. For example, Davout forbade his troops from plundering enemy villages, a policy he would enforce by the use of the death penalty. Thus, in the early days of the Grande Armee, the III corps tended to be entrusted with the most difficult work. He was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals. Upon the first restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, he retired into private life, openly displaying his hostility to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned from Elba, Davout rejoined him. Appointed Minister of War, he reorganized the French Army insofar as time permitted, and he was so indispensable to the war department that Napoleon kept him in Paris during the Waterloo campaign. To what degree his skill and bravery would have altered the fortunes of the campaign of 1815 can only be surmised, but Napoleon has been criticized for his failure to avail himself in the field of the services of the best general he then possessed. Davout directed the gallant, but hopeless, defence of Paris after Waterloo. He received the command of the army assembled under the walls of Paris, and would have fought, had he not received the order of the provisional government to negotiate with the enemy. On 24 June 1815, Davout was sent by Joseph Fouche, the president of the provisional government, to the dethroned emperor at the elysee Palace with a request to quit Paris, where his continued presence could lead to trouble and public danger. Napoleon received him coldly but left Paris the next day and resided at Malmaison until 29 June when he departed for Rochfort. In later years, Napoleon said of Davout bitterly that "he betrayed me too. He has a wife and children; he thought that all was lost; he wanted to keep what he had got," while on another occasion he remarked that, "I thought that Davout loved me, but he loved only France." Subsequently, Davout retired with the army beyond the Loire and made his submission to the restored Bourbon monarchy on 14 July, and within a few days gave up his command to Marshal Jacques MacDonald. He was deprived of his marshalate and his titles upon the second restoration. When some of his subordinate generals were proscribed, he demanded to be held responsible for their acts, as executed under his orders, and he endeavoured to prevent the condemnation of Ney. After a time, the hostility of the Bourbons towards Davout faded and he became reconciled to the monarchy. In 1817, his rank and titles were restored and in 1819, he became a member of the Chamber of Peers. In 1822, Davout was elected mayor of Savigny-sur-Orge, a position he held for a year. His son Louis-Napoleon, was also mayor of the city from 1843 to 1846. A main square bears their name in the city, as does a boulevard in Paris. Davout died on 1 June 1823. His remains rest in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, where an elaborate tomb marks his grave. Beginnings Considered to be one of the best of Napoleon's marshals, Louis-Nicolas Davout was born in a rented farmhouse into a noble but very poor family. His father died in a hunting accident when he was eight. After attending the military schools of Auxerre and Paris, Davout became a sous-lieutenant in the cavalry regiment of Royal-Champagne. With the arrival of the Revolution, he embraced the principles of the Revolution despite his noble birth. However, Davout soon got into trouble for his outspoken attitudes. When some of the men of his regiment were discharged without trial, he protested to the government, loudly enough to get himself arrested and imprisoned at Arras. After spending six weeks in prison, Davout returned home until he was elected lieutenant colonel of the 3rd Battalion of Volunteers of Yonne in September of 1791. In early 1792 Davout personally intervened to save the lives of several individuals. A group of men, including a former bishop, were attempting to flee France when the townspeople of Dormans learned of their presence at the inn. As a mob formed and was preparing to break into the inn, Davout marched his troops into their way and told them they would have to go through his soldiers first. Seeing a dangerous opposition, the mob dispersed and Davout took the men to the local jail. In 1793 Davout and his men joined the Army of Belgium and they fought well at the Battle of Neerwinden . After the French loss of the battle, Davout's commander General Dumouriez decided to defect and as this became known, orders were issued for Dumouriez's arrest. Determined to stop Dumouriez, Davout led his men in search of Dumouriez and found him on the road returning from a meeting with the Austrians. Dumouriez unsuccessfully tried to persuade Davout to his side, and seeing the futility of this, he turned and fled for the Austrian lines. Davout ordered his men to fire and gave chase, almost catching Dumouriez when the general's horse refused to jump a ditch, but Dumouriez escaped by jumping on the horse of his subordinate Louis-Philippe, the Duke of Chartres. In recognition of Davout's attempts to capture Dumouriez, Davout received a promotion to colonel and then within a few months another promotion to general de brigade. At the end of July he received another promotion to general de division, but he refused this on the grounds of being too young. Shortly thereafter, Davout was forced to retire from the military and stay away from Paris due to his noble birth. In the meantime, his mother was arrested on the charge of communicating with emigres. Accompanying her on the journey to her trial, Davout learned of the charges and then snuck out of the inn in the middle of the night and ran back to their home. Sneaking inside the house without being noticed, he found the letters which were the primary evidence and burned them, then he hurried back to the inn with no one realizing he had been gone. When the trial commenced, the charges were quickly dropped as the prosecutor did not have sufficient evidence. Friend of Desaix With the Thermidorian Reaction bringing about the fall of Robespierre and a change of government, Davout was able to return to service as a general de brigade of cavalry in the Army of the Moselle. Here he became good friends with Generals Desaix and Oudinot, and he took part in the siege of Luxembourg. After serving in the capture of Mannheim, Davout was taken as a prisoner of war when the Austrian counter offensive retook the city. Released to France on parole, he was allowed to return to his home but not serve in the military until an exchange of officers in 1796 freed him from his parole agreement. Later in 1796 he served in Ambert's division and took part in the attack on Kehl and the fighting at Haslach. In April of 1797 Davout further distinguished himself when he crossed the Rhine at Diersheim and captured a wagon of the Austrian General Klinglin which contained correspondence with French General Pichegru. The next year Davout was designated for the Army of England, and then in a few months time his friend General Desaix introduced him to General Bonaparte. Bonaparte took Desaix's recommendation and gave Davout command of a brigade of cavalry of the re-designated Army of the Orient. After arriving in Egypt, in July Davout was given command of the cavalry of Desaix's division, which he led at the Battle of the Pyramids . Falling sick shortly thereafter, Davout remained in Cairo until December when he felt well enough to rejoin Desaix's division. Over the next months he would lead his men into battle frequently, serving at Souagui, Tahtah, Samanhout, Louqsor, Bir el Bahr, Bendhadi, and finally contributing to the victory at Abukir in July of 1799. Davout and Desaix were not chosen to depart for France with Napoleon, and when the new commander General Kleber held a council to discuss evacuating Egypt, Davout voiced opposition to evacuation since he believed they still had the capabilities to win. When he realized that the consensus was evacuation, he agreed to sign a document validating evacuation to show unity with his fellow generals. Later when Kleber promoted Davout to general de division, Davout refused the promotion, not wanting it to appear as if the promotion was given for his agreement with the council. After the negotiations for evacuation were completed, Davout and Desaix departed Alexandria in March of 1800 for France, only to be taken prisoner by British Admiral Keith on their journey. Despite the agreement between the French and British granting them safe passage to France, they were held for months and finally arrived in Toulon in May. Desaix immediately set off to join the now First Consul Bonaparte and the Army of the Reserve while Davout remained in quarantine. While in quarantine he learned of his friend Desaix's death at the Battle of Marengo. In July Davout received a promotion to general de division, the third time he had been offered this rank, and this time he accepted it. He took command of the cavalry of the Army of Italy and fought at Molino and Pozzolo later in 1800 before returning to France in July of 1801. Marshal of the Empire Once back in France, Davout was appointed the inspector general of cavalry and commander of the Grenadiers à Pied of the Consular Guard. In the midst of these new appointments, he married Aimee Leclerc, sister of General Leclerc. This marriage also tied him to the Bonaparte family since Napoleon's sister Pauline has married General Leclerc, and Davout also became a brother-in-law to General Friant who had married another sister of the Leclerc family. In the future Davout would carry a watch with his wife Aimee's portrait inside it with him. In 1803 he commanded the camp of Bruges, and in 1804 Davout was created a Marshal of the Empire, the youngest of the first set of Marshals of the Empire. As a marshal, Davout became known for his strict discipline but also not caring about the appearance of his uniform or himself. More awards followed with Davout becoming a Colonel General of the Imperial Guard and receiving the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor. Taking a break from his military duties, Davout traveled to Auxerre to meet with his old schoolteacher. Since the school had been closed during the Revolution, after meeting with his old friend Davout pushed for the school to be reopened with his old teacher as the new principal, and the next year his wishes were achieved. Returning to the military camp, in 1805 when the Grande Armee marched east to confront the Third Coalition, Davout took command of III Corps. He led them throughout the campaign of 1805, winning at Marienzell and Amstetten before marching hard to reach the Battle of Austerlitz in time. At Austerlitz he commanded the right wing and during the fighting he had four horses shot out from under him. The next year when Prussia declared war on France, Napoleon and the Grande Armee moved quickly to respond. Davout, still commanding III Corps, ran into the bulk of the Prussian Army at Auerst?dt while most of the rest of the French army was engaged at the Battle of Jena. Despite being outnumbered two to one, Davout's corps successfully pushed back the Prussian army, inflicting heavy losses. In honor of this achievement, his corps was the first to march through Berlin when the Prussian capital was taken. As the campaign continued against the Russians, III Corps moved into Poland. Davout was victorious at Nasielsk and Golymin in late 1806 before fighting at Ziegelhoff and the Battle of Eylau in February of the next year. At Eylau he again commanded the right, and Davout rode back and forth encouraging his men, telling them that "The brave will find a glorious death here, the cowards will visit the deserts of Siberia."1 That June, when Russian General Benningsen launched a surprise attack against Marshal Ney's VI Corps, Davout quickly assembled his troops to assist Ney. However, it would take far too long to reach Ney, so Davout ordered a courier to ride for Ney along a road which the Russians would most likely have overtaken by this time. The courier was captured and his false message of Davout marching on Benningen's rear halted the Russian advance, giving Ney breathing room and the French time to counterattack. With the conclusion of the campaign after the French victory at the Battle of Friedland, Davout participated in the ceremonies at the Treaty of Tilsit. On one night, he and Oudinot were reprimanded for shooting out candles with their pistols. After the ceremonies, Davout was appointed Governor General of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw which made him the top administrator of Poland. Despite his position and victories, Davout had never profited from the many campaigns in which he had participated, and by now he found himself in financial difficulties trying to uphold the lifestyle expected of a Marshal of France. Napoleon came to his rescue in 1807, providing Davout with much more income after telling Narbonne, "It is necessary that I give to him...for he does not take for himself."2 In 1808 Davout was created the Duke of Auerst?dt in honor of his victory in 1806, and later he was placed in charge of the Army of the Rhine, essentially in charge of most of the French troops east of the Rhine as the Emperor was preoccupied in Spain. In April of 1809 as the Austrians launched attacks against French allies, Davout faithfully followed orders from Marshal Berthier despite disagreeing with the soundness of the orders. With Napoleon's arrival on the scene, things began to improve and Davout fought at Thann, Schierling, Eckmühl, and Ratisbon. During the Battle of Aspern-Essling , the destruction of the bridges across the Danube kept his corps out of the action there, but six weeks later at the Battle of Wagram he commanded the right and contributed to the victory. Once again playing a critical part in the campaigns, Davout received the title of Prince of Eckmühl for his victory there. After the campaign, Davout resumed command of the Army of Germany and generally spent his time there except when on leave at Paris. Campaigns of 1812 - 1815 In 1812 Marshal Davout helped to assemble the army for the campaign against Russia, and when the war began he took command of I Corps. During the campaign he occupied Minsk, took Borisow, was victorious over Bagration at Mohilew, and served in the attack on Smolensk . A huge argument erupted between Marshal Murat and Davout in front of Napoleon, since Davout considered Murat to be wasting the cavalry and attempting to waste his men. Napoleon did not interrupt their argument, and afterwards ordered the marshals to cooperate, even though this order did little to enforce such cooperation. The next day as Murat launched an attack on the enemy, he ordered the infantry forward, only for Davout to ride up and order them to stop. Davout refused to listen to Murat's superior rank and considered the attack a waste of men, so Murat sent General Belliard to appeal to Napoleon, who detached a division from Davout's corps and put it under Murat's orders. This temporarily solved the problem, but Belliard also had to calm down Murat to keep the marshals from dueling. As the Russians finally made a stand at the Battle of Borodino, Davout was leading his men when he was hit in the abdomen by a cannonball, but luckily it only bruised him. Despite the intense pain, he continued to command, and later he was hit by a bullet in the right thigh. He continued to command until the battle was over and his men were resting. After the army left Moscow for the retreat, Davout fought at Maloyarslavetz, and he later took command of the rear guard for a week before being removed from this command by Napoleon, who considered Marshal Ney to be a more capable rearguard commander. As Davout's corps became cut off from the army during the retreat, he managed to cut his way through when Prince Eugene turned his men around and came to his assistance. After Napoleon left the army to return to Paris, Napoleon placed Murat in command of the army, who was soon considering abandoning the army too. When Murat declared Napoleon a madman and prepared to leave for Naples, Davout reprimanded him, telling him that he was King of Naples but for the grace of Napoleon and the blood of many Frenchmen. Murat didn't care, leaving the army soon thereafter, and Prince Eugene assumed command. Once back in friendly territory, Davout took command of I Corps in Germany in March of 1813. He successfully defended Dresden and then occupied Hamburg. Commanding the XIII Corps, he was victorious at Lauenbourg and he was then ordered to organize and direct the defense of Hamburg. As the French army was pushed farther back, Davout continued to hold Hamburg against all odds and refused to surrender even after the abdication of Napoleon, suspecting that it was a trick. Only when his cousin arrived with news of Napoleon's abdication did Davout believe it, but he still did not surrender the city, instead waiting for orders from the new government, which eventually arrived. Since he had not surrendered immediately upon learning of Napoleon's abdication, he was forcibly retired by the restored Bourbons immediately. With Napoleon's return from Elba in 1815 for the Hundred Days, Davout went to him to offer his services. Wanting a battlefield command, Davout was upset when Napoleon wanted to make him the Minister of War. But Napoleon persuaded Davout to take the position, considering him to be the best available soldier for the job. After the French loss at the Battle of Waterloo, Davout began managing the defense of Paris, and he tried to convince Napoleon to seize control of the government, but instead the Emperor abdicated again. Now in charge of the army, Davout began to negotiate for the safety of Paris and an amnesty of those who had joined Napoleon, using the French army's considerable strength to get the allies to agree to his terms. Unfortunately, the restored Bourbons did not follow the agreement of the amnesty and the Allies refused to stop them from persecuting those who had joined Napoleon. Davout was again forcibly retired, exiled from Paris, and suffered financial hardship without his military income. Name: Madison Biography: Small in stature and often in poor health, Madison never saw combat in the War of Independence, but he rose to fame in Virginia politics as a wartime leader James Madison (March 16, 1751- June 28, 1836) Position: 4th President of the United States，5th United States Secretary of State，Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia，Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the Confederation Political party :Democratic-Republican Allegiance: Virginia Branch/service: Virginia Militia Rank: Colonel Madison was small in stature, had bright blue eyes, a strong demeanor, and was known to be humorous at small gatherings. At a height of only five feet, four inches (163 cm), and never weighing more than 100 pounds (45 kg), Madison became the most diminutive president. James Madison Jr. (March 16, 1751 - June 28, 1836) was an American statesman, diplomat, expansionist, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817. He is hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the United States Bill of Rights. He co-wrote The Federalist Papers, co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party, and served as the fifth United States Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. Born into a prominent Virginia planter family, Madison served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War. He became dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation and helped organize the Constitutional Convention, which produced a new constitution to supplant the Articles of Confederation. Madison's Virginia Plan served as the basis for the Constitutional Convention's deliberations, and he was one of the most influential individuals at the convention. Madison became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution, and he joined with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing The Federalist Papers, a series of pro-ratification essays that was one of the most influential works of political science in American history. After the ratification of the Constitution, Madison emerged as an important leader in the United States House of Representatives and served as a close adviser to President George Washington. He was the main force behind the ratification of the United States Bill of Rights, which enshrines guarantees of personal freedoms and rights within the Constitution. During the early 1790s, Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party, which was, alongside Hamilton's Federalist Party, one of the nation's first major political parties. After Jefferson won the 1800 presidential election, Madison served as Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. In that position, he supervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States. Madison succeeded Jefferson with a victory in the 1808 presidential election. After diplomatic protests and a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipping, he led the United States into the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass and ended inconclusively, but many Americans saw it as a successful "second war of independence" against Britain. The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government. He presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816. By treaty or war, Madison's presidency added 23 million acres of American Indian land to the United States. He retired from public office in 1817 and died in 1836. Madison never privately reconciled his Republican beliefs with his slave ownership. Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States, and historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president. Early life and education James Madison Jr. was born on March 16, 1751, (March 5, 1750, Old Style) at Belle Grove Plantation near Port Conway in the Colony of Virginia, to James Madison Sr. and Nelly Conway Madison. His family had lived in Virginia since the mid-1600s. Madison grew up as the oldest of twelve children, with seven brothers and four sisters, though only six lived to adulthood. His father was a tobacco planter who grew up on a plantation, then called Mount Pleasant, which he had inherited upon reaching adulthood. With an estimated 100 slaves and a 5,000 acres (2,000 ha) plantation, Madison's father was the largest landowner and a leading citizen in the Piedmont. Madison's maternal grandfather was a prominent planter and tobacco merchant. In the early 1760s, the Madison family moved into a newly built house that they named Montpelier. From age 11 to 16, Madison studied under Donald Robertson, a Scottish instructor who served as a tutor for several prominent planter families in the South. Madison learned mathematics, geography, and modern and classical languages—he became exceptionally proficient in Latin. At age 16, Madison returned to Montpelier, where he studied under the Reverend Thomas Martin to prepare for college. Unlike most college-bound Virginians of his day, Madison did not attend the College of William and Mary, where the lowland Williamsburg climate - thought to be more likely to harbor infectious disease - might have strained his delicate health. Instead, in 1769, he enrolled as an undergraduate at Princeton (then formally named the College of New Jersey). His studies at Princeton included Latin, Greek, theology, and the works of the Enlightenment. Great emphasis was placed on both speech and debate; Madison was a leading member of the American Whig Society, which competed on campus with a political counterpart, the Cliosophic Society. During his time in Princeton, his closest friend was future Attorney General William Bradford. Along with another classmate, Madison undertook an intense program of study and completed the college's three-year Bachelor of Arts degree in just two years, graduating in 1771. Madison had contemplated either entering the clergy or practicing law after graduation, but instead remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and political philosophy under the college's president, John Witherspoon. He returned home to Montpelier in early 1772. Madison's ideas on philosophy and morality were strongly shaped by Witherspoon, who converted him to the philosophy, values, and modes of thinking of the Age of Enlightenment. Biographer Terence Ball wrote that at Princeton, Madison was immersed in the liberalism of the Enlightenment, and converted to eighteenth-century political radicalism. From then on James Madison's theories would advance the rights of happiness of man, and his most active efforts would serve devotedly the cause of civil and political liberty. After returning to Montpelier, without a chosen career, Madison served as a tutor to his younger siblings. Madison began to study law books on his own in 1773. Madison asked Princeton friend William Bradford, a law apprentice under Edward Shippen in Philadelphia, to send him an ordered written plan on reading law books. At the age of 22, there was no evidence that Madison, himself, made any effort to apprentice under any lawyer in Virginia. By 1783, he had acquired a good sense of legal publications. Madison saw himself as a law student but never as a lawyer - he never joined the bar or practiced. In his elder years, Madison was sensitive to the phrase "demi-Lawyer", or "half-Lawyer", a derisive term used to describe someone who read law books, but did not practice law. Following the Revolutionary War, Madison spent time at his home Montpelier in Virginia studying ancient democracies of the world in preparation for the Constitutional Convention. American Revolution Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War Father of the Constitution Calling a convention Further information: Confederation Period Philadelphia Convention Main article: Philadelphia Convention The Federalist Papers and ratification debates Main article: The Federalist Papers See also: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution Congressman and party leader (1789-1801) Election to Congress Further information: Presidency of George Washington Bill of Rights Founding the Democratic-Republican Party Adams presidency Further information: Presidency of John Adams Marriage and family On September 15, 1794, Madison married Dolley Payne Todd, a 26-year-old widow, previously wife of John Todd, a Quaker farmer who died during a yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia. Aaron Burr introduced Madison to her, at his request, after Dolley had stayed in the same boardinghouse as Burr in Philadelphia. After an arranged meeting in spring 1794, the two quickly became romantically engaged and prepared for a wedding that summer, but Dolley suffered recurring illnesses because of her exposure to yellow fever in Philadelphia. They eventually traveled to Harewood, Virginia for their wedding. Only a few close family members attended, and Winchester Reverend Alexander Balmain pronounced them a wedded couple. Madison enjoyed a strong relationship with his wife, and she became his political partner. Madison was an extremely shy individual who deeply relied on his wife, Dolley, to help him in dealing with social pressures that came with the politics of the day. Dolley became a renowned figure in Washington, D.C., and excelled at hosting dinners and other important political occasions. Dolley helped to establish the modern image of the First Lady of the United States as an individual who takes upon a role in the social affairs of the nation. Madison never had children, but he adopted Dolley's one surviving son, John Payne Todd (known as Payne), after the marriage. Some of Madison's colleagues, such as Monroe and Burr, alleged that Madison was infertile and that his lack of offspring weighed on his thoughts, but Madison never spoke of any distress on this matter. Throughout his life, Madison maintained a close relationship with his father, James Madison Sr, who died in 1801. At age 50, Madison inherited the large plantation of Montpelier and other possessions, including his father's numerous slaves. He had three brothers, Francis, Ambrose, and William, and three sisters, Nelly, Sarah, and Frances, who lived to adulthood. Ambrose helped manage Montpelier for both his father and older brother until his death in 1793. Secretary of State (1801-1809) Further information: Presidency of Thomas Jefferson Presidential election of 1808 Main article: 1808 United States presidential election Presidency (1809-1817) Main article: Presidency of James Madison War of 1812 Further information: War of 1812 and Origins of the War of 1812 Prelude to war Military action Postwar period Native American policy Further information: Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809) General Wilkinson misconduct Election of 1816 In the 1816 presidential election, Madison and Jefferson both favored the candidacy of Secretary of State James Monroe. With the support of Madison and Jefferson, Monroe defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford in the party's congressional nominating caucus. As the Federalist Party continued to collapse as a national party, Monroe easily defeated Federalist candidate Rufus King in the 1816 election. Madison left office as a popular president; former president Adams wrote that Madison had "acquired more glory, and established more union, than all his three predecessors, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, put together". Retirement, national leader, and elder statesman (1817-1836) When Madison left office in 1817 at age 65, he retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Orange County, Virginia, not far from Jefferson's Monticello. As with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when elected. His plantation experienced a steady financial collapse, due to the continued price declines in tobacco and also due to his stepson's mismanagement. In his retirement, Madison occasionally became involved in public affairs, advising Andrew Jackson and other presidents. He remained out of the public debate over the Missouri Compromise, though he privately complained about the North's opposition to the extension of slavery. Madison had warm relations with all four of the major candidates in the 1824 presidential election, but, like Jefferson, largely stayed out of the race. During Jackson's presidency, Madison publicly disavowed the Nullification movement and argued that no state had the right to secede. Madison helped Jefferson establish the University of Virginia, though the university was primarily Jefferson's initiative. In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison was appointed as the second rector of the university. He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836. In 1829, at the age of 78, Madison was chosen as a representative to the Virginia Constitutional Convention for revision of the commonwealth's constitution. It was his last appearance as a statesman. The issue of greatest importance at this convention was apportionment. The western districts of Virginia complained that they were underrepresented because the state constitution apportioned voting districts by county. The increased population in the Piedmont and western parts of the state were not proportionately represented by delegates in the legislature. Western reformers also wanted to extend suffrage to all white men, in place of the prevailing property ownership requirement. Madison tried in vain to effect a compromise. Eventually, suffrage rights were extended to renters as well as landowners, but the eastern planters refused to adopt citizen population apportionment. They added slaves held as property to the population count, to maintain a permanent majority in both houses of the legislature, arguing that there must be a balance between population and property represented. Madison was disappointed at the failure of Virginians to resolve the issue more equitably. In his later years, Madison became highly concerned about his historic legacy. He resorted to modifying letters and other documents in his possession, changing days and dates, adding and deleting words and sentences, and shifting characters. By the time he had reached his late seventies, this "straightening out" had become almost an obsession. As an example, he edited a letter written to Jefferson criticizing Lafayette—Madison not only inked out original passages, but even forged Jefferson's handwriting as well. Historian Drew R. McCoy writes that, "During the final six years of his life, amid a sea of personal troubles that were threatening to engulf him ... At times mental agitation issued in physical collapse. For the better part of a year in 1831 and 1832 he was bedridden, if not silenced ... Literally sick with anxiety, he began to despair of his ability to make himself understood by his fellow citizens." Madison's health slowly deteriorated. In a remarkable coincidence, former presidents Jefferson, Adams, and Monroe had all died on the fourth of July. In his final week, his doctors advised Madison to take stimulants which might prolong his life to July 4, 1836. However, Madison refused. He died of congestive heart failure at Montpelier on the morning of June 28, 1836, at the age of 85. By one common account of his final moments, he was given his breakfast, which he tried eating but was unable to swallow. His favorite niece, who sat by to keep him company, asked him, "What is the matter, Uncle James?" Madison died immediately after he replied, "Nothing more than a change of mind, my dear." He is buried in the family cemetery at Montpelier. He was one of the last prominent members of the Revolutionary War generation to die. His will left significant sums to the American Colonization Society, Princeton, and the University of Virginia, as well as $30,000 to his wife, Dolley. Left with a smaller sum than Madison had intended, Dolley suffered financial troubles until her own death in 1849. Political and religious views Federalism During his first stint in Congress in the 1780s, Madison came to favor amending the Articles of Confederation to provide for a stronger central government. In the 1790s, he led the opposition to Hamilton's centralizing policies and the Alien and Sedition Acts. According to Chernow, Madison's support of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in the 1790s "was a breathtaking evolution for a man who had pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should possess a veto over state laws". The historian Gordon S. Wood says that Lance Banning, as in his Sacred Fire of Liberty (1995), is the "only present-day scholar to maintain that Madison did not change his views in the 1790s". During and after the War of 1812, Madison came to support several policies he had opposed in the 1790s, including the national bank, a strong navy, and direct taxes. Wood notes that many historians struggle to understand Madison, but Wood looks at him in the terms of Madison's own times—as a nationalist but one with a different conception of nationalism from that of the Federalists. Gary Rosen and Banning use other approaches to suggest Madison's consistency. Religion Although baptized as an Anglican and educated by Presbyterian clergymen, young Madison was an avid reader of English deist tracts. As an adult, Madison paid little attention to religious matters. Though most historians have found little indication of his religious leanings after he left college, some scholars indicate he leaned toward deism. Others maintain that Madison accepted Christian tenets and formed his outlook on life with a Christian world view. Regardless of his own religious beliefs, Madison believed in religious liberty, and he advocated for Virginia's disestablishment of the Anglican Church throughout the late 1770s and 1780s. He also opposed the appointments of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces, arguing that the appointments produce religious exclusion as well as political disharmony. In 1819, Madison said, "The number, the industry, and the morality of the priesthood & the devotion of the people have been manifestly increased by the total separation of the Church from the State." Slavery See also: List of Presidents of the United States who owned slaves Madison grew up on a plantation that made use of slave labor and he viewed the institution as a necessary part of the Southern economy, though he was troubled by the instability of a society that depended on a large enslaved population. During the revolutionary war, Madison responded to a proposal of providing slaves to soldiers as a recruitment bonus by advocating enlisting blacks in exchange for their freedom instead, writing "would it not be as well to liberate and make soldiers at once of the blacks themselves as to make them instruments for enlisting white Soldiers? It would certainly be more consonant to the principles of liberty which ought never to be loss sight of in a contest for liberty." At the Philadelphia Convention, Madison wrote "Where slavery exists the republican Theory becomes still more fallacious." He favored an immediate end to the importation of slaves, though the final document barred Congress from interfering with the international slave trade until 1808, while the domestic trade in slaves was expressly permitted by the constitution. Madison initially opposed the 20-year ban on ending the international slave trade, writing "Twenty years will produce all the mischief that can be apprehended from the liberty to import slaves. So long a term will be more dishonorable to the National character than to say nothing about it in the Constitution." However, he eventually accepted it as a necessary compromise to get the South to ratify the constitution, later writing "It ought to be considered as a great point gained in favor of humanity, that a period of twenty years may terminate forever, within these States, a traffic which has long and so loudly upbraided the barbarism of modern policy; that within that period it will receive considerable discouragement from the Federal government and be totally abolished, by a concurrence of the few States which continue the unnatural traffic in the prohibitory example which has been given by so great a majority of the Union." He also proposed that apportionment in the United States House of Representatives be allocated by the sum of each state's free population and slave population, eventually leading to the adoption of the Three-Fifths Compromise. Madison supported the extension of slavery into the West during the Missouri crisis of 1819-1821. Madison believed that former slaves were unlikely to successfully integrate into Southern society, and in the late 1780s, he became interested in the idea of African-Americans establishing colonies in Africa. Madison was president of the American Colonization Society, which founded the settlement of Liberia for former slaves. Madison was unable to separate himself from the institution of domestic slavery. Although Madison had championed a republican form of government, he believed that slavery had caused the South to become aristocratic. Madison believed that slaves were human property, while he opposed slavery intellectually. Along with his colonization plan for blacks, Madison believed that slavery would naturally diffuse with western expansion. Madison's political views landed somewhere between John C. Calhoun's separation nullification and Daniel Webster's nationalism consolidation. Madison's Virginian "legatees" including Edward Coles, Nicolas P. Trist, and William Cabell Rives promoted Madison's moderate views on slavery into the 1840s and 1850s, but their campaign failed due to sectionalism, economic, and abolitionism forces. Madison was never able to reconcile his advocacy of Republican government and his lifelong reliance on the slave system. In 1790, Madison ordered an overseer to treat slaves with "all the humanity and kindness of consistent with their necessary subordination and work". Visitors noted slaves were well housed and fed. According to Paul Jennings, one of Madison's younger slaves, Madison never lost his temper or had his slaves whipped, preferring to reprimand. One slave, Billey, attempted to escape Madison while in Philadelphia during the American Revolution, but was caught. Rather than free him, or return him to Virginia, Madison sold Billey in Philadelphia, under a gradual emancipation law adopted in Pennsylvania. Billey soon earned his freedom and worked for a Philadelphia merchant. Billey, however, was drowned on a voyage to New Orleans. Madison never outwardly expressed the view that blacks were inferior; he tended to express open-mindedness on the question of race. By 1801, Madison's slave population at Montpelier was slightly over 100. During the 1820s and 1830s, Madison was forced to sell land and slaves, caused by debts. In 1836, at the time of Madison's death, Madison owned 36 taxable slaves. Madison's conservatism prevailed, due to finances, while he failed to free any of his slaves either during his lifetime or in his will. Upon Madison's death, he left his remaining slaves to his wife Dolley, asking her only to sell her slaves with their consent. However, Dolley, sold many of her slaves without their consent. The remaining slaves, after Dolley's death, were given to her son, Payne Todd, who freed them upon his death. However, Todd had debts, and likely only a few slaves were actually freed. Physical characteristics and health Madison was small in stature, had bright blue eyes, a strong demeanor, and was known to be humorous at small gatherings. Madison suffered from serious illnesses, nervousness, and was often exhausted after periods of stress. Madison often feared for the worst and was a hypochondriac. However, Madison was in good health, while he lived a long life, without the common maladies of his times. Legacy Historical reputation Madison is widely regarded as one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States. Historian J.C.A. Stagg writes that "in some ways—because he was on the winning side of every important issue facing the young nation from 1776 to 1816—Madison was the most successful and possibly the most influential of all the Founding Fathers." Though he helped found a major political party and served as the fourth president of the United States, his legacy has largely been defined by his contributions to the Constitution; even in his own life he was hailed as the "Father of the Constitution". Law professor Noah Feldman writes that Madison "invented and theorized the modern ideal of an expanded, federal constitution that combines local self-government with an overarching national order". Feldman adds that Madison's "model of liberty-protecting constitutional government" is "the most influential American idea in global political history". Polls of historians and political scientists tend to rank Madison as an above-average president. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Madison as the twelfth best president. Wood commends Madison for his steady leadership during the war and resolve to avoid expanding the president's power, noting one contemporary's observation that the war was conducted "without one trial for treason, or even one prosecution for libel". Nonetheless, many historians have criticized Madison's tenure as president. Henry Steele Commager and Richard B. Morris in 1968 said the conventional view of Madison was as an "incapable President" who "mismanaged an unnecessary war". A 2006 poll of historians ranked Madison's failure to prevent the War of 1812 as the sixth-worst mistake made by a sitting president. The historian Garry Wills wrote, "Madison's claim on our admiration does not rest on a perfect consistency, any more than it rests on his presidency. He has other virtues. ... As a framer and defender of the Constitution he had no peer. ... The finest part of Madison's performance as president was his concern for the preserving of the Constitution. ... No man could do everything for the country—not even Washington. Madison did more than most, and did some things better than any. That was quite enough." In 2002, historian Ralph Ketcham was critical of Madison as a wartime President during the War of 1812. Ketcham blamed Madison for the events that led up to the burning of the nation's capital by the British. Ketcham said: "The events of the summer of 1814 illustrate all too well the inadequacy in wartime of Madison's habitual caution and tendency to let complexities remain unresolved...Although such inclinations are ordinarily virtues, in crisis they are calamitous." Ketcham said "it was, ironically, Madison's very republican virtue that in part unsuited him to be a wartime president." In 1974, historian James Banner criticized Madison for his protection of a corrupt General James Wilkinson in the Army. Wilkinson had been involved in the Aaron Burr conspiracy during the Jefferson Administration, was on retainer of Spain, and had a high mortality rate among soldiers. Wilkinson had also botched a campaign during the War of 1812. Madison finally mustered Wilkinson out of the Army in 1815. Memorials Main article: List of memorials to James Madison Montpelier, his family's plantation, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. The James Madison Memorial Building is a building of the United States Library of Congress and serves as the official memorial to Madison. In 1986, Congress created the James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation as part of the bicentennial celebration of the Constitution. Several counties and communities have been named for Madison, including Madison County, Alabama and Madison, Wisconsin. Other things named for Madison include Madison Square, James Madison University, and the USS James Madison. Name: Jefferson Biography: Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 - July 4, 1826) Position: 3rd President of the United States，2nd Vice President of the United States，1st United States Secretary of State，2nd United States Minister to France，Minister Plenipotentiary for Negotiating Treaties of Amity and Commerce，Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the Confederation，2nd Governor of Virginia，Delegate from Virginia to the Continental Congress Political party: Democratic-Republican Education:College of William & Mary (BA) Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 - July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, musician, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He had previously served as the second vice president of the United States under John Adams between 1797 and 1801, and as the first United States secretary of state under George Washington between 1790 to 1793. The principal author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was a proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights for certain categories of people, motivating American colonists to break from the Kingdom of Great Britain and form a new nation; he produced formative documents and decisions at both the state and national levels. During the American Revolution, Jefferson represented Virginia in the Continental Congress that adopted the Declaration of Independence. As a Virginia legislator, he drafted a state law for religious freedom. He served as the second Governor of Virginia from 1779 to 1781, during the American Revolutionary War. In 1785, Jefferson was appointed the United States Minister to France, and subsequently, the nation's first Secretary of State under President George Washington from 1790 to 1793. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System. With Madison, he anonymously wrote the provocative Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798 and 1799, which sought to strengthen states' rights by nullifying the federal Alien and Sedition Acts. As president, Jefferson pursued the nation's shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. Starting in 1803, Jefferson promoted a western expansionist policy, organizing the Louisiana Purchase which doubled the nation's land area. To make room for settlement, Jefferson began a controversial process of Indian tribal removal from the newly acquired territory. As a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jefferson was reelected in 1804. His second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former vice president Aaron Burr. In 1807, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act in response to British threats to U.S. shipping. The same year, Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves. Jefferson, while primarily a planter, lawyer and politician, mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and mechanics. He was an architect in the classical tradition. Jefferson's keen interest in religion and philosophy led to his presidency of the American Philosophical Society; he shunned organized religion but was influenced by Christianity, Epicureanism, and deism. A philologist, Jefferson knew several languages. He was a prolific letter writer and corresponded with many prominent people, including Edward Carrington, John Taylor of Caroline and James Madison. Among his books is Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), considered perhaps the most important American book published before 1800. Jefferson championed the ideals, values, and teachings of the Enlightenment. During his lifetime, Jefferson owned over 600 slaves, who were kept in his household and on his plantations. Since Jefferson's time, controversy has revolved around his relationship with Sally Hemings, a mixed-race enslaved woman, and his late wife's half-sister. According to DNA evidence from surviving descendants and oral history, Jefferson fathered at least six children with Hemings, including four that survived to adulthood. Evidence suggests that Jefferson started the relationship with Hemings when they were in Paris, where she arrived at the age of 14 when Jefferson was 44. By the time she returned to the United States at 16, she was pregnant. After retiring from public office, Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. Jefferson and his colleague John Adams both died on Independence Day, July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Presidential scholars and historians generally praise Jefferson's public achievements, including his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia. Although some modern scholars have been critical of his stance on slavery, Jefferson continues to rank highly among the U.S. presidents, often in the top ten. Early life and career Main article: Early life and career of Thomas Jefferson Political career (1775-1800) Declaration of Independence Main article: United States Declaration of Independence Notes on the State of Virginia Main article: Notes on the State of Virginia Secretary of State See also: First Party System Election of 1796 and vice presidency Further information: 1796 United States presidential election and Democratic-Republican Party Election of 1800 Main article: 1800 United States presidential election Presidency (1801-1809) Main article: Presidency of Thomas Jefferson First Barbary War Main article: First Barbary War Louisiana Purchase Main article: Louisiana Purchase Lewis and Clark expedition Main articles: Lewis and Clark Expedition, Red River Expedition (1806), and Pike Expedition Other expeditions Main articles: Red River Expedition (1806) and Pike Expedition American Indian policies Main article: Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans Re-election in 1804 and second term Further information: 1804 United States presidential election Burr conspiracy and trial Further information: Burr-Hamilton duel and Burr conspiracy Chesapeake-Leopard affair and Embargo Act Main article: Chesapeake-Leopard affair Post-presidency (1809-1826) Further information: Thomas Jefferson and education University of Virginia Main article: University of Virginia Reconciliation with Adams Autobiography Lafayette's visit Main article: Visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the United States Final days, death, and burial Jefferson's approximately $100,000 of debt weighed heavily on his mind in his final months, as it became increasingly clear that he would have little to leave to his heirs. In February 1826, he successfully applied to the General Assembly to hold a public lottery as a fundraiser. His health began to deteriorate in July 1825, due to a combination of rheumatism from arm and wrist injuries, as well as intestinal and urinary disorders and, by June 1826, he was confined to bed. On July 3, Jefferson was overcome by fever and declined an invitation to Washington to attend an anniversary celebration of the Declaration. During the last hours of his life, he was accompanied by family members and friends. Jefferson died on July 4 at 12:50 p.m. at age 83, the same day as the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. His last recorded words were "No, doctor, nothing more," refusing laudanum from his physician, but his final significant words are often cited as "Is it the Fourth?" or "This is the Fourth." When John Adams died, his last words included an acknowledgment of his longtime friend and rival: "Thomas Jefferson survives," though Adams was unaware that Jefferson had died several hours before. The sitting president was Adams's son, John Quincy Adams, and he called the coincidence of their deaths on the nation's anniversary "visible and palpable remarks of Divine Favor." Shortly after Jefferson had died, attendants found a gold locket on a chain around his neck, where it had rested for more than 40 years, containing a small faded blue ribbon that tied a lock of his wife Martha's brown hair. Jefferson's remains were buried at Monticello, under an epitaph that he wrote: HERE WAS BURIED THOMAS JEFFERSON, AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, OF THE STATUTE OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM, AND FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. In his advanced years, Jefferson became increasingly concerned that people understand the principles in, and the people responsible for writing, the Declaration of Independence, and he continually defended himself as its author. He considered the document one of his greatest life achievements, in addition to authoring the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom and his founding of the University of Virginia. Plainly absent from his epitaph were his political roles, including President of the United States. Jefferson died deeply in debt, unable to pass on his estate freely to his heirs. He gave instructions in his will for disposal of his assets, including the freeing of Sally Hemings's children; but his estate, possessions, and slaves were sold at public auctions starting in 1827. In 1831, Monticello was sold by Martha Jefferson Randolph and the other heirs. Political, social, and religious views Jefferson subscribed to the political ideals expounded by John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men who ever lived. He was also influenced by the writings of Gibbon, Hume, Robertson, Bolingbroke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire. Jefferson thought that the independent yeoman and agrarian life were ideals of republican virtues. He distrusted cities and financiers, favored decentralized government power, and believed that the tyranny that had plagued the common man in Europe was due to corrupt political establishments and monarchies. He supported efforts to disestablish the Church of England, wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, and he pressed for a wall of separation between church and state. The Republicans under Jefferson were strongly influenced by the 18th-century British Whig Party, which believed in limited government. His Democratic-Republican Party became dominant in early American politics, and his views became known as Jeffersonian democracy. Society and government According to Jefferson's philosophy, citizens have "certain inalienable rights" and "rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will, within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others." A staunch advocate of the jury system to protect people's liberties, he proclaimed in 1801, "I consider as the only anchor yet imagined by man, by which a government can be held to the principles of its constitution." Jeffersonian government not only prohibited individuals in society from infringing on the liberty of others, but also restrained itself from diminishing individual liberty as a protection against tyranny from the majority. Initially, Jefferson favored restricted voting to those who could actually have the free exercise of their reason by escaping any corrupting dependence on others. He advocated enfranchising a majority of Virginians, seeking to expand suffrage to include "yeoman farmers" who owned their own land while excluding tenant farmers, city day laborers, vagrants, most Amerindians, and women. He was convinced that individual liberties were the fruit of political equality, which were threatened by arbitrary government. Excesses of democracy in his view were caused by institutional corruption rather than human nature. He was less suspicious of a working democracy than many contemporaries. As president, Jefferson feared that the Federalist system enacted by Washington and Adams had encouraged corrupting patronage and dependence. He tried to restore a balance between the state and federal governments more nearly reflecting the Articles of Confederation, seeking to reinforce state prerogatives where his party was in a majority. Jefferson was steeped in the British Whig tradition of the oppressed majority set against a repeatedly unresponsive court party in the Parliament. He justified small outbreaks of rebellion as necessary to get monarchial regimes to amend oppressive measures compromising popular liberties. In a republican regime ruled by the majority, he acknowledged "it will often be exercised when wrong." But "the remedy is to set them right as to facts, pardon and pacify them." As Jefferson saw his party triumph in two terms of his presidency and launch into a third term under James Madison, his view of the U.S. as a continental republic and an "empire of liberty" grew more upbeat. On departing the presidency in 1809, he described America as "trusted with the destines of this solitary republic of the world, the only monument of human rights, and the sole depository of the sacred fire of freedom and self-government." Democracy Jefferson considered democracy to be the expression of society and promoted national self-determination, cultural uniformity, and education of all males of the commonwealth. He supported public education and a free press as essential components of a democratic nation. After resigning as Secretary of State in 1795, Jefferson focused on the electoral bases of the Republicans and Federalists. The "Republican" classification for which he advocated included "the entire body of landholders" everywhere and "the body of laborers" without land. Republicans united behind Jefferson as vice president, with the election of 1796 expanding democracy nationwide at grassroots levels. Jefferson promoted Republican candidates for local offices. Beginning with Jefferson's electioneering for the "revolution of 1800," his political efforts were based on egalitarian appeals. In his later years, he referred to the 1800 election "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of '76 was in its form," one "not effected indeed by the sword ... but by the ... suffrage of the people." Voter participation grew during Jefferson's presidency, increasing to "unimaginable levels" compared to the Federalist Era, with turnout of about 67,000 in 1800 rising to about 143,000 in 1804. At the onset of the Revolution, Jefferson accepted William Blackstone's argument that property ownership would sufficiently empower voters' independent judgement, but he sought to further expand suffrage by land distribution to the poor. In the heat of the Revolutionary Era and afterward, several states expanded voter eligibility from landed gentry to all propertied male, tax-paying citizens with Jefferson's support. In retirement, he gradually became critical of his home state for violating "the principle of equal political rights"—the social right of universal male suffrage. He sought a "general suffrage" of all taxpayers and militia-men, and equal representation by population in the General Assembly to correct preferential treatment of the slave-holding regions. Religion Main article: Religious views of Thomas Jefferson Banks Jefferson distrusted government banks and opposed public borrowing, which he thought created long-term debt, bred monopolies, and invited dangerous speculation as opposed to productive labor. In one letter to Madison, he argued each generation should curtail all debt within 19 years, and not impose a long-term debt on subsequent generations. In 1791, President Washington asked Jefferson, then Secretary of State, and Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, if the Congress had the authority to create a national bank. While Hamilton believed Congress had the authority, Jefferson and Madison thought a national bank would ignore the needs of individuals and farmers, and would violate the Tenth Amendment by assuming powers not granted to the federal government by the states. Hamilton successfully argued that the implied powers given to the federal government in the Constitution supported the creation of a national bank, among other federal actions. Jefferson used agrarian resistance to banks and speculators as the first defining principle of an opposition party, recruiting candidates for Congress on the issue as early as 1792. As president, Jefferson was persuaded by Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin to leave the bank intact but sought to restrain its influence. Slavery Main article: Thomas Jefferson and slavery Jefferson lived in a planter economy largely dependent upon slavery, and as a wealthy landholder, used slave labor for his household, plantation, and workshops. He first recorded his slaveholding in 1774, when he counted 41 enslaved people. Over his lifetime he owned about 600 slaves; he inherited about 175 people while most of the remainder were people born on his plantations. Jefferson purchased some slaves in order to reunite their families. He sold approximately 110 people for economic reasons, primarily slaves from his outlying farms. In 1784 when the number of slaves he owned likely was approximately 200, he began to divest himself of many slaves and by 1794 he had divested himself of 161 individuals. Jefferson once said, "My first wish is that the labourers may be well treated". Jefferson did not work his slaves on Sundays and Christmas and he allowed them more personal time during the winter months. Some scholars doubt Jefferson's benevolence, however, noting cases of excessive slave whippings in his absence. His nail factory was staffed only by enslaved children. Many of the enslaved boys became tradesmen. Burwell Colbert, who started his working life as a child in Monticello's Nailery, was later promoted to the supervisory position of butler. Jefferson felt slavery was harmful to both slave and master but had reservations about releasing slaves from captivity, and advocated for gradual emancipation. In 1779, he proposed gradual voluntary training and resettlement to the Virginia legislature, and three years later drafted legislation allowing slaveholders to free their own slaves. In his draft of the Declaration of Independence, he included a section, stricken by other Southern delegates, criticizing King George III for supposedly forcing slavery onto the colonies. In 1784, Jefferson proposed the abolition of slavery in all western U.S. territories, limiting slave importation to 15 years. Congress, however, failed to pass his proposal by one vote. In 1787, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, a partial victory for Jefferson that terminated slavery in the Northwest Territory. Jefferson freed his slave Robert Hemings in 1794 and he freed his cook slave James Hemings in 1796. Jefferson freed his runaway slave Harriet Hemings in 1822. Upon his death in 1826, Jefferson freed five male Hemings slaves in his will. During his presidency, Jefferson allowed the diffusion of slavery into the Louisiana Territory hoping to prevent slave uprisings in Virginia and to prevent South Carolina secession. In 1804, in a compromise on the slavery issue, Jefferson and Congress banned domestic slave trafficking for one year into the Louisiana Territory. In 1806 he officially called for anti-slavery legislation terminating the import or export of slaves. Congress passed the law in 1807. In 1819, Jefferson strongly opposed a Missouri statehood application amendment that banned domestic slave importation and freed slaves at the age of 25 on grounds it would destroy the union. Jefferson shared the 'common belief' of his day that Black people were mentally and physically inferior, but argued that they nonetheless had innate human rights. In Notes on the State of Virginia, he created controversy by calling slavery a moral evil for which the nation would ultimately have to account to God. He therefore supported colonization plans that would transport freed slaves to another country, such as Liberia or Sierra Leone, though he recognized the impracticability of such proposals. Historical assessment Scholars remain divided on whether Jefferson truly condemned slavery and how he changed. Francis D. Cogliano traces the development of competing emancipationist then revisionist and finally contextualist interpretations from the 1960s to the present. The emancipationist view, held by the various scholars at the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, Douglas L. Wilson, and others, maintains Jefferson was an opponent of slavery all his life, noting that he did what he could within the limited range of options available to him to undermine it, his many attempts at abolition legislation, the manner in which he provided for slaves, and his advocacy of their more humane treatment. The revisionist view, advanced by Paul Finkelman and others, criticizes him for holding slaves, and for acting contrary to his words. Jefferson never freed most of his slaves, and he remained silent on the issue while he was president. Contextualists such as Joseph J. Ellis emphasize a change in Jefferson's thinking from his emancipationist views before 1783, noting Jefferson's shift toward public passivity and procrastination on policy issues related to slavery. Jefferson seemed to yield to public opinion by 1794 as he laid the groundwork for his first presidential campaign against Adams in 1796. Jefferson-Hemings controversy Main article: Jefferson-Hemings controversy Interests and activities Jefferson was a farmer, obsessed with new crops, soil conditions, garden designs, and scientific agricultural techniques. His main cash crop was tobacco, but its price was usually low and it was rarely profitable. He tried to achieve self-sufficiency with wheat, vegetables, flax, corn, hogs, sheep, poultry, and cattle to supply his family, slaves, and employees, but he lived perpetually beyond his means and was always in debt. In the field of architecture, Jefferson helped popularize the Neo-Palladian style in the United States utilizing designs for the Virginia State Capitol, the University of Virginia, Monticello, and others. Jefferson mastered architecture through self-study, using various books and classical architectural designs of the day. His primary authority was Andrea Palladio's The Four Books of Architecture, which outlines the principles of classical design. He was interested in birds and wine, and was a noted gourmet; he was also a prolific writer and linguist, and spoke several languages. As a naturalist, he was fascinated by the Natural Bridge geological formation, and in 1774 successfully acquired the Bridge by a grant from George III. American Philosophical Society Jefferson was a member of the American Philosophical Society for 35 years, beginning in 1780. Through the society he advanced the sciences and Enlightenment ideals, emphasizing that knowledge of science reinforced and extended freedom. His Notes on the State of Virginia was written in part as a contribution to the society. He became the society's third president on March 3, 1797, a few months after he was elected Vice President of the United States. In accepting, Jefferson stated: "I feel no qualification for this distinguished post but a sincere zeal for all the objects of our institution and an ardent desire to see knowledge so disseminated through the mass of mankind that it may at length reach even the extremes of society, beggars and kings." Jefferson served as APS president for the next eighteen years, including through both terms of his presidency. He introduced Meriwether Lewis to the society, where various scientists tutored him in preparation for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He resigned on January 20, 1815, but remained active through correspondence. Linguistics Jefferson had a lifelong interest in linguistics, and could speak, read, and write in a number of languages, including French, Greek, Italian, and German. In his early years, he excelled in classical language while at boarding school where he received a classical education in Greek and Latin. Jefferson later came to regard the Greek language as the "perfect language" as expressed in its laws and philosophy. While attending the College of William & Mary, he taught himself Italian. Here Jefferson first became familiar with the Anglo-Saxon language, especially as it was associated with English Common law and system of government and studied the language in a linguistic and philosophical capacity. He owned 17 volumes of Anglo-Saxon texts and grammar and later wrote an essay on the Anglo-Saxon language. Jefferson claimed to have taught himself Spanish during his nineteen-day journey to France, using only a grammar guide and a copy of Don Quixote. Linguistics played a significant role in how Jefferson modeled and expressed political and philosophical ideas. He believed that the study of ancient languages was essential in understanding the roots of modern language. He collected and understood a number of American Indian vocabularies and instructed Lewis and Clark to record and collect various Indian languages during their Expedition. When Jefferson moved from Washington after his presidency, he packed 50 Native American vocabulary lists in a chest and transported them on a riverboat back to Monticello along with the rest of his possessions. Somewhere along the journey, a thief stole the heavy chest, thinking it was full of valuables, but its contents were dumped into the James River when the thief discovered it was only filled with papers. Subsequently, 30 years of collecting were lost, with only a few fragments rescued from the muddy banks of the river. Jefferson was not an outstanding orator and preferred to communicate through writing or remain silent if possible. Instead of delivering his State of the Union addresses himself, Jefferson wrote the annual messages and sent a representative to read them aloud in Congress. This started a tradition that continued until 1913 when President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) chose to deliver his own State of the Union address. Inventions Jefferson invented many small practical devices and improved contemporary inventions, including a revolving book-stand and a "Great Clock" powered by the gravitational pull on cannonballs. He improved the pedometer, the polygraph (a device for duplicating writing), and the moldboard plow, an idea he never patented and gave to posterity. Jefferson can also be credited as the creator of the swivel chair, the first of which he created and used to write much of the Declaration of Independence. As Minister to France, Jefferson was impressed by the military standardization program known as the Système Gribeauval, and initiated a program as president to develop interchangeable parts for firearms. For his inventiveness and ingenuity, he received several honorary Doctor of Law degrees. Legacy Historical reputation Jefferson is an icon of individual liberty, democracy, and republicanism, hailed as the author of the Declaration of Independence, an architect of the American Revolution, and a renaissance man who promoted science and scholarship. The participatory democracy and expanded suffrage he championed defined his era and became a standard for later generations. Meacham opined, that Jefferson was the most influential figure of the democratic republic in its first half-century, succeeded by presidential adherents James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, and Martin Van Buren. Jefferson is recognized for having written more than 18,000 letters of political and philosophical substance during his life, which Francis D. Cogliano describes as "a documentary legacy ... unprecedented in American history in its size and breadth." Jefferson's reputation declined during the American Civil War, due to his support of states' rights. In the late 19th century, his legacy was widely criticized; conservatives felt that his democratic philosophy had led to that era's populist movement, while Progressives sought a more activist federal government than Jefferson's philosophy allowed. Both groups saw Alexander Hamilton as vindicated by history, rather than Jefferson, and President Woodrow Wilson even described Jefferson as "though a great man, not a great American". In the 1930s, Jefferson was held in higher esteem; President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) and New Deal Democrats celebrated his struggles for "the common man" and reclaimed him as their party's founder. Jefferson became a symbol of American democracy in the incipient Cold War, and the 1940s and 1950s saw the zenith of his popular reputation. Following the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, Jefferson's slaveholding came under new scrutiny, particularly after DNA testing in the late 1990s supported allegations that he had fathered multiple children with Sally Hemings. Noting the huge output of scholarly books on Jefferson in recent years, historian Gordon Wood summarizes the raging debates about Jefferson's stature: "Although many historians and others are embarrassed about his contradictions and have sought to knock him off the democratic pedestal ... his position, though shaky, still seems secure." The Siena Research Institute poll of presidential scholars, begun in 1982, has consistently ranked Jefferson as one of the five best U.S. presidents, and a 2015 Brookings Institution poll of American Political Science Association members ranked him as the fifth greatest president. Memorials and honors Further information: List of places named for Thomas Jefferson Name: Washington Biography: George Washington(February 22, 1732- December 14, 1799) Position: 1st President of the United States，7th Senior Officer of the United States Army，Commander in Chief of the Continental Army，14th Chancellor of the College of William & Mary，Delegate from Virginia to the Continental Congress，Member of the Virginia House of Burgesses Political party : Independent Allegiance: United States Branch/service: Virginia Militia，Continental Army，United States Army Rank: Colonel (Virginia Militia)，General and Commander in Chief (Continental Army)， Lieutenant General (U.S. Army)，General of the Armies (promoted posthumously in 1976 by Congress) Commands: Virginia Regiment，Continental Army，United States Army Awards: Congressional Gold Medal，Thanks of Congress George Washington (February 22, 1732 - December 14, 1799) was an American political leader, military general, statesman, and Founding Father of the United States, who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Washington led the Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War, and presided at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which established the Constitution of the United States and a federal government for the United States. Washington has been called the "Father of the Nation" for his manifold leadership in the formative days of the country. Washington's first public office was serving as official Surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia from 1749 to 1750. Subsequently, he received his initial military training (as well as a command with the Virginia Regiment) during the French and Indian War. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress. Here he was appointed Commanding General of the Continental Army. With this title, he commanded American forces (allied with France) in the defeat and surrender of the British at the Siege of Yorktown during the American Revolutionary War. He resigned his commission after the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783. Washington played an indispensable role in adopting and ratifying the Constitution of the United States. He was then twice elected president by the Electoral College. He implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in a fierce rivalry between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. During the French Revolution, he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while sanctioning the Jay Treaty. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title "Mr. President", and his Farewell Address is widely regarded as a pre-eminent statement on republicanism. Washington owned several hundred slaves, and he supported measures passed by Congress to protect slavery. Starting in 1778, he became troubled with the institution of slavery and freed William Lee, one of his slaves, in his will. He freed the other 123 slaves that he owned upon the death of his wife, Martha Washington. She decided to respect her husband's wishes and freed these slaves on January 1, 1801, before her death. He endeavored to assimilate Native Americans into the Anglo-American culture but combated indigenous resistance during instances of violent conflict. He was a member of the Anglican Church and the {Freemason}s, and he urged broad religious freedom in his roles as general and president. Upon his death, he was eulogized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen". He has been memorialized by monuments, a federal holiday, various media, geographical locations, including the national capital, the State of Washington, stamps, and currency, and many scholars and polls rank him among the greatest U.S. presidents. On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily ranked General of the Armies, an honor that has only been awarded twice in the history of the United States. Early life (1732-1752) Further information: Washington family and British America Colonial military career (1752-1758) Lawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of the Virginia militia inspired his half-brother George to seek a commission. Virginia's lieutenant governor, Robert Dinwiddie, appointed George Washington as a major and commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of the Ohio Valley. While the British were constructing forts along the Ohio River, the French were doing the same—constructing forts between the Ohio River and Lake Erie. In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy. He had sent George to demand French forces to vacate land that was being claimed by the British. Washington was also appointed to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy, and to gather further intelligence about the French forces. Washington met with Half-King Tanacharison, and other Iroquois chiefs, at Logstown, and gathered information about the numbers and locations of the French forts, as well as intelligence concerning individuals taken prisoner by the French. Washington was given the nickname Conotocaurius (town taker or devourer of villages) by Tanacharison. The nickname had previously been given to his great-grandfather John Washington in the late seventeenth century by the Susquehannock. Washington's party reached the Ohio River in November 1753, and were intercepted by a French patrol. The party was escorted to Fort Le Boeuf, where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered the British demand to vacate to the French commander Saint-Pierre, but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer in a sealed envelope after a few days' delay, as well as food and extra winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia. Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days, in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and in London. French and Indian War Main articles: French and Indian War, George Washington in the French and Indian War, and Seven Years' War Marriage, civilian, and political life (1755-1775) On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married Martha Dandridge Custis, the 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation owner Daniel Parke Custis. The marriage took place at Martha's estate; she was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple created a happy marriage. They raised John Parke Custis (Jacky) and Martha Parke (Patsy) Custis, children from her previous marriage, and later Jacky's children Eleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) and George Washington Parke Custis (Washy). Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox is thought to have rendered him sterile, though it is equally likely that "Martha may have sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible." The couple lamented not having any children together. They moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he took up life as a planter of tobacco and wheat and emerged as a political figure. The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-third dower interest in the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) Custis estate, and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; the estate also included 84 slaves. He became one of Virginia's wealthiest men, which increased his social standing. At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties to all-volunteer militia during the French and Indian War. In late 1770, Washington inspected the lands in the Ohio and Great Kanawha regions, and he engaged surveyor William Crawford to subdivide it. Crawford allotted 23,200 acres (9,400 ha) to Washington; Washington told the veterans that their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming, and he agreed to purchase 20,147 acres (8,153 ha), leaving some feeling they had been duped. He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha) and increased its slave population to more than a hundred by 1775. Washington's political activities included supporting the candidacy of his friend George William Fairfax in his 1755 bid to represent the region in the Virginia House of Burgesses. This support led to a dispute which resulted in a physical altercation between Washington and another Virginia planter, William Payne. Washington defused the situation, including ordering officers from the Virginia Regiment to stand down. Washington apologized to Payne the following day at a tavern. Payne had been expecting to be challenged to a duel. As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758. He plied the voters with beer, brandy, and other beverages, although he was absent while serving on the Forbes Expedition. He won the election with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three other candidates with the help of several local supporters. He rarely spoke in his early legislative career, but he became a prominent critic of Britain's taxation policy and mercantilist policies towards the American colonies starting in the 1760s. By occupation, Washington was a planter, and he imported luxuries and other goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco. His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him ￡1,800 in debt by 1764, prompting him to diversify his holdings. In 1765, because of erosion and other soil problems, he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to include corn flour milling and fishing. Washington also took time for leisure with fox hunting, fishing, dances, theater, cards, backgammon, and billiards. Washington soon was counted among the political and social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2,000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those whom he considered "people of rank". He became more politically active in 1769, presenting legislation in the Virginia Assembly to establish an embargo on goods from Great Britain. Washington's step-daughter Patsy Custis suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she died in his arms in 1773. The following day, he wrote to Burwell Bassett: "It is easier to conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family". He canceled all business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months. Opposition to British Parliament and Crown Further information: American Revolution, American Revolutionary War, and George Washington in the American Revolution Commander in chief (1775-1783) See also: American Revolutionary War § American strategy Further information: Military career of George Washington Siege of Boston Main article: Siege of Boston Battle of Long Island Main article: Battle of Long Island Crossing the Delaware, Trenton, and Princeton Main articles: George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, Battle of Trenton, Battle of the Assunpink Creek, and Battle of Princeton Brandywine, Germantown, and Saratoga Main articles: Battle of Brandywine, Battle of Germantown, and Battle of Saratoga Valley Forge and Monmouth Main articles: Valley Forge and Battle of Monmouth West Point espionage Main articles: West Point and Military career of Benedict Arnold, 1777-1779 Southern theater and Yorktown Main article: Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War Early republic (1783-1789) Further information: Confederation Period and Articles of Confederation Constitutional Convention of 1787 Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States) First presidential election Main article: 1788-89 United States presidential election The delegates to the Convention anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected. The state electors under the Constitution voted for the president on February 4, 1789, and Washington suspected that most republicans had not voted for him. The mandated March 4 date passed without a Congressional quorum to count the votes, but a quorum was reached on April 5. The votes were tallied the next day, and Congressional Secretary Charles Thomson was sent to Mount Vernon to tell Washington he had been elected president. Washington won the majority of every state's electoral votes; John Adams received the next highest number of votes and therefore became vice president. Washington had "anxious and painful sensations" about leaving the "domestic felicity" of Mount Vernon, but departed for New York City on April 16 to be inaugurated. Presidency (1789-1797) Main article: Presidency of George Washington Cabinet and executive departments See also: Cabinet of the United States Domestic issues National Bank Jefferson-Hamilton feud Whiskey Rebellion Foreign affairs Native American affairs Further information: Native Americans in the United States, Battle of Fallen Timbers, Treaty of New York (1790), Treaty of Greenville, Northwest Territory, and Ohio Country Second term Farewell Address Main article: George Washington's Farewell Address In 1796, Washington declined to run for a third term of office, believing his death in office would create an image of a lifetime appointment. The precedent of a two-term limit was created by his retirement from office. In May 1792, in anticipation of his retirement, Washington instructed James Madison to prepare a "valedictory address", an initial draft of which was entitled the "Farewell Address". In May 1796, Washington sent the manuscript to his Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton who did an extensive rewrite, while Washington provided final edits. On September 19, 1796, David Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser published the final version of the address. Washington stressed that national identity was paramount, while a united America would safeguard freedom and prosperity. He warned the nation of three eminent dangers: regionalism, partisanship, and foreign entanglements, and said the "name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local discriminations." Washington called for men to move beyond partisanship for the common good, stressing that the United States must concentrate on its own interests. He warned against foreign alliances and their influence in domestic affairs, and bitter partisanship and the dangers of political parties. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but advised against involvement in European wars. He stressed the importance of religion, asserting that "religion and morality are indispensable supports" in a republic. Washington's address favored Hamilton's Federalist ideology and economic policies. Washington closed the address by reflecting on his legacy: Though in reviewing the incidents of my Administration I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence, and that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of rest. After initial publication, many Republicans, including Madison, criticized the Address and believed it was an anti-French campaign document. Madison believed Washington was strongly pro-British. Madison also was suspicious of who authored the Address. In 1839, Washington biographer Jared Sparks maintained that Washington's "... Farewell Address was printed and published with the laws, by order of the legislatures, as an evidence of the value they attached to its political precepts, and of their affection for its author." In 1972, Washington scholar James Flexner referred to the Farewell Address as receiving as much acclaim as Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence and Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. In 2010, historian Ron Chernow reported the Farewell Address proved to be one of the most influential statements on Republicanism. Retirement (1797-1799) Further information: Post-presidency of George Washington Final days and death On December 12, 1799, Washington inspected his farms on horseback. He returned home late and had guests over for dinner. He had a sore throat the next day but was well enough to mark trees for cutting. That evening, he complained of chest congestion but was still cheerful. On Saturday, he awoke to an inflamed throat and difficulty breathing, so he ordered estate overseer George Rawlins to remove nearly a pint of his blood, bloodletting being a common practice of the time. His family summoned Doctors James Craik, Gustavus Richard Brown, and Elisha C. Dick. (Dr. William Thornton arrived some hours after Washington died.) Dr. Brown thought Washington had quinsy; Dr. Dick thought the condition was a more serious "violent inflammation of the throat". They continued the process of bloodletting to approximately five pints, and Washington's condition deteriorated further. Dr. Dick proposed a tracheotomy, but the others were not familiar with that procedure and therefore disapproved. Washington instructed Brown and Dick to leave the room, while he assured Craik, "Doctor, I die hard, but I am not afraid to go." Washington's death came more swiftly than expected. On his deathbed, he instructed his private secretary Tobias Lear to wait three days before his burial, out of fear of being entombed alive. According to Lear, he died peacefully between 10 and 11 p.m. on December 14, 1799, with Martha seated at the foot of his bed. His last words were "'Tis well", from his conversation with Lear about his burial. He was 67. Congress immediately adjourned for the day upon news of Washington's death, and the Speaker's chair was shrouded in black the next morning. The funeral was held four days after his death on December 18, 1799, at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Cavalry and foot soldiers led the procession, and six colonels served as the pallbearers. The Mount Vernon funeral service was restricted mostly to family and friends. Reverend Thomas Davis read the funeral service by the vault with a brief address, followed by a ceremony performed by various members of Washington's Masonic lodge in Alexandria, Virginia. Congress chose Light-Horse Harry Lee to deliver the eulogy. Word of his death traveled slowly; church bells rang in the cities, and many places of business closed. People worldwide admired Washington and were saddened by his death, and memorial processions were held in major cities of the United States. Martha wore a black mourning cape for one year, and she burned their correspondence to protect their privacy. Only five letters between the couple are known to have survived: two from Martha to George and three from him to her. The diagnosis of Washington's illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since the day he died. The published account of Drs. Craik and Brown stated that his symptoms had been consistent with cynanche trachealis (tracheal inflammation), a term of that period used to describe severe inflammation of the upper windpipe, including quinsy. Accusations have persisted since Washington's death concerning medical malpractice, with some believing he had been bled to death. Various modern medical authors have speculated that he died from a severe case of epiglottitis complicated by the given treatments, most notably the massive blood loss which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock. Burial, net worth, and aftermath Washington was buried in the old Washington family vault at Mount Vernon, situated on a grassy slope overspread with willow, juniper, cypress, and chestnut trees. It contained the remains of his brother Lawrence and other family members, but the decrepit brick vault needed repair, prompting Washington to leave instructions in his will for the construction of a new vault. Washington's estate at the time of his death was worth an estimated $780,000 in 1799, approximately equivalent to $17.82 million in 2021. Washington's peak net worth was $587.0 million, including his 300 slaves. Washington held title to more than 65,000 acres of land in 37 different locations. In 1830, a disgruntled ex-employee of the estate attempted to steal what he thought was Washington's skull, prompting the construction of a more secure vault. The next year, the new vault was constructed at Mount Vernon to receive the remains of George and Martha and other relatives. In 1832, a joint Congressional committee debated moving his body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol. The crypt had been built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out capital, after the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812. Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South; many were concerned that Washington's remains could end up on "a shore foreign to his native soil" if the country became divided, and Washington's remains stayed in Mount Vernon. On October 7, 1837, Washington's remains were placed, still in the original lead coffin, within a marble sarcophagus designed by William Strickland and constructed by John Struthers earlier that year. The sarcophagus was sealed and encased with planks, and an outer vault was constructed around it. The outer vault has the sarcophagi of both George and Martha Washington; the inner vault has the remains of other Washington family members and relatives. Personal life Washington was somewhat reserved in personality, but he generally had a strong presence among others. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator or debater. He was taller than most of his contemporaries; accounts of his height vary from 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 3.5 in (1.92 m) tall, he weighed between 210-220 pounds (95-100 kg) as an adult, and he was known for his great strength. He had grey-blue eyes and reddish-brown hair which he wore powdered in the fashion of the day. He had a rugged and dominating presence, which garnered respect from his peers. He bought William Lee on May 27, 1768, and he was Washington's valet for 20 years. He was the only slave freed immediately in Washington's will. Washington frequently suffered from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all his teeth but one. He had several sets of false teeth made, which he wore during his presidency—none of which was made of wood, contrary to common lore. These dental problems left him in constant pain, for which he took laudanum. As a public figure, he relied upon the strict confidence of his dentist. Washington was a talented equestrian early in life. He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, and his two favorite horses were Blueskin and Nelson. Fellow Virginian Thomas Jefferson said Washington was "the best horseman of his age and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback"; he also hunted foxes, deer, ducks, and other game. He was an excellent dancer and attended the theater frequently. He drank in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity. Religion and {{Freemason}ry} Main articles: Religious views of George Washington and American Enlightenment Slavery Main articles: George Washington and slavery, Slavery in the colonial United States, and Slavery in the United States Abolition and manumission Main articles: George Washington and slavery and Abolitionism in the United States Historical reputation and legacy Further information: Legacy of George Washington, Cultural depictions of George Washington, and Historical rankings of presidents of the United States Washington's legacy endures as one of the most influential in American history since he served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, a hero of the Revolution, and the first president of the United States. Various historians maintain that he also was a dominant factor in America's founding, the Revolutionary War, and the Constitutional Convention. Revolutionary War comrade Light-Horse Harry Lee eulogized him as "First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen". Lee's words became the hallmark by which Washington's reputation was impressed upon the American memory, with some biographers regarding him as the great exemplar of republicanism. He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular, and he was called the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778. In 1879, Congress proclaimed Washington's Birthday to be a federal holiday. Twentieth-century biographer Douglas Southall Freeman concluded, "The great big thing stamped across that man is character." Modern historian David Hackett Fischer has expanded upon Freeman's assessment, defining Washington's character as "integrity, self-discipline, courage, absolute honesty, resolve, and decision, but also forbearance, decency, and respect for others". Washington became an international symbol for liberation and nationalism as the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire. The Federalists made him the symbol of their party, but the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence for many years and delayed building the Washington Monument. Washington was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on January 31, 1781, before he had even begun his presidency. He was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States during the United States Bicentennial to ensure he would never be outranked; this was accomplished by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976. On March 13, 1978, Washington was militarily promoted to the rank of General of the Armies. Parson Weems wrote a hagiographic biography in 1809 to honor Washington. Historian Ron Chernow maintains that Weems attempted to humanize Washington, making him look less stern, and to inspire "patriotism and morality" and to foster "enduring myths", such as Washington's refusal to lie about damaging his father's cherry tree. Weems' accounts have never been proven or disproven. Historian John Ferling, however, maintains that Washington remains the only founder and president ever to be referred to as "godlike", and points out that his character has been the most scrutinized by historians, past and present. Historian Gordon S. Wood concludes that "the greatest act of his life, the one that gave him his greatest fame, was his resignation as commander-in-chief of the American forces." Chernow suggests that Washington was "burdened by public life" and divided by "unacknowledged ambition mingled with self-doubt". A 1993 review of presidential polls and surveys consistently ranked Washington number 4, 3, or 2 among presidents. A 2018 Siena College Research Institute survey ranked him number 1 among presidents. Memorials Further information: The Washington Papers, List of memorials to George Washington, and Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps Jared Sparks began collecting and publishing Washington's documentary record in the 1830s in Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols., 1834-1837). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745-1799 (1931-1944) is a 39-volume set edited by John Clement Fitzpatrick, whom the George Washington Bicentennial Commission commissioned. It contains more than 17,000 letters and documents and is available online from the University of Virginia. Universities Further information: Washington (disambiguation) § Higher education Numerous universities, including George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis, were named in honor of Washington. Places and monuments Further information: Washington (disambiguation) § Places Many places and monuments have been named in honor of Washington, most notably the capital of the United States, Washington, D.C. The state of Washington is the only US state to be named after a president. Currency and postage Further information: Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill, the Presidential one-dollar coin and the quarter-dollar coin (the Washington quarter). Washington and Benjamin Franklin appeared on the nation's first postage stamps in 1847. Washington has since appeared on many postage issues, more than any other person. Name: Charles Lee Biography: Charles Lee Position: Grand Master of the Colonial Templars，Military commander Allegiance: Templar Order, Kingdom of Great Britain,Poland-Lithuania, United States of America Branch/service: British Army, Polish-Lithuanian Army, Continental Army Rank: British Army: Lieutenant Colonel,Polish Army: Major General,Continental Army: Major General Commands held :Southern Department of the Continental Army "And so we must fight on. We will vanquish our enemies. We will spread our word. And in time, my brothers and sisters, in time... we will have our New World." -Charles Lee, speaking at Haytham Kenway's funeral, 1782. Charles Henry Lee (1731 - 1782) was a British soldier and veteran of the French and Indian War, as well as a member of the Templar Order. After his induction into the Order, Lee took a position as Haytham Kenway's second-in-command, and it was in this role that he later joined the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War as a General. Throughout the Revolution, Lee competed against his political rival and superior, Commander George Washington, with the ultimate aim of taking control of the Patriot leadership and handing the newly formed nation over to his Templar brothers. Following Haytham's death in 1781, Lee briefly became the Grand Master of the Colonial Templars, until he died in 1782 at the hands of Haytham's son, the Assassin Ratonhnhake:ton. Biography Early life "Master Birch said I should know only as much as you saw fit to share. He sent me a list of names and bade me ensure you could find them." -Charles Lee to Haytham Kenway, shortly after the latter's arrival, 1754. Charles Lee was born to John Lee, a prominent British Colonel, and Isabella Bunbury, the daughter of a British Conservative politician. Due to his father's reputation and encouragement, Charles pursued a military career at a young age. He was sent to a military academy in Switzerland, and by 1746, he had joined his father's regiment as an ensign. Five years later, in 1751, Lee returned to England and was commissioned to the rank of lieutenant. In 1754, Charles was sent to the British colonies in America to serve under General Edward Braddock, to fight in the French and Indian War. At some point, Lee learned of and became affiliated with the Templar Order, of which Braddock was a member, and was keen to become a fully-fledged member. In response, Lee was given instructions by Reginald Birch, the Templar leader in Great Britain, to assist Haytham Kenway in finding and recruiting fellow Templars in the Colonies to assist in Haytham's mission: the location of the Grand Temple, perceived to be a hidden First Civilization storehouse. Induction into the Templar Order "If I am to serve the Order I can imagine no better mentor than yourself." -Charles to Haytham, 1754. Upon Haytham's arrival in Boston, Charles met the Grand Master at the docks and led him to the Green Dragon Tavern, where Haytham's fellow Templar, William Johnson, was residing. After a brief conversation with Johnson, Charles and Haytham set out to meet with Thomas Hickey, who was scouting a nearby bandit compound in an attempt to retrieve some of Johnson's stolen research. The three proceeded to raid the compound and accomplished their aims. Shortly thereafter, Charles and Haytham searched for Benjamin Church, who had recently been detained by a British military office named Silas Thatcher. After searching Church's ransacked home and eavesdropping on several guards and eyewitnesses, Charles and Haytham deduced Church's location; in a warehouse on the docks, following which the pair made their way there. After Haytham managed to pickpocket a key to the warehouse from a nearby guard, both Charles and Haytham rescued Church from being tortured and brought him to the Green Dragon. Subsequently, the two went to gather their final recruit, John Pitcairn, from General Braddock's encampment at Copp's Hill Battery. However, despite Braddock also being a Templar, Charles noted that and he and Haytham were clearly at odds. Furthermore, Braddock was already angered by the fact that despite Lee was in stationed under his command, the general had been forced by his superiors to let Lee help Haytham. These factors led to Braddock denying their request to give them Pitcairn. In a plan to retrieve Pitcairn, the two followed Braddock's entourage and ambushed them. After a brief engagement in a back alley, Haytham, Charles and Pitcairn left together. With all of the Templar recruits assembled at the Green Dragon tavern, Haytham proposed a plan to infiltrate Southgate Fort and kill Silas Thatcher, the notorious slaver who had kidnapped Church, to gain favor with the local Kanien'kehá:ka. Haytham reasoned that by doing so, the Kanien'kehá:ka would be willing to provide information that would lead them to the Grand Temple. After ambushing a slave cart transport destined for the fort, Lee and the others disguised themselves as British Regulars and led the convoy into the fort. Inside, Haytham stealthily freed the slaves while Lee and the others blended with and distracted the guards. However, upon realizing that the slaves had escaped, Silas raised the alarm. Lee and the others then fought and distracted the garrison, fending off Silas' troops while Haytham and Church killed the slaver, allowing them to free the remaining detainees. After several weeks, Haytham decided to make contact with a Kanien'kehá:ka woman, Kaniehtí:io, who would be a valuable ally in the search for the Precursor site. Lee was able to find a lead, informing Haytham that she had been seen in the wilderness near Lexington. However, Lee left shortly after beginning the search, explaining that he had to return to his commission under Braddock. Lee became well known among the Kanien'kehá:ka, who gave him the name Ounewaterika, which translates to "Boiling Water". Months later, Lee returned to Lexington in 1755, to aid Haytham in his plan to kill General Braddock. Charles assisted by taking part in Braddock's expedition. When the expedition was ambushed by the French Army Charles fired the first shot, killing the French Commander Daniel Lienard de Beaujeu. In the ensuing chaos of the attack, Haytham chased and killed Braddock. Haytham returned days later, revealing that the Precursor site had contained nothing and disregarded it as merely a painted cave. He then changed their goal to establish a permanent base and to expand Templar power and influence throughout the colonies. Commending Lee for his dedication and loyalty, Haytham decided to formally induct Lee into the Templar Order, placing a Templar ring on his finger that had previously belonged to Braddock. Fighting in the French and Indian War "You are nothing. A speck of dust. You and all your ilk. Living in the dirt like animals, oblivious to the true ways of the world." -Charles Lee to a young Ratonhnhake:ton, 1760. Following his induction, Lee continued to serve in the British Army; he participated in several battles during the French and Indian War, such as the battles at the forts of Ticonderoga and Niagara, and the British conquest of Montreal. In November 1757, after the violent death of Colonel George Monro, Lee attended the induction of former Assassin Shay Cormac into the Templar Order. In 1760, Lee and his fellow Templars, with the exception of Haytham - who was away on personal business - and Pitcairn, sought to meet with the elders of the local Kanien'kehá:ka tribe in Kanatahseton, in their continued efforts to locate the Precursor site. En route, Lee encountered a young boy in the forest and forcibly demanded the location of his village, unaware that the child was Ratonhnhake:ton, Haytham's son. Instead of answering, the boy defiantly asked for Lee's name, before warning him steadfastly that he would find him. Amused, Lee mocked the boy, saying that he would look forward to it, and left after Johnson had knocked the child out with the butt of his musket. Soon after, Lee and the others gave up in their search and left. Shortly afterward, Ratonhnhake:ton's village was set ablaze by George Washington and his forces, who suspected their allegiance to the French; an act which Ratonhnhake:ton would mistakenly attribute to the Templars. Lee returned to England in 1760 and was promoted to the rank of Major, where he fought in several campaigns in Portugal and Poland. Despite his service, Lee was not well paid, and so became a critic of several military and political figures in England. This backfired, however, and as a result, Lee was unable to advance his career as his payment didn't improve, nor his chances for promotion. Joining the Continental Army Lee returned to America in 1770, rejoining his Templar brothers. Along with Haytham, Lee instigated the Boston Massacre by firing his pistol into the air, alarming the guards and causing them to open fire against the protesting citizens. Although he was spotted by Ratonhnhake:ton - now a budding Assassin - Charles was able to evade detection. By 1773, the colonists had started to rebel against British rule, en masse. Beginning with the Boston Tea Party, the colony's citizens - aided by the Assassin Ratonhnhake:ton - dumped a large supply of British tea, owned by William Johnson, into the water of Boston's port as a show of defiance towards the tax laws. As a result, the Templars' found themselves unable to smuggle the tea, cutting off one of their main sources of funding. This act was the first, of many, which would eventually lead to the outbreak of war between the British Crown and her colonies. Responding to the events, Lee resigned his commission from the British Army and joined the Continentals in 1775. He quickly established himself as a strong supporter of the Patriots and became a likely candidate for the position of Commander-in-Chief, alongside George Washington. However, Lee's demand to be well compensated, which contrasted against Washington's selfless and modest insistence for little payment, saw him fall from favor for the position. As a result, Washington was chosen by the Continental Congress to lead the Continental Army. Despite this, Lee was still promoted to the rank of General and served directly under Washington. Charles also attended Washington's acceptance speech and watched with contempt and criticism. It was at this moment that Lee met a man named Connor, in actuality the self-same child he had assaulted over a decade before, but did not recognize him and merely dismissed him as Samuel Adams' lapdog. Plotting Washington's assassination "Your meddling in the revolution has caused us no small measure of grief. It cannot continue. Our work is too important." -Lee to Connor. In 1776, the Templars tasked Hickey with the murder of Washington, in order to secure Lee the promotion to Commander-in-Chief. Unfortunately for them, Hickey was intercepted by the Assassin, and was soon arrested for counterfeiting and treason, alongside Connor. On receiving word of Hickey's shortcomings, Charles and Haytham visited him in Bridewell Prison, where they reprimanded him for his recklessness and informed him that he could not be pardoned due the investigations against him by Benjamin Tallmadge. Upon realizing that Connor, the Assassin, was also locked up in a cell next to Hickey's, Lee formulated a new plan. Connor was later able to steal the prison warden's key and went to kill Hickey in his cell, only to find the murdered body of the warden. There, he was ambushed by both Hickey and Lee, who held him at gunpoint. In this moment, they revealed to Connor that he would be tried and executed for the murder of the warden and for attempting to assassinate Washington. Lee justified his actions and the Templars to Connor by slandering Washington, citing his poor military record and calling him unfit for leadership. Connor attempted to attack Lee, but was pinned down due to exhaustion. It was at this moment that Lee finally recognized Connor as the boy from the forest, to which Connor reminded Lee of his vow to find him. Lee then choked and rendered Connor unconscious. Lee's plan not only framed Connor but would allow Hickey an opportunity to murder Washington, who would personally attend the execution. The next day, Connor was taken to be publicly executed after Haytham and Lee were able to omit the supposed trial. Hickey escorted Connor to the gallows, with Lee presiding to announce his crimes against Washington and the colonies, before sentencing him to death. However, Connor was saved in part by Achilles Davenport and his Assassin recruits, and also through the intervention of Haytham, who had recently discovered his familial link to the Assassin. In the resulting confusion, Lee escaped while Hickey made a desperate attempt to kill Washington; he failed and was assassinated by Connor, proving the latter's innocence. Lee continued serving under Washington, biding his time and secretly undermining Washington's orders and authority. Washington failed in his campaign in keeping New York for the Patriots, and because of this, he ordered the evacuation of his forces as the British Army retook control of the city. However, Lee intentionally delayed the retreat and allowed himself to be captured by the British. Consequently, Lee was imprisoned, but since he formally resigned his commission in the British Army rather than deserting, Lee was treated with civility and given comfortable accommodations and fine dining. Lee then took this opportunity to give the British information regarding the Continental Army, hoping it would lead to further weaken and disgrace Washington in battle. Battle of Monmouth "I will say it one last time - that man is your enemy and he will not stop until you are dead or dishonored." -Connor's warning to Washington regarding Charles Lee. On his release from prison, Lee returned to Congress, where he attempted to convince them that the Continental Army was not strong enough to match the British forces. Nonetheless, Washington prepared his armies in Valley Forge to stop the British march from Philadelphia to New York in 1778. Washington also ordered the extermination of the Kanatahseton village, Connor's home, due to his suspicions of them allying with the British. Lee took advantage of this situation by traveling to Kanatahseton, where he met with Kanen'tó:kon and several others, and convinced them to join the war against the Continental Army in order to protect their land. He also manipulated Kanen'tó:kon into believing that Connor had betrayed the village by allying himself with Washington. Following this, Lee took control of Marquis de Lafayette's contingency forces at Monmouth and ordered a full retreat, while abandoning his post, leaving them unprepared against the advancing British forces. However, Connor arrived in time to help hold off the British Army and secured the Patriots' retreat, saving many lives of the Continental Army and sparing Washington a devastating defeat. Prompted by Lee's behavior, Connor and Lafayette revealed Lee's treachery to Washington. As a result, Washington investigated, leading to Lee's court martial for insubordinate behavior and poor command decisions. Lee was disgraced, though he was spared execution and was instead temporarily suspended from duty. Becoming Grand Master "He will wait. He will watch. And then - when he's seen all his life's work brought to ruin... Only then will I allow him to die." -Lee to his guard regarding Connor. By 1781, both Haytham and Charles knew that Connor sought his death; Lee resided in the Templar-controlled Fort George, in the military district of New York. Haytham visited Lee, encouraging him to leave and assuring him that there was no danger, while also giving him his amulet for safekeeping. Soon after, Connor infiltrated the military district with aid of several French warships creating a diversion. As he had expected an attack, Haytham had remained to confront and kill his son, however Connor prevailed in the struggle they shared, assassinating Haytham. Lee soon learned of this and ascended to the rank of Grand Master, in Haytham's place, over what was left of the Templar Order. Months later, in 1782, Lee presided over Haytham's funeral and delivered the eulogy in his honor. However, Connor appeared from the crowd and approached Lee, though he was restrained by guards. Enraged by Connor's constant interference of his plans and the murder of his comrades, Lee vowed revenge, promising not only to kill him, but to also murder everyone and destroy everything that Connor loved and held dear. Connor brushed off Lee's threats, warning him that he would fail, and die with the rest of his plans. As the guards carried Connor away, Lee decided to gather an army and recuperate his power. To this end, he recruited the captain of the HMS Jersey and many mercenaries to his cause. After leaving for Boston, Lee learned that Connor had escaped, to which he decided to flee and return to England for safety. Death "Why do you persist...? You put us down. We rise again. You end one plot - we forge another. You try so hard... But it always ends the same. Those who know you think you mad and this is why... Even those men you sought to save have turned their backs on you. Yet you fight. You resist. Why?" -Lee to Connor. Connor intercepted Lee at Boston pier, leading to a chase through the dockyards. Lee attempted to lose Connor by running through a ferry under construction, during which an accident had caused it to set ablaze. After a dangerous pursuit, both Lee and Connor crashed through a collapsed floor, with Connor impaling himself on a wooden splinter through his abdomen. Lee approached Connor, looking down on him, before asking why the Assassins fought an endless and futile cause against the Templars. Catching Lee off guard, Connor quickly raised his pistol and shot Lee in the stomach. Though injured, Lee managed to escape, taking a ferry up the Charles River to Monmouth and rested at the Conestoga Inn. Connor once again followed and caught up with him, neither in any condition to fight. Lee silently offered and shared his drink, to which Connor accepted. Welcoming his end, Lee gave Connor a slight nod, and Connor proceeded to stab Lee in the heart. After the Assassin took the amulet from around Lee's neck, Charles fell forward against the table and finally passed away. Personality and characteristics "Even though I liked him straight away, I noticed that, while he smiled when he spoke to me, he reserved a look of disdain for everybody else on the harbour." -Haytham Kenway Charles Lee, throughout most of his life, was a veteran warrior and commander from years of military service in the French and Indian War and American Revolution. In his youth, Lee was dedicated, enthusiastic and keen. To this, William Johnson commented that he was "a good lad, if a bit earnest." All of this changed as he rose through the Order's ranks to become second-in-command. Though Lee was seemingly noble and honorable, he appeared as impulsive, violent and aggressive. In his pursuit to take control of the colonies, he also became ruthless, vengeful and cruel. This was evident by his strong political motivations and demand for higher pay. Furthermore, his arrogance manifested into violence and contempt for others; for example, he had frustration for the Kanien'kehá:ka people for not knowing the threats the colonists might pose, considering them to be naive, and he also slandered and criticized Washington with passion. His cruel and vengeful side showed in his promise to Connor to destroy him utterly; he outright stated that he would kill all Connor held dear or who were even remotely associated with him, including the innocent people who lived on the Davenport Homestead and his entire village. Despite his long, successful career and military prowess, Lee wasn't popular or favored amongst the Patriots. This was clear by how the Congress viewed him: vulgar and slovenly in appearance and attitude, as well as greedy. As a result, Lee constantly plotted and competed against Washington to seize his command. However, Haytham had strong faith in Lee's ability, loyalty and understanding of the Templar vision for a New World Order. Trivia Assassin's Creed III The initial render of Charles Lee prior to the game's release showed him as an older-looking character. Charles Lee was the first major assassination target to die without sharing their final thoughts with their killer, neither in the Animus' memory corridor, nor at the moment of their death. Among the Kanien'kehá:ka, Charles Lee was known as Ounewaterika, meaning "Boiling Water". In the Davenport Manor's basement, Ratonhnhake:ton's memento from killing Lee was the Grand Temple Key, despite the fact that after Lee's death, the key was buried in Connor Davenport's grave. Historically, Lee was only discharged from the Continental Army years after his retreat: On January 10, 1780, he was formally discharged and spent his remaining years reportedly verbally attacking Washington to anybody around, and as a result, was frequently challenged to duels by those loyal to Washington. In a duel with Colonel John Laurens, Lee was heavily wounded in his side, but he continued to duel. Charles eventually retired to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he died of fever on October 2, 1782. In 2015, his name was on a list of known British Templars used by the Templar Isabelle Ardant. Concept art of Lee has appeared in-game as a portrait in two instances: one hung in Isabelle Ardant's London office, while another could be seen in the Finnegans' residence during the "The Color of Right" memory. Assassin's Creed: Rogue In the memory "Scars", Charles' older character model from Ratonhnhake:ton's adulthood is used despite it being set before "Hide and Seek" in Assassin's Creed III where he appears in his younger character model. The above is the information about Lee in the popular culture Assassin's Creed, the following is the information on Wikipedia Charles Henry Lee (6 February 1732 - 2 October 1782) served as a general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He also served earlier in the British Army during the Seven Years War. He sold his commission after the Seven Years War and served for a time in the Polish army of King Stanislaus II Augustus. Lee moved to North America in 1773 and bought an estate in western Virginia. When the fighting broke out in the American War of Independence in 1775, he volunteered to serve with rebel forces. Lee's ambitions to become Commander in Chief of the Continental Army were thwarted by the appointment of George Washington to that post. In 1776, forces under his command repulsed a British attempt to capture Charleston, which boosted his standing with the army and Congress. Later that year, he was captured by British cavalry under Banastre Tarleton; he was held by the British as a prisoner until exchanged in 1778. During the Battle of Monmouth later that year, Lee led an assault on the British that miscarried. He was subsequently court-martialed and his military service brought to an end. He died in Philadelphia in 1782. Early and personal life Lee was born on February 6 1732 in Darnhall, Cheshire, England, the son of Major General John Lee and his wife Isabella Bunbury (daughter of Sir Henry Bunbury, 3rd Baronet). His mother's family were landed gentry with national stature -- his maternal grandfather had been an MP for Cheshire, and a cousin, Sir Thomas Charles Bunbury, was a MP for Suffolk. Five of Lee's six older siblings had died - only his sister Sidney Lee, four years older, survived to adulthood. Neither Sidney nor Charles ever married. Like his mother, with whom he did not get along well, Lee would have a temperamental personality and poor physical health (suffering rheumatism and chronic attacks of gout), which caused him to travel often to medicinal spas. He received a private education from tutors, then was sent to a grammar school near Chester and a private academy in Switzerland before being sent to King Edward VI School, Bury St Edmunds, a free grammar school near the home of his uncle, Rev. William Bunbury, with a reputation for preparing young men for studies at Cambridge. Lee became proficient in several languages, including Latin, Greek, and French. His father was colonel of the 55th Foot (later renumbered the 44th) when he purchased a commission on April 9, 1747 for Charles as an ensign in the same regiment. Despite inheriting money upon his mother's death, Lee became known for a peripatetic and extravagant lifestyle, which led to financial difficulties several times in his life, including after liquidating land grants in East Florida and St. John's Island in the Gulf of St. Laurence in the late 1760s (which he received because of his service in the French and Indian War described below). By 1770, Lee had acquired the services of Guiseppe Minghini, who would remain his servant until the end of his life and received a bequest. Lee also owned at least six slaves shortly before his death, and his will divided ownership of all his slaves (three mentioned by name) between Minghini and Elizabeth Dunne, Lee's housekeeper. After paying his debts and a number of specific bequests, some involving horses and others money (usually to purchase mourning rings), Lee directed his executors (future congressman Alexander White and former Rev. Charles Mynn Thurston), to pay the remainder of his estate (worth about $700 according to the filed inventory) to his sister Sidney. Seven Years' War and after Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years War and French and Indian War Return to England and America Returning to England again, he found that he was sympathetic to the American colonists in their quarrel with Britain. He moved to the colonies in 1773 and in 1775 purchased an estate worth ￡3,000 in Berkeley County, near the home of his friend Horatio Gates, with whom he had served in the French and Indian War and who had moved back to the colony in 1772. This area is now part of West Virginia. He spent ten months travelling through the colonies and acquainting himself with patriots. American Revolution Continental Army Although Lee was generally acknowledged at the Second Continental Congress to be the most capable candidate for the command of the Continental Army, the role was given to George Washington. Lee recognized the sense of giving the position to a native-born American, but expected to be given the role of second-in-command. He was disappointed when that role went to Artemas Ward, whom Lee considered too inexperienced for the job. Lee was appointed Major-General and third in line, but succeeded to second-in-command in 1776 when Ward resigned due to ill health. Southern command Main article: Battle of Sullivan's Island New York and capture Main article: New York Campaign Battle of Monmouth Main article: Battle of Monmouth Later life Lee retired to his Prato Rio property in the Shenandoah Valley, where he bred horses and dogs. However, debts had again accumulated, and his advisors recommended liquidating the property. By the spring of 1780, in addition to more frequent gout attacks, Lee had acquired a chronic cough which with other symptoms might have indicated tuberculosis. He made a final tour of Baltimore, Williamsburg and Fredericksburg, Virginia, Frederick, Maryland and western Pennsylvania. While visiting Philadelphia to complete the property's sale (that to Maryland buyers having fallen through), he was stricken with fever and died in an inn on October 2, 1782. Despite a provision of his will that denounced organized religion and specifically forbad burial near a church or religious meeting house, his remains were taken to the City Tavern for friends and dignitaries to pay their respects, then a military escort took his remains to Christ Church, where after a brief Anglican service, Lee was buried in the churchyard in an unmarked grave. Lee left his property to his sister, Sidney Lee, who died unmarried in 1788. Legacy Lee's last home, Prato Rio, still exists, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A historical marker indicates General Lee's service. Much of the adjoining property, which has many natural springs, has been federally owned since 1931, and is currently operated by the U.S. Geological Survey as the Leetown Science Center (formerly the National Fish Hatchery and Research Station), as well as the federal agency's eastern regional office. Fort Lee, New Jersey, on the west side of the Hudson River (across the water from Fort Washington, New York), was named for him during his life. Lee, Massachusetts; Lee, New Hampshire; and Leetown, West Virginia were also named for him. Lee's place in history was further tarnished in the 1850s when George H. Moore, the librarian at the New-York Historical Society, discovered a manuscript dated March 29, 1777, written by Lee while he was a British prisoner of war. It was addressed to the "Royal Commissioners", i.e. Lord Richard Howe and Richard's brother, Sir William Howe, respectively the British naval and army commanders in North America at the time, and detailed a plan by which the British might defeat the rebellion. Moore's discovery, presented in a paper titled The Treason of Charles Lee in 1858, influenced perceptions of Lee for decades. Lee's calumny achieved an orthodoxy in such 19th-century works as Washington Irving's Life of George Washington (1855-1859), George Washington Parke Custis's Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington (1861) and George Bancroft's History of the United States of America, from the Discovery of the American Continent (1854-1878). Although most modern scholars reject the idea that Lee was guilty of treason, it is given credence in some acco Name: Morgan Biography: Daniel Morgan(1735/1736 - July 6, 1802) Position: Commander of Morgan's Riflemen Allegiance: United States Branch/service: Continental Army United States Army Political party: Federalist Rank: Brigadier General Commands: Morgan's Riflemen Battles/wars :American Revolutionary War Invasion of Canada Battle of Saratoga Battle of Freeman's Farm Battle of Bemis Heights Battle of Cowpens Whiskey Rebellion Daniel Morgan (1735/1736 - July 6, 1802) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician from Virginia. One of the most respected battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War of 1775-1783, he later commanded troops during the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion of 1791-1794. Born in New Jersey to Welsh immigrants, Morgan settled in Winchester, Virginia. He became an officer of the Virginia militia and recruited a company of riflemen at the start of the Revolutionary War--Morgan's Riflemen or Morgan's Rifles, previously Morgan's Sharpshooters, and the one named Provisional Rifle Corps, were an elite light infantry unit commanded by General Daniel Morgan in the American Revolutionary War, which served a vital role executing his tasks because it was equipped with what was then the cutting-edge rifle instead of muskets, allowing for a Rifleman to have an effective range of double that of the average Infantryman History Daniel Morgan got his start in the Revolutionary War in 1775 as the captain of a small rifle unit set up by the state of Virginia, one of 10 such units commissioned by Congress. Morgan recruited 96 men (80 men and 16 officers), marched 600 miles, arriving in Boston on August 6, 1775. They gave an exhibition as described in the Virginia Gazette of September 9, 1775 quoted; "A man held between his knees a board 5 inches wide and seven inches long, with a paper bulls-eye the size of a dollar. A rifleman at 60 yards without a rest, put eight bullets in succession through the bulls-eye." From the same source we are told that the rifleman gave an exhibition "in which a company, on a quick advance, placed their shots in 7 inch targets at 250 yards." The rifle or more properly, the Pennsylvania Long Rifle and later known as the Kentucky Rifle made by German immigrants was cutting edge at the time as it had grooves called rifling to spin the ball greatly improving accuracy. Later Morgan's most significant action was support for the invasion of Canada, and the Battle of Quebec in which he was seen as a hero, despite General Benedict Arnold's overall failure and their subsequent capture. In early 1777, when Morgan was freed from captivity, he was commissioned as a colonel and assigned command of the 11th Virginia Regiment, and a few months later was also instructed by George Washington to form a Provisional Rifle Corps, men skilled with the use of the long rifle, from his and other nearby regiments. Having done so, his first assignment was to harass Colonel William Howe as he retreated through New Jersey. Morgan did so by having his 500 riflemen snipe the enemy troops as they moved, using their longer range to do so from safety, an unusual tactic for that day. Sent to join the northern army headed by General Horatio Gates, Morgan's Riflemen helped establish better conditions for the coming Battle of Saratoga, by a series of quick attacks on their Indian allies, driving them back in order to interfere with British intelligence of the American troops' movements. His Riflemen proved pivotal in several engagements, including driving back an advanced unit all the way to the enemy's main forces, and later helping turn the main battle by attacking from the right flank, and is credited with forcing the British retreat. After a series of similar successes, Morgan left active service for a year, then joined the southern army with Nathanael Greene. In the January 1781 Battle of Cowpens, Morgan led Continental troops to a major victory that resulted in the near-total destruction of Tarleton's force. Morgan retired shortly afterwards due to health issues. Popular Media Morgan's Riflemen were a key model for the fictional unit portrayed in the movie The Patriot, by Mel Gibson. In Empire: Total War, Morgan's Riflemen was a unique unit to the United States via DLC. Early in the war, Morgan served in Benedict Arnold's expedition to Quebec and in the Saratoga campaign. He also served in the Philadelphia campaign before resigning from the army in 1779. Morgan returned to the army after the Battle of Camden, and led the Continental Army to victory in the Battle of Cowpens. After the war, Morgan retired from the army again and developed a large estate. He was recalled to duty in 1794 to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, and commanded a portion of the army that remained in Western Pennsylvania after the rebellion. A member of the Federalist Party, Morgan twice ran for the United States House of Representatives, winning election to the House in 1796. He retired from Congress in 1799 and died in 1802. Early years Daniel Morgan is believed to have been born in the village of Hunterdon County, New Jersey in Lebanon Township. All four of his grandparents were Welsh immigrants who lived in Pennsylvania. Both of Morgan's parents were born in Pennsylvania and then later moved to New Jersey together. Morgan was the fifth of seven children of James Morgan (1702-1782) and Eleanor Lloyd (1706-1748). When Morgan was 17, he left home following a fight with his father. After working at odd jobs in Pennsylvania, he moved to the Shenandoah Valley. He finally settled on the Virginia frontier, near what is now Winchester, Virginia. He worked clearing land, running a sawmill, and as a teamster. In a little more than two years, he saved enough to buy his own team. With multiple extra wagons, this operation quickly expanded into a thriving business. Morgan served as a civilian teamster during the French and Indian War, with Daniel Boone, sometimes said to be his cousin. During the retreat from Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh), he was punished with 500 lashes (a usually fatal sentence) for attacking an officer. Morgan thus acquired a disdain for British authorities and their treatment of provincials. Later, when he led troops, he banned flogging. He then met Abigail Curry; they married and had two daughters, Nancy and Betsy. Abigail would teach him how to read and write. Morgan later served as a rifleman in the provincial forces assigned to protect the western settlements from French-backed Indian raids. He led a force that relieved Fort Edwards during its siege and successfully directed the defence afterward. Sometime after the war, he purchased a farm between Winchester and Battletown. By 1774, he was so prosperous that he owned ten slaves. That year, he served in Dunmore's War, taking part in raids on Shawnee villages in the Ohio Country. American Revolution After the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the Continental Congress created the Continental Army in June 1775. They called for the formation of 10 rifle companies from the middle colonies to support the Siege of Boston, and late in June 1775, Virginia agreed to send two. Morgan was chosen by a unanimous vote by the Committee of Frederick County to form one of these companies and become its commander. Morgan recruited 96 men in 10 days and assembled them at Winchester on July 14. This was even larger than authorized strength. His company of marksmen was nicknamed "Morgan's Riflemen". Another company was raised from Shepherdstown by his rival, Hugh Stephenson. Stephenson's company initially planned to meet Morgan's company in Winchester but found them gone. Morgan marched his men 600 miles (970 km) to Boston, Massachusetts in 21 days, arriving on August 6, 1775. Locals called it the "Bee-Line March", noting that Stephenson somehow marched his men 600 miles from their meeting point at Morgan's Spring, in 24 days, so they arrived at Cambridge on Friday, August 11, 1775. The long rifles used were more accurate and had a longer range than other firearms at that time (300 yards as compared to 80 for standard smooth-bore muskets), but took much longer to load. As they were handmade, calibres varied, requiring differently sized bullets. When his men were done training Morgan used them as snipers, shooting mostly British officers who thought they were out of range, sometimes they killed 10 British in a day. This caused great outrage within and without the British army; amongst others, Washington disapproved of this way of war, and when gunpowder began to run out he forbade Morgan to fight in such a manner. Invasion of Canada In June that year, the Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Canada. Colonel Benedict Arnold convinced General Washington to start an eastern offensive in support of Montgomery's invasion. Washington agreed to dispatch three companies from his forces at Boston, provided they agreed. Every company at Boston volunteered, and a lottery was used to choose who should go. Morgan's company was one of them. Benedict Arnold selected Captain Morgan to lead the three companies as a battalion. Arnold's expedition set out from Fort Western on September 25, with Morgan leading the advance party. The Arnold Expedition started with about 1,050 men; by the time they reached Quebec on November 9, that had been reduced to 675. When Montgomery's men arrived, they launched a joint assault. The Battle of Quebec began in a blizzard on the morning of December 31. The Patriots attacked in two pincers, commanded by Montgomery and Arnold. Arnold attacked against the lower city from the north, but he suffered a leg wound early in the battle. Morgan took command of the force, and he successfully overcame the first rampart and entered the city. Montgomery's force initiated their attack as the blizzard became severe, and Montgomery and many of his troops, except for Aaron Burr, were killed or wounded in the first British volley. With Montgomery down, his attack faltered. British General Carleton consequently was able to lead hundreds of the Quebec militia in the encirclement of the second attack. Carleton was also able to move his cannons and men to the first barricade, behind Morgan's force. Divided and subject to fire from all sides, Morgan's troops gradually surrendered. Morgan handed his sword to a French-Canadian priest, refusing to give it to Carleton in formal surrender. Morgan thus became one of the 372 men captured, and he remained a prisoner of war until he was exchanged in January 1777. 11th Virginia Regiment When he rejoined Washington early in 1777, Morgan was surprised to learn he had been promoted to colonel for his bravery at Quebec. He was ordered to raise and command a new infantry regiment, the 11th Virginia Regiment of the Continental Line. On June 13, 1777, Morgan was given command of the Provisional Rifle Corps, a light infantry force of 500 riflemen chosen from Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia regiments of the Continental Army. Many were from his own 11th Regiment. Washington sent them to harass General William Howe's rearguard, and Morgan did so during their entire withdrawal across New Jersey. Saratoga A detachment of Morgan's regiment, commanded by Morgan, was reassigned to the army's Northern Department and on Aug 30 he joined General Horatio Gates to aid in resisting Burgoyne's offensive. He is prominently depicted in the painting of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga by John Trumbull. Freeman's Farm Morgan led his regiment, with the added support of Henry Dearborn's 300-man New Hampshire infantry, as the advance to the main forces. On September 19, at Freeman's Farm, they ran into the advance of General Simon Fraser's wing of Burgoyne's force. Every officer in the British advance party died in the first exchange, and the advance guard retreated. Morgan's men charged without orders, but the charge fell apart when they ran into the main column led by General Hamilton. Benedict Arnold arrived, and he and Morgan managed to reform the unit. As the British began to form on the fields at Freeman's farm, Morgan's men continued to break these formations with accurate rifle fire from the woods on the far side of the field. They were joined by another seven regiments from Bemis Heights. For the rest of the afternoon, American fire held the British in check, but repeated American charges were repelled by British bayonets. Bemis Heights Burgoyne's next offensive resulted in the Battle of Bemis Heights on Oct. 7. Morgan was assigned command of the left (or western) flank of the American position. The British plan was to turn that flank, using an advance by 1,500 men. This brought Morgan's brigade once again up against General Fraser's forces. Passing through the Canadian loyalists, Morgan's Virginia sharpshooters got the British light infantry trapped in a crossfire between themselves and Dearborn's regiment. Although the light infantry broke, General Fraser was trying to rally them, encouraging his men to hold their positions when Benedict Arnold arrived. Arnold spotted him and called to Morgan: "That man on the grey horse is a host unto himself and must be disposed of — direct the attention of some of the sharpshooters amongst your riflemen to him!" Morgan reluctantly ordered Fraser shot by a sniper, and Timothy Murphy obliged him. With Fraser mortally wounded, the British light infantry fell back into and through the redoubts occupied by Burgoyne's main force. Morgan was one of those who then followed Arnold's lead to turn a counter-attack from the British middle. Burgoyne retired to his starting positions, but about 500 men poorer for the effort. That night, he withdrew to the village of Saratoga, New York (renamed Schuylerville in honor of Philip Schuyler) about eight miles to the northwest. During the next week, as Burgoyne dug in, Morgan and his men moved to his north. Their ability to cut up any patrols sent in their direction convinced the British that retreat was not possible. New Jersey and retirement After Saratoga, Morgan's unit rejoined Washington's main army, near Philadelphia. Throughout 1778 he hit British columns and supply lines in New Jersey but was not involved in any major battles. He was not involved in the Battle of Monmouth but actively pursued the withdrawing British forces and captured many prisoners and supplies. When the Virginia Line was reorganized on September 14, 1778, Morgan became the colonel of the 7th Virginia Regiment. Throughout this period, Morgan became increasingly dissatisfied with the army and the Congress. He had never been politically active or cultivated a relationship with the Congress. As a result, he was repeatedly passed over for promotion to brigadier, favor going to men with less combat experience but better political connections. While still a colonel with Washington, he had temporarily commanded Weedon's brigade and felt himself ready for the position. Besides this frustration, his legs and back aggravated him from the abuse taken during the Quebec Expedition. He was finally allowed to resign on June 30, 1779, and returned home to Winchester. In June 1780, he was urged to re-enter the service by General Gates but declined. Gates was taking command in the Southern Department, and Morgan felt that being outranked by so many militia officers would limit his usefulness. After Gates' disaster at the Battle of Camden, Morgan thrust all other considerations aside, and went to join the Southern command at Hillsborough, North Carolina. Southern Campaign He met Gates at Hillsborough, and was given command of the light infantry corps on Oct. 2. At last, on October 13, 1780, Morgan received his promotion to brigadier general. Morgan met his new Department Commander, Nathanael Greene, on December 3, 1780 at Charlotte, North Carolina. Greene did not change his command assignment, but did give him new orders. Greene had decided to split his army and annoy the enemy in order to buy time to rebuild his force. He gave Morgan's command of about 600 men the job of foraging and enemy harassment in the backcountry of South Carolina, while avoiding direct battle. When this strategy became apparent, the British General Cornwallis sent Colonel Banastre Tarleton's British Legion to track him down. Morgan talked with many of the militia who had fought Tarleton before, and decided to disobey his order, by setting up a direct confrontation. Battle of Cowpens Main article: Battle of Cowpens Morgan chose to make his stand at Cowpens, South Carolina. On the morning of January 17, 1781, they met Tarleton in the Battle of Cowpens. Morgan had been joined by militia forces under Andrew Pickens and William Washington's dragoons. Tarleton's legion was supplemented with the light infantry from several regiments of regulars. Morgan's plan took advantage of Tarleton's tendency for quick action and his disdain for the militia, as well as the longer range and accuracy of his Virginia riflemen. The marksmen were positioned to the front, followed by the militia, with the regulars at the hilltop. The first two units were to withdraw as soon as they were seriously threatened, but after inflicting damage. This would invite a premature charge from the British. The tactic resulted in a double envelopment. As the British forces approached, the Americans, with their backs turned to the British, reloaded their muskets. When the British got close to the Americas, they turned and fired at point-blank range in their faces. In less than an hour, Tarleton's 1,076 men suffered 110 killed and 830 captured; 200 British prisoners of war were wounded. The British Legion, among the best units in Cornwallis's army, was effectively disbanded. A Scottish soldier claimed after the battle that "he was an officer before Tarleton was born; that the best troops in the service were put under 'that boy' to be sacrificed". Cornwallis had lost not only Tarleton's legion but also his light infantry, which limited his speed of reaction for the rest of the campaign. For his actions, Virginia gave Morgan land and an estate that had been abandoned by a Tory. The damp and chill of the campaign had aggravated his sciatica to the point where he was in constant pain; on February 10, he returned to his Virginia farm. In July 1781, Morgan briefly joined Lafayette to pursue Banastre Tarleton once more, this time in Virginia, but they were unsuccessful. Later life Morgan resigned his commission after serving six-and-a-half years, and at 46 returned home to Frederick County. He was admitted as an original member of the Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Virginia. He turned his attention to investing in land rather than clearing it, and eventually built an estate of more than 250,000 acres (1,000 km2). As part of his settling down in 1782, he joined the Presbyterian Church and, using Hessian prisoners of war, built a new house near Winchester, Virginia. He named the home Saratoga after his victory in New York. The Congress awarded him a gold medal in 1790 to commemorate his victory at Cowpens. In 1794, he was briefly recalled to national service to help suppress the Whiskey Rebellion, and the same year, he was promoted to major general. Serving under General "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, Morgan led one wing of the militia army into Western Pennsylvania. The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot being fired. After the uprising had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis. Morgan ran for election to the US House of Representatives twice as a Federalist. He lost in 1794, but won in 1796 with 70% of the vote by defeating Democratic-Republican Robert Rutherford. Morgan served a single term from 1797 to 1799. He died at his daughter's home in Winchester on July 6, 1802. He was buried in Old Stone Presbyterian Church graveyard. The body was moved to the Mt. Hebron Cemetery in Winchester, Virginia, after the American Civil War. His wife, Abigail, died in 1816 and was buried in Logan County, Kentucky. Legacy Daniel Morgan's great-great-grandfather was also the uncle of the Welsh privateer and pirate Henry Morgan. Confederate General John Hunt Morgan claimed to be one of his descendants. In 1820 Virginia named a new county—Morgan County—in his honor. (It is now in West Virginia.) The states of Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee followed their example. The North Carolina city of Morganton is also named after Morgan, as well as the Kentucky city of Morganfield (originally Morgan's Field) which was founded in 1811 on land which was part of a Revolutionary War land grant to Daniel Morgan. Morgan actually never saw the land, but his daughter's cousin-in-law, Presley O'Bannon, the "Hero of Derna" in the Barbary War, acquired the land, drew up a plan for the town and donated the land for the streets and public square. In 1881 (on the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of the Battle of Cowpens), a statue of Morgan was placed in the central town square of Spartanburg, South Carolina. It is located in Morgan Square and remains in place today. In late 1951, an attempt was made to reinter Morgan's body in Cowpens, SC, but the Frederick-Winchester Historical Society blocked the move by securing an injunction in circuit court. The event was pictured by a staged photo that appeared in Life magazine. In 1973, the home Saratoga was declared a National Historic Landmark. Morgan and his actions served as one of the key sources for the fictional character of Benjamin Martin in The Patriot, a motion picture released in 2000. There is a street named after him in Lebanon Township, Hunterdon County, New Jersey. A statue of Morgan was erected at the McConnelsville library, in Morgan County, Ohio in 2017. In Winchester, Virginia, a middle school is named in his honor. The Daniel Morgan House at Winchester was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2013. In the early 1780s, Morgan joined efforts with Col. Nathaniel Burwell to build a water-powered mill in Millwood, Virginia. The Burwell-Morgan Mill is open as a museum and is one of the oldest, most original operational grist mills in the country. A statue of Morgan is on the west face of the Saratoga Monument in Schuylerville NY. Name: Bessières Biography: Jean-Baptiste Bessières(6 August 1768 - 1 May 1813) Position: Marshal of France who commanded the cavalry of the Imperial Guard Allegiance: Kingdom of France，Kingdom of the French，French First Republic，First French Empire Branch/service: French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Battles/wars: French Revolutionary Wars,Napoleonic Wars Awards : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Commander of the Order of the Iron Crown Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry Grand Cross of the Order of Christ Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold As a commander, Bessières proved out of his depth when leading armies. His background as the commander of Napoleon's headquarters guard, the Guides of the Army of Italy, deprived him of the wide experience his fellow marshals had earned before assuming high command. Like Murat, he was however an excellent cavalry commander and he also proved an able administrator of the Imperial Guard. His few attempts at independent command were not a success however and Napoleon thereafter preferred using Bessières as a cavalry commander. Jean-Baptiste Bessières (6 August 1768 - 1 May 1813), 1st Duke of Istria (Duc d'Istrie), was a French military commander and Marshal of the Empire who served during both the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. His younger brother, Bertrand, followed in his footsteps and eventually became a divisional general. Their cousin, Julien Bessières, also served Emperor Napoleon I as a diplomat and imperial official. Early life and career Bessières was born on 6 August 1768 in Prayssac, in the province of Quercy, to a bourgeois family. He was the eldest of eight children born to Mathurin Bessières, a physician, and Antoinette Lemozy. He attended school in the nearby city of Cahors. In 1792, during the French Revolution, Bessières was called to Paris to serve in the Constitutional Guard of King Louis XVI. Each department was required to send a certain number of young men to supply it, which were selected from families considered as still being loyal to the king. Among others sent by the department of Lot for the Guard were Joachim Murat and Jean-Jacques Ambert. Despised for its royalist nature, the Constitutional Guard was disbanded by the revolutionary government on 29 May 1792, less than three months after its formation. Like other former officers of the Guard, Bessières took part in the unsuccessful defense of the Tuileries Palace during the Insurrection of 10 August. He was accused afterwards of having collaborated with the Marquis de Mandat, who organized the defenses of the palace but was killed shortly before the insurrection. He therefore went into hiding, and, finding refuge with the Duc de la Rochefoucauld, stayed at his residence for nearly three months. Revolutionary Wars Bessières gave a fresh start to his military career in November 1792, when he enlisted in the Revolutionary Army as a simple cavalryman in the 22nd regiment of chasseurs à cheval. The regiment was deployed in the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, and for the next three years Bessières fought in the War of the Pyrenees against Spain until its end, with his regiment operating in Catalonia and Cerdanya. He was promoted to sub-lieutenant in February 1793. After several setbacks in 1793, France reversed the situation of the war with Spain with a major victory at the Battle of Boulou, in 1794, with the Army of the Pyrenees under the command of General Jacques Dugommier. During the battle a charge of Bessière's chasseurs regiment was decisive in dispersing the more numerous Spanish cavalry. Next he took part in the Battle of the Black Mountain under the command of General Charles Dugua, and distinguished himself at Bascara in 1795. In 1796, at the rank of captain, Bessières went to serve in Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian campaign. At Rovereto his conduct brought him to his chief's notice, and after the Battle of Rivoli he was sent to France to deliver the captured colours to the Directory. Hastening back to the front, he accompanied Napoleon in the invasion of Styria in command of the Guides, who formed the nucleus of the later Consular and Imperial Guards. As a chef de brigade, he then served in the Egyptian expedition and won further distinction at Acre and Aboukir. Returning to Europe with Napoleon, Bessières was present at the Battle of Marengo (1800) as second-in-command of the Consular Guard. General Jean Lannes, commanding a corps at Marengo, felt that Bessières didn't support his faltering troops sufficiently, and a long running feud arose between them. At the close of the battle, Bessières led a successful cavalry charge with the Guard Cavalry, though its effect on the battle was not as decisive as Napoleon pretended. It was General Fran?ois etienne de Kellermann′s cavalry charge that won the battle for Marengo but Napoleon gave the credit largely to his own Guard Cavalry. Napoleonic Wars Promoted to general of division in 1802, he was subsequently made a Marshal of the Empire in 1804, a wholly undeserved distinction rewarded due to his loyalty and friendship with Napoleon. General Auguste de Marmont, a future marshal, said that if Bessières could be made a marshal, then anyone could become one as well. He was also made colonel-general of the Guard Cavalry and would command them in all future campaigns where he proved a very able cavalry commander. In 1805, Bessières was awarded the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1809 was entitled Duke of Istria. It was a duche grand-fief, a rare, nominal, but hereditary honor (extinguished in 1856) in Napoleon's own Kingdom of Italy. With the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808, Bessières had his first opportunity at independent command. He did well against the Spanish, scoring a crushing victory in the Battle of Medina del Rio Seco, but proved slow and hesitant in command of a large force. Bessières was thus soon recalled to lead the Guard Cavalry during Napoleon′s invasion of Spain, a task more befitting his talents. As war erupted in 1809 against Austria, he was again with the Grande Armee in the Danube valley as a cavalry leader, a position in which he excelled. At the Battle of Aspern-Essling, he led the cavalry in the centre and did well holding it against superior numbers, but once again fell foul of Lannes. Lannes again felt that Bessières was not providing sufficient support to his faltering troops and ordered him to charge home instead of malingering. Bessières then challenged Lannes to a duel, but Marshal Andre Massena intervened and prevented the duel between the two marshals in front of their troops. At the subsequent Battle of Wagram, Bessières once again led the cavalry reserve and had a horse killed under him which caused consternation amongst the Guard. Napoleon congratulated him on making his Guard cry but also chided him for not netting more prisoners because he lost his horse. Replacing Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte in command of the Army of the North later that same year, the newly created Duke of Istria successfully drove back the British in the Walcheren Campaign. In 1811, he was sent back to Spain again to lead the Army of the North. He mostly fought counter-insurgency operations and proved a difficult and touchy colleague to his fellow army commanders, especially Massena who was in dire need of support after his failed invasion of Portugal in 1810-1811. He was recalled in some disgrace and once again reverted to his habitual Guard Cavalry post. For the Russian campaign in 1812, Bessières commanded the enlarged Guard Cavalry. Hardly engaged at the Battle of Borodino, he destroyed his reputation with the rest of the army when he advised Napoleon not to use his Guard for a decisive breakthrough. Although this left the Imperial Guard intact for future battles, it prevented a decisive victory which might have successfully ended the Russian campaign. With Marshal Joachim Murat back in Naples at the beginning of the 1813 campaign, Bessières was appointed to the command of the whole of Napoleon's cavalry. Death Three days after the opening of the campaign and on the eve of the Battle of Lützen, while conducting a reconnaissance of the defile of Poserna-Rippach, Bessières was killed by a cannonball shot which ricocheted off a wall and hit him in the chest. He died instantly. Napoleon deeply felt the loss of one of his truest friends while the remaining Marshals considered it a good death for a soldier. On May 1st, Bessières joined Marshal Marmont for a meal but refused to eat anything, stating that he wasn't hungry. Marmont tried to convince him to eat, and Bessierès finally relented, uttering, "In fact, if a cannonball must take me this morning, I do not want it to take me on an empty stomach." Bessières then admitted to Marmont that he had told several people that he didn't expect to return from this campaign. When Marmont last saw Bessierès mounting his horse to go to battle, Marmont noticed the paleness of his face and remarked to a friend that he thought if a battle was fought that day, Bessières would die. Later that day, Bessières was riding in advance of the main body of troops to reconnoiter the enemy positions when he was struck by a ball in the chest, being killed instantly.1 After his death, Bessières was found to be heavily in debt after spending his fortune on his mistress. Napoleon oversaw his inheritance, settled most of his debts, and looked out for the future of his children. His eldest son, Napoleon Bessières, was made a member of the Chamber of Peers by King Louis XVIII. Legacy Bessières was not of high birth but he adopted the manners and looks of a gentleman as befitting Napoleon's closest Guard commander. He typically wore the uniform of Napoleon′s old Guides of the Army of Italy with marshal′s distinctions and wore his hair long with white powder in Ancien Regime style, even when the latter went out of fashion. He was known to be well mannered and kind and generous to subordinates but very touchy about his privileges and position. Name: Friant Biography: Louis Friant (18 September 1758 - 24 June 1829) Position: Brother-in-law to Marshal Davout and General Leclerc and renowned divisional commander Allegiance: French First Republic，First French Empire Branch/service: French Army Rank: General of division Commands: 2nd Division of III Corps, Old Guard At the end of 1801, Fryon returned to France and served as an infantry supervisor. In August 1803, Fryon was sent to the Buren Barracks, where he was in charge of commanding a team that was later named the Second Division of the Davout Third Army in the Grand Army. Team, he portrayed the II Division of the 2nd Army as "arguably the best unit on earth" (Bowden, Napoleon, and Austerlitz). In 1805, Frian led after the outbreak of the war; his division immediately Put into action. Before the Battle of Austerlitz, in order to ensure that his division could arrive at the battlefield on time, Frian had marched 70 kilometers in 36 hours. It is a great miracle of the rapid march on the battlefield. It is also because he led the troops from the rear to the battlefield in time, and helped the French right wing successfully withstand the main force of the roundabout movement of the Austrian-Russian coalition forces. During the battle, three of his horses were killed. After being canonized as an Earl of the Empire in 1808, Frioant specially engraved three horse heads on his coat of arms to commemorate the battle. After the battle, Frian became a member of the Eagle-class Legion of Honor with his outstanding performance. A handsome, noble man, brave but not malicious, but his gestures reminded him of one of his bloodlines, he was a simple grenadier of the Royal Guard. He is a true master of manipulation. Otherwise, as his brother-in-law Davout agreed, "only the talent on the battlefield". Friant was one of the true supporters of Grande Armee and made a decisive contribution to the many major battles of that era. Of course, he is represented in all battlefield games and Eckmuhl sports, and is very good in sports such as Egypt, Austerlitz, Jena-Auerst?dt, Eylau, Wagram, Germany 1813 and France 1814. Louis Friant, best known for his service as an exceptional divisional commander under his brother-in-law Marshal Davout, embarked on a military career in 1781 when he joined the French guard. By the next year, he was a corporal of grenadiers, but in 1787 he left the army. With the Revolution in full swing, Friant returned to the army and was made a lieutenant colonel of the 9th Battalion of Paris in September of 1792. Shortly thereafter Friant served in the Army of the Moselle, over the next few years fighting at Arlon and Kaiserslautern and being wounded in the left leg. In 1794 he fought at Fleurus , and the next month began fulfilling the functions of chief of staff for General Scherer. A month later, he was promoted to general de brigade, and a mere ten days after that he was commanding a division under Kleber. With this division he took part in the siege of Maestricht, and then the siege of Luxembourg the next year, afterwards becoming Governor of Luxembourg. In early 1796 General Friant was ordered to the Army of the Rhine and Moselle, but instead was sent to the Army of the Sambre and Meuse. He took part in the crossing of the Rhine in June of that year and the siege of Ehrenbreistern before joining Bernadotte in the Army of Italy in January of the next year. With the Army of Italy he took part in the crossing of the Tagliamento and fought at the combat of Laibach. Designated for the Army of England in January of 1798, Friant joined the Egyptian expedition as part of Desaix's division, commanding the 2nd Brigade. Before he left, he married a sister of General Leclerc, therefore becoming related by marriage to both Leclerc and General Bonaparte. Once in Egypt, he led this brigade through many battles, including Chebreiss, the Battle of the Pyramids , Sediman, Samanhout, Girgeh, Samatah, Aboumanah, and Souhama. In April of 1799, his leadership was recognized with a promotion to general de division. After Desaix left Egypt for his fateful return to France, Friant took command of Upper Egypt. In this new position, Friant fought at Heliopolis in March of 1800, then at Belbeis, and finally marched to Cairo and helped put down the revolt there all in the same month. Later he was appointed Governor of Alexandria. Friant tried unsuccessfully to stop the British advance in March of 1801, and was overcome and pushed back at the combat of Lake Madieh. At the Battle of Canope he served on the right wing under Reynier, and in April he became Menou's second in command of all the French forces in Egypt. At the end of 1801, Friant returned to France and became the inspector general of infantry. By this time General Davout had married one of Leclerc's sisters, and with Friant also being married to one of Leclerc's sisters, the two generals became brothers-in-law. In August of 1803, Friant was employed in the camp of Bruges, commanding a unit which was to become the 2nd Division of Davout's III Corps of the Grande Armee. As war broke out, Friant led his division with distinction. Before Austerlitz, Friant pushed his division hard to ensure they would arrive at the battle on time, with the division marching more than 70 miles in 36 hours.1 During the battle he had three horses shot out from under him, and when he was ennobled later during the empire, he put three horse heads on his coat of arms to signify that. A few weeks after the battle, he was named a Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor in recognition of his contributions. The next year was also full of distinction for Friant, as he fought at Auerstadt with Davout against the numerically superior Prussian forces. He continued to fight in 1806, taking part in the battles of Nasielsk and Golymin that December. At Eylau, he was wounded by a shot to the right side, and in 1808 he was made a Count of the Empire. Friant continued to serve under Davout, and during the Danube Campaign of 1809 he fought at Thann, Schierling, Eckmühl, and Ratisbon in April. Unable to fight at Aspern-Essling due to the bridge being out, he made up for it at Wagram , where he was hit in the right shoulder by a shell fragment. In early 1812, Friant ocupied Swedish Pomerania before taking command of the 2nd Division of Davout's corps, now the I Corps. After Dorsenne's death, the Emperor named Friant Colonel Commander of the Grenadiers à Pied of the Old Guard as a replacement. Friant, despite being wounded in the attack on Smolensk , fought at Borodino where he received two more wounds. After returning to France in January of 1813, he was finally separated from working with Davout. Taking command of the 4th Division of the Young Guard in Saxony in June, the next month he traded commands with General Roguet and took command of a division of the Old Guard. With this division he fought at Dresden and Hanau, and then was placed under Marshal Mortier's command for the defense of France. Leading the veterans of the Old Guard, he was victorious at Rouvre, and fought at Montmirail , Vauchamps , Craonne, Laon, Reims, and Arcis-sur-Aube. The Bourbons did not treat Friant badly, but he did not hesitate to rejoin Napoleon, and Napoleon made him a peer of France. Again commanding a division of the Old Guard, Friant fought at Ligny and was wounded at Waterloo. A few months later, with the return of the Bourbons, he retired. He died on 24 June 1829, aged 70. Name: Shay Biography: Shay Cormac Position: Assassins (formerly) ，Templars Allegiance: Colonial Brotherhood (1748 - 1756)，Colonial Rite (1756 - death) Branch/service: Templars Colonial Rite "Uphold the principles of our Order, and all for that for which we stand. Never share our secrets nor divulge the true nature of our work. Do so until death - whatever the cost. This is my new creed. I am Shay Patrick Cormac. Templar of the Colonial... of the American Rite. I am an older man now, and perhaps wiser. A war and a revolution have ended, and another is about to begin. May the Father of Understanding guide us all." -Shay Cormac reflecting on his allegiance to the Templar Order, 1776. In 1776, Shay was present in Paris, France, following the information about the Precursor box being in possession of a French Assassin, Charles Dorian. Shay assisted Benjamin Franklin, who was in France as an ambassador to the French royal court, in escaping from a group of criminals. As a token of gratitude, Franklin provided the means for Shay to enter the Palace of Versailles, although he was unaware of the Templar's true mission, as Shay merely stated he was meeting a business associate. Having infiltrated the palace, Shay located Charles and assassinated him, recovering the Precursor box in the process. In his dying words, Charles remarked that Connor's Assassins and the American Revolutionary War had thwarted the Templar plans in the New World. Distraught that all of his hard work had come undone, Shay answered that the Templars would stage a revolution of their own to restore the balance of power. Shay Patrick Cormac (born 1731) was a member of the Colonial Rite of the Templar Order during the 18th century. Born to Irish immigrants in New York, Shay lost his parents at an early age, and was brought into the Colonial Brotherhood of Assassins by his childhood friend Liam O'Brien, where the two served under Mentor Achilles Davenport. In 1751, the Templars stole two Pieces of Eden from the Brotherhood: the Precursor box and the Manuscript. The following year, after acquiring a sloop-of-war, the Morrigan, Shay was tasked with recovering the ancient artifacts. As he and Liam hunted down the Templars in possession of the Pieces of Eden, Shay began to question the Assassins' methods. After recovering the Precursor box and Manuscript, Shay and his fellow Assassin, Hope Jensen, used them to discern the location of a First Civilization Temple in Lisbon. Achilles sent Shay to Lisbon in 1755, believing (incorrectly) that the Temple held an Apple of Eden. Although Shay successfully accessed the Temple and recovered the artifact inside, he inadvertently triggered a massive earthquake in the process, leaving thousands dead or homeless. His faith in the Brotherhood shattered, Shay resolved to prevent the Assassins from finding more temples by stealing the Manuscript from them, nearly losing his life in the process. The Templar George Monro found the unconscious Shay and brought him under the care of Barry and Cassidy Finnegan in New York. Upon recovering, Shay met Monro and his fellow Templar Christopher Gist, and began working with them to reclaim the Morrigan and bring down the Assassin-allied gangs of the city. After Monro was killed by Liam in the aftermath of the Siege of Fort William Henry, Shay was inducted into the Templar Order, working with Grand Master Haytham Kenway to help the British Empire win the Seven Years' War and destroy the Colonial Assassins by hunting down his former comrades. In 1760, a final confrontation in the Arctic left Liam dead, Achilles crippled and without followers and the Manuscript in Templar hands. Shay would spend the next 16 years searching for the Precursor box, leading him to Versailles, where he killed the Assassin Charles Dorian and reclaimed the artifact in 1776. Since reclaiming the artifact, Shay searched for more artifacts and trained both his son and grandson later in life. The date and circumstances of his death are unknown. Early life Shay Cormac was born on 12 September, 1731 in New York, to a family of Irish immigrants from Dublin. His mother died in childbirth, and his father was often absent from home due to his employment in the merchant marine, leaving Shay to be raised by his aunt. Living in a rough part of the city, Shay often found himself in trouble, but was constantly protected by his closest friend, Liam O'Brien. Eventually, Shay joined his father at sea, and although he missed the company of his friend, he eagerly began training in marksmanship and swordsmanship, even going as far to face down and shoot an attacking pirate captain, saving his father's ship. However, tragedy struck in 1747, when a fierce storm claimed the lives of Shay's father and several crew members. Shattered and desolate, Shay wandered New York's streets, picking fights in taverns, until he was helped once again by Liam, who managed to get his friend back on his feet. Later that year, Liam introduced Shay to his Mentor, Achilles Davenport, and inducted him into the Brotherhood not long after. Over the next four years, Shay devoted himself to the Order and the Creed, serving dutifully. However, he still pondered the ambiguous areas between the motives of the Assassins and those of the Templars, their sworn enemies. Over time, he voiced these doubts, questioning Liam about the morality of the Assassins' actions and the Creed. Shay also questioned what he believed to be mentor placing increasingly tight control over them. In 1752, while on a mission in the North Atlantic, Shay and Liam came across Louis-Joseph Gaultier, Chevalier de la Verendrye, who was supposed to meet with smugglers carrying valuable cargo. When the smugglers were intercepted and captured by the Royal Navy, Shay infiltrated the smugglers' camp, eliminated the British guards, and commandeered their ship, a sloop-of-war named the Morrigan. Tracking the artifacts Shortly after, Shay and Liam returned to the Davenport Homestead, headquarters of the Colonial Assassins, where they witnessed the arrival of Adewale, a member of the Caribbean branch of the Order. While Adewale convened with Achilles and discussed the earthquake that destroyed Port-au-Prince a year prior, Shay trained under the guidance of Liam, Hope Jensen, and Kesegowaase, before meeting with Achilles to receive a new mission, which entailed tracking down and acquisition of two First Civilization artifacts stolen by the Templars in Haiti: the Precursor box and the Manuscript. After meeting with Chevalier de la Verendrye and his informant, Le Chasseur, Shay traveled to Mount Vernon, home of a noted Templar, Lawrence Washington, in order to intercept a package. Having recovered an air rifle from the shipment, Shay infiltrated the grounds of Washington's manor and witnessed a meeting between Lawrence and three other Templars: Samuel Smith, James Wardrop, and Jack Weeks. Lawrence assigned Smith and Wardrop to guard the box and the manuscript, respectively, before dismissing them. As Washington walked about the grounds of his manor in the midst of a garden party, Shay managed to blend in and assassinate him; as Shay and Liam made their escape, Shay expressed both disappointment and guilt for killing Lawrence, who was already suffering from a terminal case of tuberculosis. A few months later, Shay tracked down Samuel Smith at sea, who attempted to escape with the Precursor box in his possession. Although Smith's schooner led the Morrigan into a skirmish and attempted to deter the pursuers with burning oil, Shay gave chase and eventually assassinated Smith in his camp at Terra Nova, and recovered the artifact. In 1754, as tensions between the French and British forces escalated to the brink of war, Shay traveled to Albany, New York, to eliminate James Wardrop. After observing William Johnson and Benjamin Franklin conversing at the Albany Congress, Shay headed to Fort Frederick to assassinate Wardrop and retrieve the Voynich manuscript, disregarding Wardrop's claims that he was endangering the world. With both artifacts in his possession, Shay and Hope enlisted the aid of Franklin to activate the devices. After reassembling Franklin's lighting-to-battery assembly, Shay watched as the electrical charge powered the box, projecting a holographic display of the globe with a shimmering light over the site of a a Precursor Temple in Lisbon, Portugal. Relaying this information back to Achilles, Shay was tasked with traveling to Lisbon to investigate the Temple and retrieve the Piece of Eden held within. Arriving in Europe in 1755, Shay set out for the Carmo Convent in the heart of Lisbon. As the priest conducted mass inside, Shay activated several mechanisms at the convent's apex, opening a passage to the Temple hidden beneath. He then entered the Temple and approached the Piece of Eden - which appeared as a shining, star-shaped artifact suspended above a pedestal - and removed it from its place. However, disturbing the artifact from its stationary position caused it to disintegrate, and triggered a massive earthquake. As Shay emerged from the Temple, he hurriedly made his way through the collapsing city as civilians and buildings fell around him. In a swift but fortunate motion, Shay was able to make his escape and leap into the sea; he then swam back to his ship and sailed for the Thirteen Colonies. Upon his return to the Homestead, Shay stormed into the manor and accused Achilles of sending him on the mission while aware of the chaos that taking the Piece could cause, recounting that the earthquake in Haiti happened shortly after Fran?ois Mackandal sent Vendredi, one of his men, into a First Civilization Temple which Mackandal had discovered. Although Achilles insisted he knew nothing about the possibility of triggering a disaster, Shay maintained that he had been made to slaughter hundreds of innocents on Achilles' command. Refusing to serve under a man who would brush off such destruction and loss of life, Shay resolved to steal the manuscript in order to prevent the Assassins from finding other Temples. Sneaking into the manor that night, Shay took the artifact and was about to make his escape before he was confronted by Achilles. When the Mentor tried to stop him, a struggle ensued, during which Shay was thrown outside through a broken window. With the Assassins hunting him across the Homestead grounds, Shay made his way to a cliff overlooking the bay, but was cornered by the remaining members of the Brotherhood. As he attempted to leap into the water below, one of the Assassins shot Shay in the left shoulder from behind, which caused him to fall off the ledge; Shay was led to believe it had been Liam who shot him. Due to this turn of events, the Assassins believed Shay dead and the manuscript lost, though his unconscious form was rescued and placed in the care of Barry and Cassidy Finnegan by a Templar, Colonel George Monro. Meeting the Templars Some weeks later, Shay awoke in a house in New York, where he was being nursed back to health by the Finnegans. When their home was attacked by members of a local gang, Shay came to their rescue and drove the bandits out. Since his clothes were ruined during the fall, Cassidy presented him with an outfit which belonged to Finnegans' late son, while Barry returned Shay's weapons to him. Leaving the house, Shay apprehended one of the gang members and learned the location of their hideout. Infiltrating the compound, Shay cut down the gang's flag and killed their leader, driving the bandits out of the district and restoring order. He was then approached by Colonel George Monro, who introduced himself as a friend of the Finnegans. As the pair walked through New York, Monro subtly explained the Templar philosophy to Shay, while not revealing his allegiance to the Order, although he suspected that he was a Templar due to the cross and to the little confidence towards him when they met . When Shay returned to the Finnegans' home and discussed the next move in his fight against the gangs, Monro directed asked him to prevent the execution of Christopher Gist, one of Monro's allies that the gangs had captured and planned to hang. Shay managed to save Gist's life and kill the gang members present, taking their headquarters as his own. Following on from this, Shay noticed a ship anchored near the gang's hideout, which he discovered to his surprise to be that of his former vessel, the Morrigan. Gist suggested reclaiming the ship, and helped Shay eliminate the remaining gang members in the area, as well as the Assassin stalkers who worked with them. Gist then gathered his allies in the neighborhood to crew the Morrigan, and applied for the position of the vessel's first mate, an offer which Shay readily accepted. The two then set sail, heading for Albany to meet with Colonel Monro. Meeting with Monro at the Albany docks, Shay learned that a nearby French fort was disrupting Colonel's operations in the area, as well as posing a potential threat to the region's safety. After raiding a nearby warehouse to gain the items necessary to reinforce the Morrigan, Shay attacked the fort and destroyed its defenses. Fighting his way through the compound, Shay entered the war room and found Le Chasseur, armed and waiting for him. The two dueled, with Shay emerging victorious, and Le Chasseur revealed that a group of criminals in New York was creating a poison gas they planned to use against the colonial authorities. Determined to stop the criminals, Shay headed back to the city. Finding Monro once again, Shay shared what he had learned with the Colonel, who in turn told him that a certain woman had been directing criminal operations in the city, including the production of large batches of poison which was to be used against the civilian population. Monro also told Shay that Benjamin Franklin was developing certain weapons for the unknown woman, and suggested that Shay visit the inventor. Franklin was surprised to see Shay when he arrived, but did not question him when Shay claimed to have come to collect the results of Franklin's experiments. To this, Franklin gave him a prototype grenade launcher, which Shay used to destroy the compressors containing poisonous gas in the industrial district and halt the production completely. After finishing the task, Shay met with Monro and Gist on a nearby rooftop, where they agreed Shay's actions had saved countless lives. While they observed the destroyed factory, Jack Weeks and William Johnson joined them and congratulated Shay on his work, before the group went to a nearby tavern to celebrate their success. Over the course of the next year, Shay assisted the Colonel, and by extension the Templars, in a variety of ways, proving himself a worthy candidate to recruit into the ranks of the Order. Siege of Fort William Henry In August 1757, Shay received a package from Colonel Monro. Inside, he found the Manuscript and a letter from the Colonel. From what was written, Shay learned of Monro's involvement in his rescue and recuperation, following Shay's defection from the Brotherhood, and the fact the Colonel was tasked by the Grand Master of the Colonial Rite of the Templar Order with decoding the manuscript, a task at which he had failed. Reading on, Shay learned of Monro's assignment to Fort William Henry and the dire conditions the Colonel faced there. Fighting off French troops and Assassin stalkers, Shay met the Colonel and escorted him to the safety of the Morrigan. As the ship cast off, Kesegowaase appeared on shore, enraged that Shay had survived and allied himself with the Templars. Before the Assassin could leap onto the Morrigan's deck, Weeks threw a barrel of gunpowder onto the dock, which Shay detonated with a gunshot, scarring Kesegowaase's face. Having saved Monro, Shay turned his attention to Johnson's regiment beset by French forces, and the Oneida tribe whose village had been attacked and captured by an Assassin-allied gang. Shay managed to assist both parties, strengthening Monro's army, and allowing the Colonel to travel back to Albany and protect the town from the impending French attack. Some time later, Shay arrived to find the city under siege by the French Army and their native allies. Making his way through the town, Shay reached the fort as Monro fought off a wave of attackers. Spotting Kesegowaase, Shay chased and dueled the Assassin, mortally wounding him with a mounted Puckle gun. As Kesegowaase died, he scorned Shay's conversion to the Templars, commenting that they would fail in time, and that Monro was already dead. When Shay questioned him further, Kesegowaase merely uttered "Liam", before collapsing. Fearing for the Colonel's life, Shay made his way to the docks and was told by Monro's soldiers that their commander was trapped inside, to which Shay ran into the burning building and carried a wounded Monro outside. In his final moments, the Colonel told Shay that Liam had taken the manuscript, before removing his Templar ring and entrusting it to Shay, before succumbing to his wounds. Following this, Shay was inducted into the Colonial Rite by its Grand Master, Haytham Kenway, with Christopher Gist, Jack Weeks, William Johnson, and Charles Lee present at the ceremony. Afterwards, Shay informed Haytham of the Precursor sites and his belief that Achilles would recklessly endanger innocents by his continuous pursuit of the Temples. Hunting the Assassins Shay traveled to the north Atlantic to meet with a Royal Navy captain, James Cook, and was given leave to use Cook's Man O' War, the HMS Pembroke, to halt the advance of the French Navy. During the battle, Adewale aided the French with his brig, the Experto Crede, by leading several fireships towards the HMS Pembroke. Shay followed Gist's advice to focus on the fireships, allowing the Experto Crede to slip away, just as the Royal Navy ships arrived to combat the French forces. Eventually, Shay and Haytham managed to track Adewale down into the River Valley, and forced him to beach the Experto Crede at Vieille Carrière, after a brief engagement. The two Templars separated, with Haytham choosing to distract Adewale, allowing Shay to assassinate him. With his dying breath, Adewale told Shay that Achilles already possessed the means to find more First Civilization sites. Shay subsequently traveled to New York, and overheard Achilles and the other Assassins talk about replicating the Franklin experiment on the Precursor box. Determined to stop his former comrades, Shay worked with Jack Weeks to break Hope's control over the city's organized crime. To accomplish this, the pair stole gang uniforms and staged a heist against a military outpost, in order to give the British a reason to fight the criminals. Shay met with Haytham after the successful heist, just as the Grand Master was interrogating a gang member to discover Hope's location. Shay managed to infiltrate the mansion in which Hope resided, and bore witness to her successful replication of Franklin's experiment with the Precursor box, prompting Liam to depart and inform Chevalier de la Verendrye of the First Civilization site's location. As Liam left, Hope detected Shay and shot out the overhead window, causing him to fall into the chamber. She then took away Shay's gas mask and released poisonous vapors into the room while making her escape. Carefully, Shay managed to leave the chamber and spotted Hope outside, however she shot him with a poison dart that affected his heart rate. To maintain his life, Shay chased Hope across the city, eventually assassinating her and taking the antidote from her body. As he expressed remorse for killing her, Hope revealed that her diversion had bought Chevalier enough time to escape, and lamented on what she saw as Shay's wasted potential in aiding the Templars. Shay took the Morrigan out into the North Atlantic, where he and Gist met with Captain Cook once again to inquire about Chevalier's whereabouts. At Cook's suggestion, Shay infiltrated the fort on Anticosti Island, stealing Chevalier's maps in order to figure out where he was headed before heading back to the Morrigan. Bringing the maps to Cook, the Captain was able to pinpoint Chevalier's location. Sailing into a snowstorm, Chevalier's fleet ambushed the Morrigan, but Shay was able to to sink the enemy vessels, before boarding Chevalier's ship, the Gerfaut, and killing him. However, Chevalier told him that he was merely a decoy for Achilles and Liam, who were on their way to the Precursor site in the Arctic. Shay reported his findings to Haytham, who joined him on the journey to the Precursor site. As the pair navigated through the ice caves and past the Assassins, an ice bridge collapsed, separating the two and forcing Haytham to find another route to the Temple. Once they had reached their goal, Shay and Haytham came upon Achilles and Liam studying the Piece of Eden, identical to the one Shay had encountered in Lisbon. While Achilles admitted that he was wrong about the artifacts, Liam condemned Shay for betraying the Brotherhood. In response, Shay accused Liam for shooting him in the back at the Davenport Homestead. Liam clarified Chevalier as the actual shooter that day and prepared to fire at Shay, but was restrained by Achilles. After a brief struggle, Liam fell back onto the artifact, disturbing the Temple and triggering an earthquake. Shay pursued Liam through the collapsing caverns, while Haytham followed Achilles to a clearing outside. Eventually, as the former comrades fought each other, the precipice under them gave way, causing them to fall. Shay survived the fall, whereas Liam was mortally wounded. With his dying breath, Liam was still firm in his conviction of Shay's betrayal, which the latter justified as attempting to save the world. Liam ironically stated that he hoped the world Shay and the Templars were attempting to save was a "good one", before passing away. Shay recovered the manuscript from his body, and headed back to find Haytham and Achilles. He eventually came upon Haytham besting Achilles in combat, and stopped the Grand Master from delivering a fatal blow to the Mentor, reasoning that Achilles knew then the danger of the Precursor sites, and if he perished, the Assassins would blindly continue their search for the Temples. Reluctantly, Haytham agreed with Shay's reasoning and spared Achilles, but to ensure he would not stand in the way of the Templars anymore, Haytham crippled the Mentor with a shot to the shin. While the Colonial Rite took on the task of purging the remaining Brotherhood, Haytham charged Shay with tracking down and recovering the Precursor box, although Shay admitted their only lead was Chevalier transporting it away from the colonies, and that it could take years for the Templars to find the box again. Travels, later life and death "Never a traitor to the truth! He never betrayed the Templar Order! And he taught me how to kill vermin like you." -Cudgel Cormac, regarding his grandfather's allegiance to the Templar Order. Since Shay reclaimed the artifact in 1776, he searched for more precursor artifacts rather than returning to the colonies. Later in life, Shay trained his son and grandson in learning to master Freerunning and Eagle Vision. They also inherited his air rifle. Shay remained a Templar to his death, having never betrayed the Templar Order. Personality and characteristics "Life's hardest choices are the ones that force you to question your own moral code." -Shay, regarding his ties to both the Assassins and the Templars. Shay was originally a brash, immature, and insubordinate young man who often did not take his role as an Assassin seriously. This was due in part to lack of experience, but also his own brewing doubts regarding both the integrity of his fellow Assassins and the morality of the Creed itself. Shay was highly outspoken and did not shy away from pointing out the (perceived) hypocrisies of his Assassin brothers, especially the militant and dogmatic Chevalier, which often landed him in trouble. The above factors would gradually push him further and further away from the Brotherhood and lead to his betrayal. But despite openly aligning with the Templars and fighting his former comrades, Shay expressed remorse for having to eliminate them (except Chevalier and Kesegowaase), particularly his teacher Hope Jensen and his close friend, Liam O'Brien. He also, at least initially, took no pleasure in killing Assassins whom he was not familiar with on a personal level, such as Adewale. Shay had a sense of honor, as he disliked having to kill individuals whom he deemed weak and defenseless, particularly Lawrence Washington or Samuel Smith, despite their allegiance to the Templar Order. Shay even reasoned with Haytham Kenway to spare the defenseless, beaten Achilles. He also expressed a dislike of slavery, displaying disbelief when he learned that the French, who were allied with the Assassins at the time, were still practicing slavery in Haiti, despite attempts by Fran?ois Mackandal and Adewale to end the practice. Similarly, Shay was deeply affected by the earthquake in Lisbon, believing that he had personally slaughtered throusands of innocent people through his activation of the First Civilization device. He would carry this trauma with him for the rest of his life. Shay was determined to help those in need, as seen through numerous property renovations commissioned by him across the North American colonies. It was through helping the British against the oppression inflicted by the French authorities and the Assassin-affiliated gangs that Shay learned to embrace the Templar ideology. As the years went on, his sense of honor and selflessness gradually gave way to a more manipulative, cold, ruthless, calculating, and somewhat twisted disposition. For instance, he showed no remorse in killing the French Assassin Charles Dorian, despite the deep trauma it caused for his young son Arno Dorian, whom Shay had encountered mere moments earlier. He also gleefully boasted of his plans to start a revolution in France, one that would claim even more innocent lives than the disaster in Lisbon had. Shay would often use his status among Templar puppets to reach his goals, which included posing as part of the King's Royal Navy when working with James Cook, or relying on his friendship with Benjamin Franklin to gain admittance to the Chateau de Versailles to kill Charles Dorian, under the pretense of "meeting a business acquaintance"; however, in the latter case, it was also to repay him for saving the doctor's life. He would go on to manipulate events in the colonies and Europe with his Templar fleet and assist other Templar Rites, particularly the Louisiana Rite of the Templar Order. Shay also had characteristics of being a lone wolf, often leaving his ship and crew and spending hours exploring the Hudson River Valley as well as the North Atlantic by himself. Many Assassins later grew to fear him and branded him as a traitor, rebel, and renegade, including his former best friend Liam, and by the Assassin Varius during the American Civil War, who branded him a traitor and the Cormac's for "Hunters". Throughout his life, Shay carried a motto of "making his own luck", displaying his belief in personal independence and ingenuity, rather than fortune or others' actions to achieve success. Equipment and skills "A pity, the boy has so much potential... But so little discipline." -Hope Jensen, regarding Shay's skills, 1752. From his early life as a sailor, under the wing of his father, Shay was trained in swordsmanship and marksmanship; additionally, he was tutored in terms of sailing and navigating a ship. During his youth, Shay was renowned for picking fights in local taverns where he proved to be a capable fist-fighter, being able to take down multiple opponents. Upon joining the Assassin Brotherhood, Shay's skills grew. He became a skilled swordsman to the point where he was able to dual wield weapons with great efficiency. He also became skilled marksman and a capable freerunner, able to scale trees and cliffs almost effortlessly. He was tutored in stealth and pickpocketing by Hope Jensen. His skill as a captain was noticed by the other Assassins, with even Chevalier regarding him as the second-best sailor of the Brotherhood. In terms of weaponry, Shay wielded dual Hidden Blades, a sword and parrying dagger, two flintlock pistols, rope darts, throwing knives, and smoke bombs. Shay became a capable hunter, having been instructed by Kesegowaase, and was able to overpower and kill dangerous animals including wolves and bears, as well as sea creatures. In addition, Shay possessed the rare ability of Eagle Vision, which he would use to help pinpoint the location of his enemies. Shay later acquired a prototype air rifle, which was diverse as it fired projectile darts including sleep, berserk and firecrackers; in addition, after being upgraded by Benjamin Franklin, the rifle became a deadlier tool as it was able to fire sleep, berserk and lethal grenades. Shay was noted by Hope and Achilles to have great potential as an Assassin, though this was offset by his brash and laid-back attitude. Nonetheless, he was skilled enough to be entrusted with the search for the Precursor sites by Achilles, despite the latter having more experienced and disciplined subordinates at his disposal. Upon joining the TemplarOrder, Shaybecame a deadly adversary. His training as an Assassin allowed him to easily snuff out all of his Assassin pursuers and defeat most of his former allies including Kesegowaase, Chevalier, and even the legendary Adewale. As an Assassin Hunter, Shay was skilled enoughto counter the Assassins’ signature moves, including air assassinations. To protect himself from the effects of smoke bombs andvariousgases, Shay usuallycarried a gas mask Name: Balmis Biography: Francisco Javier de Balmis (2 December 1753 - 12 February 1819) Position: Physician Allegiance: Spain Branch/service: Balmis Expedition Francisco Javier de Balmis (2 December 1753 - 12 February 1819) was a Spanish physician best known for leading an 1803 expedition to Spanish America and the Philippines to vaccinate populations against smallpox. His expedition is considered the first international vaccination campaign in history and one of the most important events in the history of medicine. It inspired recent vaccination efforts such as that of Carlos Canseco, president of Rotary International, to start the worldwide program PolioPlus to eradicate polio. The Balmis Expedition, officially called the Real Expedición Filantrópica de la Vacuna (Royal Philanthropic Vaccine Expedition) was a Spanish healthcare mission that lasted from 1803 to 1806, led by Dr Francisco Javier de Balmis, which vaccinated millions of inhabitants of Spanish America and Asia against smallpox. Vaccination, that is inoculation with cowpox material, is a much safer way to prevent smallpox than older methods such as variolation, inoculation with smallpox material, which ran the risk of itself spreading smallpox. Vaccination had been pioneered by the English physician Edward Jenner in 1798. History The expedition set off from A Coru?a in northwest Spain on 30 November 1803. It may be considered the first international healthcare expedition in history. Jenner himself wrote, "I don't imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this." King Charles IV of Spain supported his royal doctor Balmis since his Infanta Maria Teresa, his daughter, had died from the illness. The expedition sailed on Maria Pita and carried 22 orphan boys (aged 3 to 10) as successive carriers of the virus; Balmis, a deputy surgeon, two assistants, two first-aid practitioners, three nurses, and Isabel Zendal Gómez, the rectoress of Casa de Expósitos, an A Coru?a orphanage. The mission took the vaccine to the Canary Islands, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, the Philippines and China. The ship carried also scientific instruments and translations of the Historical and Practical Treatise on the Vaccine by Moreau de Sarthe to be distributed to the local vaccine commissions to be founded. In Puerto Rico, the local population had already been inoculated from the Danish colony of Saint Thomas. In Venezuela, the expedition divided at La Guaira. Jose Salvany, the deputy surgeon, went toward today's Colombia and the Viceroyalty of Peru (Venezuela, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Bolivia). They took seven years and the toils of the voyage brought death to Salvany (Cochabamba, 1810). Balmis went to Caracas and later to Havana. The local poet Andres Bello wrote an ode to Balmis. In New Spain, Balmis took 25 orphans to maintain the infection during the crossing of the Pacific. In the Philippines, they received help from the Catholic church, which was initially reluctant until Governor-General Rafael Aguilar made an example by vaccinating his five children. Balmis sent most of the expedition back to New Spain while he went on to China, where he visited Macau and Canton. On his way back to Spain in 1806, Balmis offered the vaccine to the British authorities in Saint Helena, despite the ongoing conflict between Spain and Great Britain. Julia Alvarez wrote a fictional account of the expedition from the perspective of its only female member in Saving the World (2006). Biography Education and military career Francisco Javier de Balmis was born in Alicante on 2 December 1753 and was baptized three days later at the Basilica of Santa Maria. His parents were Antonio Balmis, a barber surgeon of French origin and Luisa Berenguer. He followed the family tradition and at age 17 began studying at the military hospital of Alicante, where he stayed for five years. In 1775, he enlisted in the Spanish Navy and joined an expedition under the command of Alejandro O'Reilly which aimed to put an end to the incursions of the Barbary pirates in the Spanish Levante. Two years later he passed his examination and in 1778 obtained the authorization to perform surgery in Valencia. Due to the siege of Gibraltar, he joined the corps of military surgeons as assistant second surgeon. By 8 April 1781 he had attained the rank of surgeon and joined the regiment at Zamora. As part of this regiment he went to America in the expedition of the Marquess of Socorro. From the Venezuelan port of La Guaira, he embarked for Havana, then for Veracruz, and was the director of the hospital of Xalapa for three months. In 1786 he was appointed surgeon-major of the military hospital of San Juan de Dios in Mexico City, then the capital of New Spain. After the merger of this hospital with that of San Andres in 1790, Balmis become director of venereal disease ward. In recognition of his work he was admitted to the Real Academia Medica Matritense (the predecessor to the Royal Academy of Medicine) and received his Bachelor of Arts from the University of Mexico. Balmis died in Madrid in 1819. Scientific work During 1788, on temporary leave from the army, he traveled throughout Mexico to devote himself to the study of local flora and traditional remedies used by natives. He conducted a series of experiments at the hospital of San Juan de Dios, publishing Tratado de las virtudes del agave y la begonia (Treatise on the benefits of agave and begonia) in Madrid in 1794. Back in Spain, he became the physician of King Charles IV. He persuaded the king to send an expedition to America to propagate the recently discovered vaccine against smallpox. Balmis was named head of the expedition, which sailed from Spain in 1804. He traveled to Puerto Rico, Puerto Cabello, Caracas, Havana, Merida, Veracruz and Mexico City. The vaccine was carried as far as Texas in the north and New Granada in the south. In Mexico City, he had to convince the viceroy, Jose de Iturrigaray, but he did so, and the viceroy had his son vaccinated. In 1806 Balmis sailed from Acapulco for Manila, and in 1806 arrived back in Spain. He returned to Mexico again in 1810. He wrote Instrucción sobre la introducción y conservación de la vacuna (Instructions for the introduction and conservation of the vaccine), and translated Moreau's work on the same subject, Tratado histórico-práctico, from the French. Miguel Mu?oz conserved and spread the vaccine in Mexico until 1844, when the project was taken over by his son Luis. After Luis Mu?oz, Luis Malanco was in charge of the project. Name: Soult Biography: Jean-de-Dieu Soult(29 March 1769 - 26 November 1851) When Napoleon's body was brought back to Paris in 1840, Soult greeted the Emperor's body for the last time. Position: Prime Minister of France，Minister of War Allegiance: Kingdom of France，Kingdom of the French，First French Republic，First French Empire，Bourbon Restoration，July Monarchy Branch/service: French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Unit :Infantry Royal Regiment,Army of Sambre-et-Meuse,Army of Helvetia,110th Infantry Regiment Commands: IV Corps (Grande Armee) Marshal General Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duke of Dalmatia, (French: ; 29 March 1769 - 26 November 1851) was a French general and statesman, named Marshal of the Empire in 1804 and often called Marshal Soult. Soult was one of only six officers in French history to receive the distinction of Marshal General of France. The Duke also served three times as President of the Council of Ministers, or Prime Minister of France. Soult's intrigues in the Peninsular War while occupying Portugal earned him the nickname, "King Nicolas", and while he was Napoleon's military governor of Andalusia, Soult looted 1.5 million francs worth of art. One historian called him "a plunderer in the world class." He was defeated in his last offensives in Spain in the Battle of the Pyrenees (Sorauren) and by Freire's Spaniards at San Marcial. Soult was eventually pursued out of Spain and onto French soil, where he was maneuvered out of several positions at Nivelle, Nive, and Orthez, before the Battle of Toulouse. Soult was also responsible for the creation of the French Foreign Legion in March 9, 1831. Early life Soult was born in Saint-Amans-la-Bastide (now called Saint-Amans-Soult in his honor, near Castres, in the Tarn department) and named after John of God. He was the son of a country notary named Jean Soult (1726-1779) by his marriage to Brigitte de Grenier. His paternal grandparents were Jean Soult (1698-1772) and Jeanne de Calvet, while his maternal grandparents were Pierre Fran?ois de Grenier de Lapierre and Marie de Robert. He was a catholic. Jean-de-Dieu Soult was expected to have a promising career as a lawyer. However, on April 16, 1785, at the age of sixteen, he enlisted as a private in the Royal-Infanterie regiment, to help his mother financially after the death of his father. His younger brother, Pierre-Beno?t Soult, followed his example three years later, and would also become a French general. Revolutionary Wars Jean Soult fought in the wars of Revolutionary France. Soult's superior education ensured his promotion to the rank of sergeant after six years of service, and in July 1791 he became instructor to the first battalion of volunteers of the Bas-Rhin. On January 17, 1792, his colonel appointed him instructor in the 1st battalion of Haut-Rhin volunteers, with the rank of second lieutenant (sous-lieutenant). The war period, which began in April 1792, offered him many opportunities to stand out and he rose through the ranks with regularity. Adjutant-major on July 16, 1792, captain on August 20, 1793, provisional adjutant to the staff of General Lazare Hoche to the Army of the Moselle on November 19, 1793. He took part in the Battle of Kaiserslautern from November 28 to 30, which allowed the recapture of Wissembourg and the relief of Landau. Hoche gives Soult the command of a detached body to take Marsthal's camp, a task which is brilliantly executed. From December 26 to 29, he was present at the Second Battle of Wissembourg. He was appointed chief of staff of the avant-garde on January 27, 1794, provisional battalion commander on February 7, 1794, titular battalion commander on April 3, and adjutant-general brigade chief (adjudant-general chef de brigade) on May 14. On March 19, 1794, the Army of the Moselle was replaced by the Army of the Rhine under the command of General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan. This army immediately returns to the campaign. Two battles were fought in Arlon on April 17, 18 and 29, then on May 21, in which Soult took an active part. After the Battle of Fleurus of 1794, in which he distinguished himself for coolness, he joined the Army of Sambre and Meuse on June 28. Soult was promoted to brigadier general by the representatives on mission. For the next five years, Soult was employed in Germany under Generals Jean-Baptiste Jourdan (a veteran of the American War of Independence and a future Marshal), Jean Victor Marie Moreau, Jean-Baptiste Kleber and Fran?ois Lefebvre (also a future Marshal). He took part in the Battle of Aldenhoven on October 2, 1794. He moved to Jacques Hatry's division and took part in the Siege of Luxembourg from November 22 to June 7, 1795. He took a brilliant part in the battles of Altenkirchen on June 4, 1796, of Friedberg on July 10, 1796, and in the Battle of Stockach against the army of Charles of Austria on March 25, 1799. The rank of division general is attributed to him on April 4, 1799, on a provisional basis, and it is confirmed on the following April 21. Soult passed to the Army of Helvetia under the orders of General Andre Massena (another future Marshal). It was at this time that he built the bases of his military reputation, in particular during the First Battle of Zurich of June 2-5, 1799; then he subdued the insurgent cantons, drove the rebels on the Reuss and drove them back to in the valley of Urseren - relieving Frauenfeld, Altikon, Audelfinden. He obtains a citation on the order of the day of June 2, 1799. On the 10 of the same month, he hunts down, at the head of the 110th Demi-Brigade, the Austrians, occupying Mount Albis. Cross the Linth River on September 22, Soult leads the enemy to suffer a loss of 4,000 men, then he comes to meet the Russians who advance on Kaltbrunn, forcing the surrender of a body of 2,000 men, seized Weesen and pushed the enemy back to Lake Constance. Consulate Era When in 1800 the First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte entrusted Massena to reorganize the Army of Italy, he insisted that Soult be his deputy; giving him the command of the right wing. Soult distinguished himself for his active part in the defense of the country of Genoa. On April 6, in an initial sortie, at the head of several battalions, he crossed the Austrian army and relieved General Gardanne. The enemy was repulsed beyond Piotta, and Soult pursued General Suvorov into the Alps, seizing Sassello and returning to Genoa with numerous prisoners, cannons, and flags. During another sortie, the general pushed in against the Austrian army, trapping a division at Monte-Facio. But, during a fight in Montecreto on 13 April 1800, a gunshot shattered his leg; laying on the battlefield wounded, he was robbed and taken prisoner, spending days in agony in a filthy hospital. This experience traumatized Soult, and he would never again place himself so forward in the battleline. He was rescued after the victory at Marengo on June 14, 1800. Appointed military commander of Piedmont, then in the midst of a rebellion, Soult managed to put down the so-called Barbets insurrection. He even managed to discipline the rowdy hordes and use them for his service. Soult then received command of the southern part of the Kingdom of Naples. Shortly before the Treaty of Amiens, General Soult returned to Paris, where the First Consul welcomed him with the highest distinction. On March 5, 1802, he was one of the four generals called to command the Consular Guard with the post of colonel general. He thereafter pledged allegiance to the new regime. In August 1803, Soult was entrusted with the command-in-chief of the Camp of Boulogne. Soult, a former drill instructor, imposed a rigorous discipline there, which ensured the effectiveness of French troops during future campaigns, and also earned him the nickname "Bras de Fer" ("Iron Arm"). Even Napoleon wondered if he was being too severe, to which assertions Soult replied: "Those who can't handle what I myself endure will be left behind in the depots. Those that can will be fit to conquer the world." Marshal of the Empire In May 1804, Soult was made one of the first eighteen Marshals of the Empire. He commanded a corps in the advance on Ulm, and at Austerlitz he led the decisive attack on the Allied centre. Soult played a great part in many of the famous battles of the Grande Armee, including the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 and the Battle of Jena in 1806. However, he was not present at the Battle of Friedland because on that same day he was capturing K?nigsberg. After the conclusion of the Treaties of Tilsit, he returned to France and in 1808 was anointed by Napoleon as 1st Duke of Dalmatia (French: Duc de Dalmatie). The awarding of this honour greatly displeased him, for he felt that his title should have been Duke of Austerlitz, a title which Napoleon had reserved for himself. In the following year, Soult was appointed as commander of the II Corps with which Napoleon intended to conquer Spain. After winning the Battle of Gamonal, Soult was detailed by the emperor to pursue Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore's British army. At the Battle of Coru?a, in which Moore was killed, Soult failed to prevent British forces escaping by sea. Peninsular War For the next four years, Soult remained in Spain engaged in the Peninsular War. In 1809, he invaded Portugal and took Porto, but was isolated by General Francisco da Silveira's strategy of contention. Busying himself with the political settlement of his conquests in French interests and, as he hoped, for his own ultimate benefit as a possible candidate for the Portuguese throne, he attracted the hatred of Republican officers in his army. Unable to move, he was eventually driven from Portugal in the Second Battle of Porto by Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Wellesley (later made Duke of Wellington), making a painful and almost disastrous retreat over the mountains, pursued by General William Beresford and Silveira. After the Battle of Talavera, Soult was made chief of staff of French forces in Spain with extended powers, and on 19 November 1809, won a great victory at the Battle of Ocana. In 1810, he invaded Andalusia, which he quickly overran. However, because he then turned to seize Seville, the capture of Cádiz eluded him, saying, "Give me Seville and I will answer for Cádiz." This led to the prolonged and futile Siege of Cadiz, a strategic disaster for the French. In 1811, Soult marched north into Extremadura and took Badajoz. When the Anglo-Portuguese army laid siege to the city, he marched to its rescue and fought and nearly won the famous and bloody Battle of Albuera on 16 May. In 1812, after Wellington's great victory at Salamanca, Soult was obliged to evacuate Andalusia. In the subsequent Siege of Burgos, he was able to drive Wellington's Anglo-allied Army back to Salamanca. There, the Duke of Dalmatia, as Soult was now known, failed to attack Wellington despite superiority in numbers, and the British Army retired to the Portuguese frontier. Soon after, he was recalled from Spain at the request of Joseph Bonaparte (who had been installed by his brother as King of Spain) with whom, as with the other marshals, he had always disagreed. In Germany and defending southern France In March 1813, Soult assumed command of the IV Corps of the Grande Armee and commanded the centre at Lützen and Bautzen, but he was soon sent, with unlimited powers, to the South of France to repair the damage done by the defeat at Vitoria. It is to Soult's credit that he was able to reorganise the demoralised French forces. His last offensives into Spain were turned back by Wellington in the Battle of the Pyrenees (Sorauren) and by General Manuel Freire's Spaniards at San Marcial. Pursued onto French soil, Soult was maneuvered out of several positions at Nivelle, Nive, and Orthez, before suffering what was technically a defeat at Wellington's hands at the Battle of Toulouse. He nevertheless inflicted severe casualties on Wellington and was able to stop him from trapping the French forces. Hundred Days and Waterloo After Napoleon's first abdication in 1814, Soult declared himself a royalist, received the Order of Saint Louis, and acted as Minister of War from 26 November 1814 to 11 March 1815. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Soult at once declared himself a Bonapartist, was made a peer of France, and acted as chief of staff to the emperor during the Waterloo campaign, in which role he distinguished himself far less than he had done as commander of an over-matched army. In his book, Waterloo: The History of Four Days, Three Armies and Three Battles, Bernard Cornwell summarizes the opinions of several historians that Soult's presence in the Army of the North was one of several factors contributing to Napoleon's defeat, because of the animosity between him and Marshal Michel Ney, the other senior commander, and because, in spite of his experience as a soldier, Soult lacked his predecessor Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier's administrative skills. The most glaring instance of this was his written order, according to Napoleon's instructions, to Marshal Emmanuel de Grouchy to position his force on the British Army's left flank in order to prevent reinforcement by the Prussians. Cornwell decries the wording of Soult's order as "almost impenetrable nonsense", and Grouchy misinterpreted the order, instead marching against the Prussian rearguard at Wavre. Political career Following the Second Bourbon Restoration in 1815, Soult went into exile in Germany, but in 1819 he was recalled and in 1820 again made a Marshal of France. He once more tried to show himself as a fervent royalist and was made a peer in 1827. After the revolution of 1830 he declared himself a partisan of Louis Philippe, who welcomed his support and revived for him the title of Marshal General of France, previously held only by Turenne, Claude Louis Hector de Villars, and Maurice de Saxe. Creation of the French Foreign Legion As Minister of War (1830 to 1834), Soult organized and oversaw the rearmement of the French military. The strength of the Army of the Restoration numbered only a little over 200,000 men and Soult sought to double its size, carrying the necessary reforms from 1831 to 1832. The first law of this important military reform was that creating the Foreign Legion, on 9 March 1831; a force of foreign volunteers which could only be used outside the territory of metropolitan France, especially aimed at garrisoning the recently conquered Algiers. The Legion, when created, was loathed by the army and considered a lower posting; the force being colloquially called as the "Bastard of Soult". Military reforms Louis-Philippe, worried about having to rely solely on the National Guard to maintain public order, instructed Marshal Soult to reorganize the line army without delay. Soult wrote a report to the king, presented to the Chamber of Deputies on February 20, 1831, in which he criticized the recruitment Gouvion-Saint-Cyr law of 1818: the voluntary system combined with the drawing of ballots and the possibility of being replaced had not made it possible to increase the number of manpower sufficiently, and that the promotion procedures helped to maintain over-staffing. Soult proposed the main lines of a military policy aimed at increasing the army's strength, reducing said over-staffing and ensuring the supply of arms and ammunition. Following the creation of the Legion in 9 March, Soult passed the laws of April 11, 1831 on military pensions, of March 21 and April 14, 1832 on army recruitment and promotion, and of May 19, 1834 on the status of officers. Soult also oversaw the construction of the fortifications of Paris. In 1831, he was sent by Louis-Philippe to Lyon with 20,000 men to crush the first insurrection of the city's silk workers, the canuts. Order is restored, but Soult becomes very unpopular within the Republican camp. In his play Napoleon Bonaparte ou Trente ans de l'histoire de France (Napoleon Bonaparte or Thirty Years of the History of France), Dumas Père represents him in a dreadful appearance during the Hundred Days. In 1834, when a new insurrection broke out in April in Lyon, Marshal Soult received from Lieutenant-General Aymar, commander of the troops in the city, a desperate telegraphic dispatch about evacuating the city. The Duke of Dalmatia's firm response was not long in coming, chastising the general and ordering him to hold all his positions and to man the walls and be buried beneath them. Prime Minister While he was Minister of War, he held the presidency of the Council of Ministers (or Prime Minister) for the first time in 1832-1834. France being the guarantor of the Treaty of the XXIV articles, he had the Antwerp expedition carried out by Marshal Gerard, who seized the city after heroic resistance from the Dutch (December 1832) and returned it to Belgium, its country of attribution. In April 1838, Louis-Philippe chose Soult to represent him at the coronation of Queen Victoria. He receives a triumphant welcome in London - where his former enemy, the Duke of Wellington, reputedly caught him by the arm and exclaimed "I have you at last!" Once again at the head of the government (1839-1840), he was at the same time the holder of the Foreign Affairs portfolio. He participated in the ceremonies for returning the ashes of Napoleon in December 1840. President of the Council for almost seven years, from 1840 to 1847, he left the effective management of the Cabinet to his Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fran?ois Guizot, who logically succeeded him when he left the government, for health reasons. For five years (1840-1845), he combined his function with that of Minister of War. On September 26, 1847, Louis-Philippe restored for him the honorary dignity of Marshal General of the king's camps and armies, however modifying this title into the unique Marshal General of France. In 1848, Soult declared himself a republican. He died three years later in his castle in Soult-Berg, near Saint-Amans-la-Bastide where he was born, a few days before the Revolution of 1848. In his honor, the town was renamed Saint-Amans-Soult in December 1851. He is one of the eighteen Marshals of the Empire (out of twenty-six) who belonged to {{Freemason}ry}. Works Soult published a memoir justifying his adherence to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and his notes and journals were arranged by his son Napoleon Hector, who published the first part Memoires du marechal-general Soult (Memories of Marshal-General Soult) in 1854. Le Noble's Memoires sur les operations des Fran?ais en Galicie (Memories of the Operations of the French in Galicia) are supposed to have been written from Soult's papers. Military capability Although often found wanting tactically - even some of his own aides questioned his inability to amend a plan to take into account altered circumstances on the battlefield - Soult's performance in the closing months of the Peninsular War is often regarded as proof of his fine talents as a general. Repeatedly defeated in these campaigns by the Allies under Wellington, it was the case that many of his soldiers were raw conscripts while the Allies could count greater numbers of veterans among their ranks. Soult was a skillful military strategist. An example was his drive to cut off Wellington's British army from Portugal after Talavera, which nearly succeeded. Though repeatedly defeated by Wellington in 1813-1814, he conducted a clever defence against him. Soult's armies were usually well readied before going into battle. After Vitoria, he reorganized the demoralized French forces of Joseph Bonaparte into a formidable army in a remarkably short time. An exception to this good logistical record was launching the Battle of the Pyrenees offensive when his soldiers only had four days' rations. Tactically, Soult planned his battles well, but often left too much to his subordinates. Wellington said that "Soult never seemed to know how to handle troops after a battle had begun". An example of this was at the Battle of Albuera, where he brilliantly turned Beresford's flank to open the battle, yet when he found himself facing unexpected opposition from British and Spanish troops, he allowed his generals to adopt a clumsy attack formation and was beaten. Another example of his strengths and weaknesses can be seen at the Battle of the Nive. Soult recognized Wellington's strategic dilemma and took advantage by launching surprise attacks on both wings of the Anglo-Allied Army. But French tactical execution was poor and the British general managed to fend off Soult's blows. Sloppy staff work marred his tenure as Napoleon's chief of staff in the Waterloo campaign. https://www.frenchempire.net/biographies/soult/: Beginnings Campaigns of 1799 - 1800 After serving with various divisions for the rest of that year, Soult's unit rejoined Lefebvre's division in February of 1799. That March he took part in the fighting around Stockach, first taking command of the division at Ostrach when Lefebvre was wounded, and then leading the attack at Liptingen. Within two weeks of these actions, he was promoted to general de division. A week later, the army had united with Massena's Army of Switzerland, and Soult was given command of the 4th Division. He occupied Schwyz and Altdorf, and then received command of an additional division, the 3rd Division. At the Battle of Zurich on September 25th, Soult's men were poised to bridge the Linth River in a surprise attack on the Austrian stores. Soult and his men successfully bridged the river and surprised the Austrians, contributing to the French victory. Soult was next given another division and ordered to direct the operations against Russian General Suvorov. In 1800, General Soult was given command of the right wing of the Army of Italy under General Massena. Their force was soon pushed back by the Austrians and they fell back to Genoa and its strong fortifications, beginning a lengthy siege. Soult frequently led sorties out from the fortress to assault the surrounding positions with some success. Unfortunately, during one of these sorties on May 13th he was hit by a ball in the leg, shattering it and rendering him unable to walk. As his aides attempted to improvise a stretcher made out of muskets, they were all captured. Soult was robbed and forced to endure his captivity in significant pain. Despite being released after the Battle of Marengo, he walked with a limp for the rest of his life, and many considered him a changed man. He would no longer lead from the front as as he had throughout the Revolution, and his strategies were far more cautious than before. Once recovered, General Soult was made commander of Piedmont where he successfully defeated an insurrection by transforming some of the insurgents into bands of gendarmes to pacify the area. The next year, he took command of the advance guard of Murat's Army of Midi and was ordered to occupy the Neapolitan ports on the Adriatic Sea. In 1802 Soult was made Colonel General of the Light Infantry of the Consular Guard, and then the next year he took command of the camp of Saint-Omer. Marshal of the Empire Soult was made a Marshal of France with the creation of the empire in 1804. With war declared in 1805, Soult's camp became IV Corps of La Grande Armee and quickly marched east to do battle with the Austrians. After crossing the Rhine in September, the next month his corps entered Augsbourg, was victorious at Landsberg, and seized Memmingen, helping to close the trap around the Austrians at Ulm. The next month his men took part in the fighting at Hollabrunn before maneuvering with the army into position at Austerlitz. At the Battle of Austerlitz, Soult's IV Corps formed the French center and was given the task of breaking the enemy center on the Pratzen Heights. As Napoleon watched the battle unfold that morning, he asked Soult, "How long will it take you to move your divisions to the top of the Pratzen Heights?" "Less than twenty minutes, sire," Soult responded. "In that case we will wait another quarter of an hour," Napoleon told him.1 Once the order to attack was given, Soult's IV Corps successfully smashed through the Allied center as Napoleon intended. Some allegations swirled that he had not taken much part in the battle once the attack was begun, instead giving only a few orders through aides. In 1806, Soult again commanded IV Corps and took part in the campaign against Prussia. His corps fought at the Battle of Jena, but he again commanded from a distance through aides. In November his men served at Lubeck and took part in Blucher's surrender at Schwartau. The next February, against the Russians he was victorious at Bergfried, served at Hoff and Ziegel Ihoff, and then commanded the center at Eylau. In June he fought at Heilsberg and then seized Koenigsberg. Many rewards followed for Marshal Soult, including being decorated by the orders of Saint-Hubert of Bavaria, the Golden Fleece of Spain, and the Seraphim of Sweden. In 1808, he was made the Duke of Dalmatia. While his own soldiers nicknamed him the "Hand of Iron", the British soldiers he would later fight used his title as a pun and called him the "Duke of Damnation." The Spanish Peninsula November of 1808 saw Marshal Soult taking command of the II Corps in Spain. That month he won at Burgo and occupied Reynosa and Santander. Next he was given command of the pursuit of Sir John Moore's British army, and successfully trapped the British army at Corunna. Fighting at Corunna, his army was unable to prevent most of the British from escaping by sea once the British fleet arrived, though it was considered a victory for the French for driving the British out of Spain. When Soult learned of Sir John Moore's death in the battle, he ordered a monument built on Moore's grave to honor his adversary. Next Soult's corps invaded Portugal, defeating La Romana at Moterey on March 4th. That month they went on to win at Verin, seize Chaves, win at Carvalho, and then seize Braga and Oporto. That May, after battling against Wellington's forces at Oporto, he was forced to retreat through Galicia and fall back to Castille. Then in September Soult was moved up in command, becoming Joseph Bonaparte's major general, now in command of multiple corps. In this new capacity he led the French forces to a major victory at the Battle of Ocana in November. During his time in Spain and Portugal, Soult began to gain an unpleasant reputation for looting priceless paintings and gold from the areas under his control. However, his skillful discipline and planning kept the areas he monitored guerrilla free. Possibly desiring to be made King of Portugal, a scandal broke out as rumors of this spread, though he always denied that this was ever his intention. Despite his denials, some people began to call him "King Nicolas" in response to his failed ambitions and overbearing attitude. Soult started 1810's campaigns by invading Andalusia, and seized Seville that February. After commanding in Andalusia throughout 1810, in early 1811 he laid siege to and took Olivenca. Next he laid siege to Badjoz, finally taking it in March. Instead of assisting Marshal Massena's campaign to retake Portugal, Soult returned to Andalusia. When the British laid siege to Badajoz, Soult marched his army to relieve the fortress, but was defeated at the Battle of Albuera. After falling back and joining with the French Army of Portugal under Marshal Marmont, he once again made another attempt at relieving Badajoz, this time successful as the British retreated. Soult's next actions were to march to the Kingdom of Granada, where he won at Venta del Bahul and Baeza in August. The next year when Badajoz was laid to siege again, he marched to relieve the fortress, but arrived too late. Returning to Andalusia, that August he decided to lift the siege of Cadiz after the loss of the Battle of Salamanca. Forced to fall back, he abandoned Granada and Andalusia and joined with Suchet's army in Valencia. In October of 1812 Soult retook the offensive, crossing the Tage on the 30th and then a few days later retaking Madrid. He followed Wellington's army up to the walls of Ciudad Rodrigo before halting the offensive. Campaigns of 1813 - 1815 At the beginning of 1813, Soult was recalled to France at Joseph Bonaparte's request. Initially taking a position with the Imperial Guard, he took command of IV Corps at the Battle of Bautzen. That July, he was sent back to Spain to take command of the Armies of Spain and the Pyrenees. With a demoralized army, he was repulsed at Cubiry, Irun, and Bidassoa. In December he was defeated at Saint-Pierre d'Irube, and fell back to the Adour River in France. In February he was defeated at Orthez, and then fell back to Tarbes and later Toulouse. Trying to defend Toulouse, he gave battle at the city but was again defeated. Finally, when news of Napoleon's abdication arrived, Soult called for a ceasefire and recognized the new king as King of France. The Bourbons relieved Soult and then gave him a post, but eventually elevated him to Minister of War in December of 1814. Soult resigned from his post shortly before Napoleon's surprise return from Elba, and offered his services to Napoleon. Without Marshal Berthier to support him, Napoleon selected Soult to become his chief of staff of the Army of the North. Soult served at Ligny and Waterloo, and after the latter defeat he rallied the army at Laon and then handed command over to Marshal Grouchy. This time the Bourbons were not so forgiving, they proscribed him and he fled the country, almost being lynched by a mob. He stayed in exile with his wife's family in Dusseldorf, Germany until he was finally pardoned in 1819 and allowed to return to France. Name: Dorothea Biography: Dorothea Maria Losch (1730 - 2 February 1799) Position: master mariner, Medical scientist Allegiance: Sweden Branch/service: Swedish Navy Rank: Kapten (approximately the equivalent of lieutenant commander in the British Navy) Commands: ship Armida Dorothea Maria L?sch (1730 - 2 February 1799), was a Swedish master mariner, known for the incident during the Russo-Swedish War (1788-90) in which she commandeered a Swedish ship during a crisis. She was the first female in Sweden to be given the rank of Kapten in the Swedish Navy (approximately the equivalent of lieutenant commander in the British Navy). Her name has also been spelled Losch and L?sch. She was the author of a medical book of how to treat smallpox, Beskrivning af et bepr?fvat medel emot Kopp-?rr (Stockholm, 1765). Dorothea Maria L?sch was the daughter of the goldsmith Henrik Jakob Losch from Stockholm and Dorothea Maria Beyms and married in 1756 to the Finnish sea captain M?rten Johan Thesleff: her spouse's name was also spelled Thesl?f or Theslef. She had eleven children during her marriage. Dorothea Maria L?sch took over and commanded the ship Armida to safety after its officers had been killed or abandoned it during the Battle of Svensksund on 9 July 1790. For this act, she was awarded with the rank of a master mariner of the Swedish fleet, something unique for a woman of this period. Although this was a purely honorary, ceremonial title, she was nevertheless the first woman in such a position. Name: Tallmadge Biography: Benjamin Tallmadge(February 25, 1754 - March 7, 1835) Position: military officer, spymaster, and politician Allegiance: United States of America Branch/service: Continental Army Rank: Major Commands: CulperRing，2nd Continental Light Dragoons Alma mater : Yale College Battles/wars: American Revolutionary War: ? Battle of Trenton ? Battle of Fort St. George ? Battle of Monmouth ? Battle of Stony Point ? Battle of Fort St George ? Siege of Yorktown Benjamin Tallmadge (February 25, 1754 - March 7, 1835) was an American military officer, spymaster, and politician. He is best known for his service as an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He acted as leader of the Culper Ring during the war, a celebrated network of spies in New York where major British forces were based. He also led a successful raid across Long Island that culminated in the Battle of Fort St. George. After the war, Tallmadge was elected to the US House of Representatives as a member of the Federalist Party. The Culper Ring was a network of spies active during the American Revolutionary War, organized by Major Benjamin Tallmadge and General George Washington in 1778 during the British occupation of New York City. The name "Culper" was suggested by George Washington and taken from Culpeper County, Virginia. The leaders of the spy ring were Abraham Woodhull and Robert Townsend, using the aliases of "Samuel Culper Sr." and "Samuel Culper Jr.", respectively; Tallmadge was referred to as "John Bolton." While Tallmadge was the spies' direct contact, Washington often directed their operations. The ring was tasked to provide Washington information on British Army operations in New York City, the British headquarters. Its members operated mostly in New York City, Long Island, and Connecticut between late October 1778 and the British evacuation of New York in 1783. The information supplied by the spy ring included details of a surprise attack on the newly arrived French forces under Lieutenant General Rochambeau at Newport, Rhode Island, before they had recovered from their arduous sea voyage, as well as a British plan to counterfeit American currency on the actual paper used for Continental dollars, which prompted the Continental Congress to retire the bills. The ring also informed Washington that Tryon's raid of July 1779 was intended to divide his forces and allow Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton to attack them piecemeal. In 1780, the Culper Ring discovered a high-ranking American officer, subsequently identified as Benedict Arnold, was plotting with British Major John Andre to turn over the vitally important American fort at West Point, New York on the Hudson River and surrender its garrison to the British forces. Background Prior to British General William Howe's move from Staten Island, George Washington had received information of varying utility from individual spies working independently and without significant direction, such as Lawrence Mascoll. After evacuating the Continental Army from Brooklyn Heights, Washington asked William Heath and George Clinton to set up "a channel of information" on Long Island, but he did not yet try to establish permanent agents behind enemy lines. Instead, he sought volunteers for espionage missions. Among them was Captain Nathan Hale, who went to New York City under a false identity but was quickly captured by the British and executed on September 22, 1776. This made Washington realize that a more discreet and well-organized espionage system would be necessary in order to infiltrate British operations. He decided that civilians would attract less attention than soldiers, and he asked William Duer to recommend a suitable agent. Duer recommended Nathaniel Sackett; his army contact was Hale's former classmate, then Captain Benjamin Tallmadge. Sackett had some success, for example the discovery that the British were building flat-bottomed boats for a campaign against Philadelphia; however, Washington felt he did not produce enough correct intelligence fast enough, and Sackett was soon paid off. Early in 1777, American Colonel Elias Dayton set up a spy network on Staten Island, which worked with an established network known as the Mersereau Ring. The British victory at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, led to the capture of Philadelphia on September 26, which became a new focus of intelligence gathering. Washington assigned this task to Major John Clark. Recently returned to service after being wounded before Brandywine, Clark set up a successful network, but poor health forced him to take up a desk job. Establishment Initial formation In August, 1778, Washington accepted an offer from Lieutenant Caleb Brewster, based at Norwalk, Connecticut, to provide intelligence. His first report included details on the condition of British warships prior to the Battle of Rhode Island, and the dispatching of several regiments to Newport, Rhode Island. Washington asked General Charles Scott to handle Brewster and find additional agents, assisted by Tallmadge. Scott delegated most of the work to Tallmadge, and Washington asked him to recruit reliable intelligence agents in New York City. As a contact for Brewster, Tallmadge recommended a mutual childhood friend, Abraham Woodhull of Setauket on Long Island. A few months earlier, Woodhull had been arrested for illegal trading of which he had been guilty and was being held in a Connecticut prison. Tallmadge arranged his release through Governor Jonathan Trumbull and obtained approval by Washington and Scott to recruit him as an intelligence agent. Washington suggested the alias "Samuel Culper" after Culpeper County, Virginia, where he had worked as a surveyor in his youth. Tallmadge and Scott had different approaches. Scott preferred single-mission agents, who returned to base after each completion, Tallmadge favored embedding agents and establishing a secure line of communication. Since Scott lost three out of five agents sent into New York City in early September, Washington decided that Tallmadge's method should be used. He opened discussions on setting up an embedded network with Woodhull and Brewster. Scott resigned on October 29, and Tallmadge replaced him as intelligence chief. Early operations Woodhull traveled to New York City every few weeks to gather intelligence. His married sister, Mary Underhill, lived there and gave him a valid reason to visit. He was questioned at a British checkpoint on October 31, 1778, which increased his anxiety about the dangerous mission, but he returned to Setauket with valuable information about the British supply fleet. He provided a precise report on November 23 with the identity of British units and the numbers of troops and dispositions in New York City, which proved his worth as a spy. Woodhull soon recruited his brother-in-law, Amos Underhill, to gather intelligence; the latter ran a boarding house in the city with his wife, Mary, but Underhill's reports were often too vague to be of much value. At first, Woodhull had to return to Setauket to pass messages to Caleb Brewster, which Brewster would take to Tallmadge or to receive messages from Tallmadge via Brewster. Tallmadge set up couriers in December who would take messages the 55 miles (89 km) between New York and Setauket, initially Jonas Hawkins then mainly Austin Roe beginning in the early summer. The courier's task was to get the letters to Brewster, who would pick up messages at one of six secluded coves near Setauket and take them across Long Island Sound with his rotating whaleboat crews to Tallmadge at Fairfield, Connecticut. Tallmadge would then take them to Washington's headquarters. The time-consuming task was replaced in January 1779 by the assignment of express riders to take the messages from Tallmadge to Washington. Local tradition claims that Anna Strong, a resident of Setauket and a friend and neighbor of Abraham Woodhull, helped pass along messages from the spy ring by posting prearranged signals to indicate when one of the spies was ready to submit intelligence. If she hung a black petticoat on her clothesline, it meant that Brewster had arrived in town in his whaleboat. Also, she would hang a quantity of white handkerchiefs to indicate which of the six hiding places he was in. Woodhull used her signals to meet Brewster or to drop messages at one of the meeting places. The historian Richard Welch writes that the tradition of the clothesline signal is unverifiable, but it is known that the British suspected a Setauket woman who fit Anna's profile of Patriot activities. Brewster occasionally would add his own report to the Culper messages. In a January 1779 report received by Washington in early February, Brewster sent some information about naval matters and boat building at New York City and warned that Loyalists were outfitting privateers for operations on Long Island Sound. That was delivered with a message from Woodhull that precisely described the British regiments and commanders at the northern tip of Manhattan, totaling about 8,500 men. Woodhull also reported on British boat-building, confirming Brewster's report. Tallmadge and Washington thought that the boats might be planned for transport for an attack against Connecticut from Major General William Tryon, who had conducted a raid during the winter. Woodhull became increasingly anxious about being discovered and did little in May and June 1779. John Wolsey was a Long Island privateer who was captured by the British. To secure parole, he told British officers on June 5 that Woodhull was up to something dubious. Colonel John Graves Simcoe, the commander of the Queen's Rangers, came to Setauket to look for Woodhull, but he was away, in New York City. Simcoe's men attacked and beat Woodhull's father, Judge Richard Woodhull. Abraham Woodhull escaped arrest because Loyalist militia officer Colonel Benjamin Floyd vouched for him. Floyd was married to a member of the Woodhull family. Woodhull reported that he could not continue to operate in New York City after the visit from Simcoe in June because of suspicion, but Woodhull had a new agent lined up and would go to New York to finalize arrangements with him. In late June, Washington sent a letter to Tallmadge in which he identified George Higday as a possible operative to relieve Woodhull in New York City. The British had intercepted a June 13 letter from Washington that referred to "C_____" and Tallmadge. On July 2, British cavalry under the command of Colonel Banastre Tarleton attacked Tallmadge's camp and captured his horse and some papers, including the letter mentioning Higday. They were trying to capture Tallmadge himself because they knew that he was head of Washington's intelligence operation. The second letter confirmed that the agent C______ was operating in New York City and that Tallmadge was the chief intelligence officer for Washington. Higday escaped execution but was of no use as a spy to Washington or to Clinton, who tried to recruit him as a double agent. Expansion In June 1779, Woodhull engaged Robert Townsend to gather intelligence in New York City by using the alias "Samuel Culper Jr." Townsend was involved in business there, and his presence would arouse less suspicion than Woodhull's visits. He had access to British officers through several channels, including his own tailoring business. He also wrote a society column in a Loyalist newspaper and owned an interest in a coffeehouse with the newspaper's owner, James Rivington, who also was a secret member of the Culper Ring. Once Townsend began his intelligence activities in New York City, Woodhull operated almost exclusively from Setauket and revised the communications network. Townsend would pass intelligence to a courier (initially Hawkins, later Hawkins and Roe, and exclusively Roe after September 1779), who would take it to Setauket and pass it to Woodhull, usually by dead drop in a box hidden in a field that Roe rented from Woodhull. Woodhull would evaluate and comment on it and pass it to Brewster, who would occasionally add an intelligence note of his own, take it across Long Island Sound, and pass it to Tallmadge. Tallmadge would usually add a cover letter with comments and sent and received messages by a relay of dragoons acting as couriers. Hawkins was bold at first but later became increasingly anxious about British patrols. His role was reduced between April and July, when Tallmadge assigned a code number in his code directory to Roe but not to Hawkins. Woodhull wrote in a coded message on August 15 that Hawkins had had to destroy a letter from Culper Jr. or be captured. He also wrote that Hawkins insisted his next meeting with Townsend be in an out-of-the-way location. Townsend did not like taking the additional risk and was beginning to doubt Hawkins' reliability and to regret the destroyed messages. Hawkins finally stopped his courier services for the spy ring in September 1779, as Townsend refused to deal with him any longer. Woodhull acted as courier on September 11 so that he could explain to Townsend the loss of the earlier letters, and Roe became the sole permanent courier for the ring. Secrecy Secrecy was so strict that Washington did not know the identity of all of the operatives. Townsend was recruited by Woodhull, who was especially insistent that his identity not be revealed, although Austin Roe and Jonas Hawkins needed to know him. Among the techniques that the Culper Ring used to relay information were coded messages published in newspapers and invisible ink, called a sympathetic stain, to write between the lines of what appeared to be typical letters. In the first months of the ring's operations, they were forced to rely on crude tactics to conceal their information before a complex web of codes and invisible ink were accessible, and so they relied on a small number of codes for memory. Woodhull used the codes 10 (New York), 30 and 40 (Post Riders), and 20 (Setauket) in his first letter of correspondence. Tallmadge realized the significance of creating a code book to increase their vocabulary. By July 1779, he had completed pocket dictionaries with lists of verbs, nouns, people, and places with their corresponding code numbers. The dictionaries were given to Washington, Woodhull, Townsend, and Tallmadge himself to ensure that they did not get into enemy hands. With the use of the codes, the letters were very complex and required much effort to write and comprehend. The code book helped Washington make sure that the Culper Ring spies had more support and operated in greater secrecy than previous Continental spies, perhaps with Nathan Hale in mind. Tallmadge, Woodhull, and Townsend were given code names and code numbers, along with Washington, Brewster, Roe, and Rivington. Washington's code number was 711. Hercules Mulligan and Cato Hercules Mulligan was recruited to spy for the Continental Army in New York City by Alexander Hamilton. Born in 1740, he was a friend of Townsend's father and an active member of the Sons of Liberty. He had taken in the orphaned Hamilton when Hamilton arrived in New York in 1773 to attend King's College, and he had later helped Hamilton obtain a commission in the army. He was married to Elizabeth Sanders, daughter of a Royal Navy admiral, and he also had a fashionable clothing business near Robert Townsend's establishment. These things gave him access to officers who would openly talk to him about military matters. Mulligan began his activities in late 1776 or early 1777, well before the formation of the Culper Ring. Historian Stephen Knott says that Mulligan cooperated with the Culper Ring but mostly operated as a lone agent. Alexander Rose states that Mulligan gave Townsend information which Townsend added to his reports. Mulligan's slave Cato was his "faithful accomplice" in his intelligence activities. In January 1779, Cato delivered a message from Mulligan to George Washington's aide Alexander Hamilton that the British planned to kidnap or kill American leaders, including Washington and New Jersey Governor William Livingston. Mulligan had received the information from his brother Hugh, who worked as a contractor for the British Army through the firm Kortright and Company. The British arrested Mulligan on suspicion of espionage after Benedict Arnold defected in New York. Townsend ceased his activities for a time for fear that he would also be discovered. Woodhull passed on the information concerning Townsend's dejection and concern over the arrest of "one that hath been ever serviceable to this correspondence." Arnold did not have any hard evidence against Mulligan, so he was released, but he may have spent as many as five months in prison, until February 1781. Undeterred, he continued to pick up intelligence after his release. Mulligan discovered that the British planned to ambush Washington while he was on his way to a meeting with Rochambeau on March 5, 1781. Mulligan and Cato remained under suspicion and could not communicate directly with Washington's headquarters, so Mulligan gave the information to Townsend, who sent it to Washington via the Culper Ring. The message arrived in time for Washington to avoid the trap and travel to the meeting by another route. Other persons identified as informants The members of the ring gathered information from a variety of sources, including persons other than unwitting British officers. Some of those informants or associates included Joseph Lawrence, a Long Island resident; Captain Nathan Woodhull, Abraham Woodhull's uncle, who served as a Loyalist militia officer but provided information to Abraham; Nathaniel Ruggles, a schoolmaster and physician born in 1713; Joshua Davis, a Brewster deputy and occasional substitute; George Smith, a whaleboat man who filled in for Brewster near the end of the war; and William T. Robinson, a merchant. Alexander Rose writes that "John Cork" was a code name for an unidentified informant. Harry Thayer Mahoney writes that John Corke of Groton, New York posed as a Tory and could travel back and forth to New York City because he was "exceedingly intimate at British headquarters." Corke wrote intelligence reports to Tallmadge in invisible ink or reported verbally to him. Mahoney states that Washington and Tallmadge considered Corke a valuable recruit for the Culper Ring. A letter by Loyalist soldier Nehemia Marks was uncovered in 2015 which identifies brothers Nathaniel and Phillip Roe as supporters of the spy ring, with Nathaniel providing intelligence and Phillip material aid. The letter also provides evidence that the Culper Ring operated in Drowned Meadow beyond Setauket and Oyster Bay, as previously believed. The letter is housed in the William L. Clements library at the University of Michigan, where it was discovered by a former resident of Port Jefferson researching the Culper Ring. Women Some sources note a female member of the ring known only as Agent 355, but others believe that that code number referred to Anna Strong or was simply a misunderstanding of a cryptic reference in one of Abraham Woodhull's letters. Other women were informants for the Culper Ring, such as Robert Townsend's sister Sarah (Sally) Townsend and Abraham Woodhull's sister Mary Underhill, who provided important information about Major John Andre and his alias of John Anderson, according to some sources. 20th-century disclosure The general public was unaware of the Culper Ring's existence until the 1930s. Robert Townsend's identity as "Culper Jr." was discovered in 1929 upon examination of old letters written by Townsend in the Townsend family home. The historian Morton Pennypacker reviewed the letters and noticed that the handwriting in letters from the trunk, written by Robert Townsend, was similar to handwriting in letters written by "Samuel Culper Jr.", in Washington's collection. Other evidence later corroborated Townsend's identity. James Rivington was confirmed by scholars to be a member of the ring only in the 1950s. In popular culture James Fenimore Cooper's novel The Spy (1821) may have been based on the Culper Ring, and Woodhull and Townsend (as the combined Samuel Culper) specifically. The AMC TV series, Turn: Washington's Spies, is based on the Culper Spy Ring. The USA Network TV series, White Collar, the plot of episode 6 of the fourth season is loosely based on the Culper Spy Ring. Early life Tallmadge was born February 25, 1754, the son of Susannah Smith (1729-1768) and Rev. Benjamin Tallmadge Sr. (1725-1786), a clergyman in Setauket, New York, a hamlet of the Town of Brookhaven, New York, on Long Island. He graduated from Yale in 1773 and was a classmate of American Revolutionary War spy Nathan Hale. He served as superintendent of Wethersfield High School from 1773 to 1776. American Revolutionary War Tallmadge was a major in the 2nd Continental Light Dragoons and was initially commissioned on June 20, 1776. He was given the position of director of military intelligence by George Washington after Nathaniel Sackett was relieved of his duties because he did not gain any ground from the enemy. Tallmadge was in charge of bringing intelligence from British-controlled New York to the Continental army, and he did so by assembling a network of spies known as the Culper Spy Ring, with the help of Abraham Woodhull and Robert Townsend. The Culper Ring was involved in revealing the betrayal of Benedict Arnold. Benedict Arnold's British contact John Andre was caught and taken to North Castle, where commander Colonel Jameson ordered lieutenant Allen to take the incriminating documents found with Andre to their commander Benedict Arnold at West Point. Tallmadge suspected Andre to be a spy and Benedict Arnold to be his accomplice, and he tried to have Jameson reverse his orders. He was unsuccessful, but did convince Jameson to send a rider and take Andre to Salem, eight miles east of the Hudson River and to send the documents to George Washington. Allen still reported to Benedict Arnold with Jameson's note outlining the events. Later, Jameson was chastised by Washington for warning Arnold and allowing his escape. Andre was placed in Tallmadge's custody awaiting execution. On November 21, 1780, Tallmadge and his dragoons rowed across Long Island Sound from Fairfield, Connecticut, to Cedar Beach in Mount Sinai, New York. The next day, they proceeded to the south shore where they captured and burned down Manor St. George. On their march back to Mt. Sinai, Tallmadge stopped in Coram, New York, and ordered the burning of 300 tons of hay which the British had been stockpiling for the winter. George Washington, on hearing the news, sent the following letter to Tallmadge: I have received with much pleasure the report of your successful enterprise upon fort St. George, and was pleased with the destruction of the hay at Coram, which must be severely felt by the enemy at this time. I beg you to accept my thanks for your spirited execution of this business. Tallmadge served at Washington's headquarters from March 1781 until the Continental Army was disbanded in November 1783. He was admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Connecticut when it was established in July 1783 and brevetted to the rank of lieutenant colonel on September 30, 1783. He subsequently served as Assistant Treasuer (1785-1789), Treasurer (1789-1793), Vice President (1793-1796) and President (1796-1801) of the Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Connecticut and continues to be represented by a living descendant in the society today. Later life Career In 1792, Tallmadge was appointed postmaster of Litchfield, Connecticut. He served until he resigned to assume his seat in Congress. He established a successful mercantile and importing business and was the first president of the Phoenix Branch Bank, a position he held from 1814 to 1826. House of Representatives On March 4, 1801, Tallmadge succeeded William Edmond as a Federalist Party member of the US House of Representatives to represent Connecticut's at-large congressional district. He served until March 3, 1817, when he was succeeded by Thomas Scott Williams. In 1829, Tallmadge was among a group of Federalists who defended Uriah Tracy against accusations by John Quincy Adams and William Plumer. Adams and Plumer had claimed Tracy was a leader of an 1804 effort to lead New England to secede from the United States. Personal life Tallmadge married Mary Floyd (1764-1805) on March 18, 1784, daughter of William Floyd, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and a U.S Representative from New York. Their children included: William Smith Tallmadge (1785-1822), a lieutenant colonel in the 46th United States Infantry in the War of 1812; he died unmarried in Moscow, New York Henry Floyd Tallmadge (1787-1854), who married Maria Andrews Canfield (b. 1800), daughter of Andrew Adams Maria Jones Tallmadge (1790-1878), who married John Paine Cushman (1784-1848), a member of the House of Representatives from New York's 10th congressional district Benjamin Tallmadge (1792-1831), who died unmarried near Gibraltar while a lieutenant in the United States Navy Frederick Augustus Tallmadge (1794-1869), who married Elizabeth H. Canfield (1793-1878) Harriet Wadsworth Tallmadge (1797-1856), who married John Delafield (1786-1853), brother of Edward Delafield and Richard Delafield George Washington Tallmadge (1803-1838), who married Laura Pease (1807-1893), daughter of Calvin Pease Death Mary died in 1805, and Tallmadge married Maria Hallett (d. 1838) in 1808, daughter of his friend Joseph Hallett. Tallmadge died March 7, 1835 in Litchfield, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut. Name: Lucie Biography: Lucie Manette Gender: female Years of birth: 1770s Current era: Atlantic Revolution Era Memorabilia: The French Revolution Place of birth: France Living place: London, England It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—A Tale of Two Cities Lucie Manette is a character in Charles Dickens' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities. Overview Lucie is the daughter of Dr. Alexandre Manette. She is wise beyond her years, unfailingly kind, and loving. Her love and protection of her father is what attracts Charles Darnay to her. She meets Darnay, the young Frenchman, on the voyage home with her father. When Darnay is arrested as a spy due to evidence planted on him by John Barsad on the orders of his uncle, the Marquis St. Evremonde, Lucie and her father attend Darnay’s trial out of concern. It is there that she meets Sydney Carton, the drunken lawyer who falls in love with her. She reaches out to Carton out of concern for his well being, but is being actively courted by Darnay and accepts the latter's proposal. When Darnay and Lucie’s daughter is about six years old, Darnay returns to France. Lucie, Dr. Manette, their daughter, Little Lucie, and Miss Pross go after him after receiving notice of his imprisonment in La Force. Lucie relies on her father to rescue Darnay, which he does, but then Darnay is again accused. During his imprisonment, Lucie remains loyal and faithful to Darnay. Lucie and her daughter successfully escape from the clutches of Madame Defarge and reunite with Darnay safely, due to Carton's sacrifice in place of Darnay's. Portrayals Cinematic and theatrical portrayals On film and television, Lucie has been portrayed by: Elizabeth Allan (film, 1935) Wendy Hutchinson (TV, 1957) Dorothy Tutin (film, 1958) Kika Markham (TV, 1965) Sally Osborne (TV, 1980) Alice Krige (TV, 1980) Serena Gordon (TV, 1989) Brandi Burkhardt (Broadway musical adaptation, 2008) Radio portrayals On radio, Lucie has been portrayed by: Charlotte Attenborough (BBC Radio 4, 1989) Lydia Wilson (BBC Radio 4, 2011) A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens, deals with the major themes of duality, revolution, and resurrection. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times in London and Paris, as economic and political unrest lead to the American and French Revolutions. The main characters in Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities — Doctor Alexandre Manette, Charles Darnay, and Sydney Carton — are all recalled to life, or resurrected, in different ways as turmoil erupts. Written by: Charles Dickens Type of Work: novel Genres: historical fiction; political commentary First Published: In weekly installments in All the Year Round, from April 30 to November 29, 1859 Setting: London and Paris, 1775-1792 Main Characters: Doctor Alexandre Manette; Lucie Manette (later Darnay); Charles Darnay; Sydney Carton; Therese Defarge; Ernest Defarge; Jerry Cruncher; Mr. Lorry; Miss Pross Major Thematic Topics: duality; revolution; resurrection; violence; centrality of women; aristocratic versus peasant Motifs: darkness; restricted by society; duality Major Symbols: Madame Defarge's Knitting; motherhood Movie Versions: A Tale of Two Cities (1935); A Tale of Two Cities (1958); A Tale of Two Cities (1980); A Tale of Two Cities (1989) The three most important aspects of A Tale of Two Cities: A Tale of Two Cities is told from the omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view. The narrator, or storyteller, who is never identified, has access to the thoughts and feelings of all the characters. A Tale of Two Cities, which is one of two historical novels written by Charles Dickens, is set in London and in Paris and the French countryside at the time of the French Revolution. The book is sympathetic to the overthrow of the French aristocracy but highly critical of the reign of terror that followed. Dickens characterizes the men and women who populate A Tale of Two Cities less by what the book's narrator or the characters themselves say, and more by what they do. As a result, the novel seems somewhat modern, despite being set in the 18th century and written in the 19th century. A Tale of Two Cities is an 1859 historical novel by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the French Revolution. The novel tells the story of the French Doctor Manette, his 18-year-long imprisonment in the Bastille in Paris and his release to live in London with his daughter Lucie, whom he had never met. The story is set against the conditions that led up to the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. As Dickens' best-known work of historical fiction, A Tale of Two Cities is claimed to be one of the best-selling novels of all time. In 2003, the novel was ranked 63rd on the BBC's The Big Read poll. The novel has been adapted for film, television, radio, and the stage, and has continued to influence popular culture. Synopsis Book the First: Recalled to Life Opening lines Dickens opens the novel with a sentence that has become famous: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. Plot of the first book In 1775, a man flags down the nightly mail-coach en route from London to Dover. The man is Jerry Cruncher, an employee of Tellson's Bank in London; he carries a message for Jarvis Lorry, one of the bank's managers. Lorry sends Jerry back with the cryptic response "Recalled to Life", referring to Alexandre Manette, a French physician who has been released from the Bastille after an 18-year imprisonment. On arrival in Dover, Lorry meets Dr Manette's daughter Lucie and her governess, Miss Pross. Lucie believes her father to be dead, so she faints at the news that he is alive. Lorry takes her to France for a reunion. In the Paris neighbourhood of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, Dr Manette has been given lodgings by his former servant Ernest Defarge and his wife Therese, the owners of a wine shop. Lorry and Lucie find him in a small garret where he spends much of his time distractedly and obsessively making shoes - a skill he learned in prison. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England. Book the Second: The Golden Thread Plot of the second book In 1780, French emigre Charles Darnay is on trial in London for treason against the British Crown. The key witnesses against him are two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly. Barsad claims that he would recognise Darnay anywhere, but Darnay's lawyer points out that his colleague in court, Sydney Carton, bears a strong resemblance to the prisoner. With Barsad's testimony thus undermined, Darnay is acquitted. In Paris, the hated and abusive Marquis St. Evremonde orders his carriage driven recklessly fast through the crowded streets, hitting and killing a child. The Marquis throws a coin to the child's father, Gaspard, to compensate him for his loss, but drives on. Arriving at his country chateau, the Marquis meets his nephew and heir, Darnay. Out of disgust with his aristocratic family, the nephew has shed his real surname (St. Evremonde) and anglicised his mother's maiden name, D'Aulnais, to Darnay. He despises the Marquis' views that "Repression is the only lasting philosophy. The dark deference of fear and slavery ... will keep the dogs obedient to the whip, as long as this roof shuts out the sky." That night, Gaspard creeps into the chateau and stabs and kills the Marquis in his sleep. He avoids capture for nearly a year, but is eventually hanged in the nearby village. In London, Carton confesses his love to Lucie, but quickly recognises that she cannot love him in return. Carton nevertheless promises to "embrace any sacrifice for you and for those dear to you". Darnay asks for Dr Manette's permission to wed Lucie, and he agrees. On the morning of the marriage, Darnay reveals his real name and lineage to Dr Manette, facts that Manette had asked him to withhold until that day. The unexpected revelation causes Dr Manette to revert to his obsessive shoemaking. He returns to sanity before their return from honeymoon, and the whole incident is kept secret from Lucie. As the years pass, Lucie and Charles begin to raise a family in England: a son (who dies in childhood) and a daughter, little Lucie. Lorry finds a second home with them. Carton, though he seldom visits, is accepted as a close friend and becomes a special favourite of little Lucie. In Paris, the Defarges help to lead the storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny, in July 1789. Defarge enters Dr Manette's former cell, One Hundred and Five, North Tower, and searches it thoroughly. Throughout the countryside, local officials and other representatives of the aristocracy are slaughtered, and the St. Evremonde chateau is burned to the ground. In 1792, Lorry travels to France to save important documents stored at Tellson's Paris branch from the chaos of the French Revolution. Darnay receives a letter from Gabelle, one of his uncle's former servants who has been imprisoned by the revolutionaries, pleading for the Marquis to help secure his release. Without telling his family or revealing his position as the new Marquis, Darnay also sets out for Paris. Book the Third: The Track of a Storm Plot of the third book Shortly after Darnay's arrival in Paris, he is denounced as an illegal emigrated aristocrat and jailed in La Force Prison. Hoping to be able to save him, Dr Manette, Lucie and her daughter, Jerry, and Miss Pross all move to Paris and take up lodgings near those of Lorry. Fifteen months later, Darnay is finally tried, and Dr Manette - viewed as a popular hero after his long imprisonment in the Bastille - testifies on his behalf. Darnay is acquitted and released, but is re-arrested later that day. While running errands with Jerry, Miss Pross is amazed to run into her long-lost brother Solomon. Now posing as a Frenchman, he is an employee of the revolutionary authorities and one of Darnay's gaolers. Carton also recognises him - as Barsad, one of the spies who tried to frame Darnay at his trial in 1780. Solomon is desperate to keep his true identity hidden, and by threatening to denounce him as an English spy Carton blackmails Solomon into helping with a plan. Darnay's retrial the following day is based on new denunciations by the Defarges, and on a manuscript that Defarge had found when searching Dr Manette's prison cell. Defarge reads the manuscript to the tribunal. In it, Dr Manette had recorded that his imprisonment was at the hands of the Evremonde brothers (Darnay's father and uncle) after he had tried to report their crimes. Darnay's uncle had kidnapped and raped a peasant girl. Her brother, first hiding his remaining younger sister, had gone to confront the uncle, who ran him through with his sword. In spite of the best efforts of Dr Manette, both the elder sister and the brother died. Dr Manette's manuscript concludes by denouncing the Evremondes, "them and their descendants, to the last of their race." The jury takes that as irrefutable proof of Darnay's guilt, and he is condemned to die by the guillotine the next afternoon. In the Defarges' wine shop, Carton discovers that Madame Defarge was the surviving sister of the peasant family, and he overhears her planning to denounce both Lucie and her daughter. He visits Lorry and warns him that Lucie and her family must be ready to flee the next day. He extracts a promise that Lorry and the family will be waiting for him in the carriage at 2 pm, ready to leave the very instant he returns. Shortly before the executions are due to begin, Carton puts his plan into effect and, with Solomon's reluctant assistance, obtains access to Darnay's prison cell. Carton intends to be executed in Darnay's place. He drugs Darnay and trades clothes with him, then has Solomon carry Darnay out to the carriage where Lorry and the family are expecting Carton. They flee to England with Darnay, who gradually regains consciousness during the journey. Meanwhile, Madame Defarge goes to Lucie's lodgings, hoping to apprehend her and her daughter. There she finds Miss Pross, who is waiting for Jerry so they can follow the family out of Paris. The two women struggle and Madame Defarge's pistol discharges, killing her outright and permanently deafening Miss Pross. As Carton waits to board the tumbril that will take him to his execution, he is approached by another prisoner, a seamstress. Carton comforts her, telling her that their ends will be quick and that the worries of their lives will not follow them into "the better land where ... will be mercifully sheltered." A final prophetic thought runs through his mind in which he visualises a better future for the family and their descendants. Closing lines Dickens closes with Carton's final prophetic vision as he contemplates the guillotine: I see Barsad, and Cly, Defarge, The Vengeance , the Juryman, the Judge, long ranks of the new oppressors who have risen on the destruction of the old, perishing by this retributive instrument, before it shall cease out of its present use. I see a beautiful city and a brilliant people rising from this abyss, and, in their struggles to be truly free, in their triumphs and defeats, through long years to come, I see the evil of this time and of the previous time of which this is the natural birth, gradually making expiation for itself and wearing out. I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peaceful, useful, prosperous and happy, in that England which I shall see no more. I see Her with a child upon her bosom, who bears my name. I see her father, aged and bent, but otherwise restored, and faithful to all men in his healing office, and at peace. I see the good old man , so long their friend, in ten years' time enriching them with all he has, and passing tranquilly to his reward. I see that I hold a sanctuary in their hearts, and in the hearts of their descendants, generations hence. I see her, an old woman, weeping for me on the anniversary of this day. I see her and her husband, their course done, lying side by side in their last earthly bed, and I know that each was not more honoured and held sacred in the other's soul than I was in the souls of both. I see that child who lay upon her bosom and who bore my name, a man winning his way up in that path of life which once was mine. I see him winning it so well, that my name is made illustrious there by the light of his. I see the blots I threw upon it, faded away. I see him, fore-most of just judges and honoured men, bringing a boy of my name, with a forehead that I know and golden hair, to this place—then fair to look upon, with not a trace of this day's disfigurement—and I hear him tell the child my story, with a tender and a faltering voice. It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known. Sources While performing in The Frozen Deep, Dickens was given a play to read called The Dead Heart by Watts Phillips which had the historical setting, the basic storyline, and the climax that Dickens used in A Tale of Two Cities. The play was produced while A Tale of Two Cities was being serialised in All the Year Round and led to talk of plagiarism. Other sources are The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle (especially important for the novel's rhetoric and symbolism); Zanoni by Edward Bulwer-Lytton; The Castle Spector by Matthew Lewis; Travels in France by Arthur Young; and Tableau de Paris by Louis-Sebastien Mercier. Dickens also used material from an account of imprisonment during the Terror by Beaumarchais, and records of the trial of a French spy published in The Annual Register. Publication history The 45-chapter novel was published in 31 weekly instalments in Dickens' new literary periodical titled All the Year Round. From April 1859 to November 1859, Dickens also republished the chapters as eight monthly sections in green covers. All but three of Dickens' previous novels had appeared as monthly instalments prior to publication as books. The first weekly instalment of A Tale of Two Cities ran in the first issue of All the Year Round on 30 April 1859. The last ran 30 weeks later, on 26 November. The Telegraph and The Guardian claim that it is one of the best-selling novels of all time. World Cat listed 1,529 editions of the work, including 1,305 print editions. Analysis A Tale of Two Cities is one of only two works of historical fiction by Charles Dickens (the other being Barnaby Rudge). Dickens uses literal translations of French idioms for characters who cannot speak English, such as "What the devil do you do in that galley there?!!" and "Where is my wife? … Here you see me." The Penguin Classics edition of the novel notes that "Not all readers have regarded the experiment as a success." J. L. Borges quipped: "Dickens lived in London. In his book A Tale of Two Cities, based on the French Revolution, we see that he really could not write a tale of two cities. He was a resident of just one city: London." London itself has two cities, Westminster and London. Themes Resurrection In Dickens' England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay's). More concretely, "Book the First" deals with the rebirth of Dr Manette from the living death of his incarceration. Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life". Resurrection also appears during Mr Lorry's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr Manette: ("Buried how long?" "Almost eighteen years." ... "You know that you are recalled to life?" "They tell me so.") He believes he is helping with Dr Manette's revival and imagines himself "digging" up Dr Manette from his grave. Resurrection is a major theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry's thoughts of Dr Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel's three "books".) Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in ways the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!" The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr Lorry reawakens the reader's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night ... to bring the dead out of their graves". Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that. It turns out that Jerry Cruncher's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man", one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time). The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Dickens is angered that in France and England, courts hand out death sentences for insignificant crimes. In France, peasants had formerly been put to death without any trial, at the whim of a noble. The Marquis tells Darnay with pleasure that "n the next room (my bedroom), one fellow ... was poniarded on the spot for professing some insolent delicacy respecting his daughter—his daughter!" The demolition of Dr Manette's shoe-making workbench by Miss Pross and Mr Lorry is described as "the burning of the body". It seems clear that this is a rare case where death or destruction (the opposite of resurrection) has a positive connotation since the "burning" helps liberate the doctor from the memory of his long imprisonment. But Dickens' description of this kind and healing act is strikingly odd: So wicked do destruction and secrecy appear to honest minds, that Mr Lorry and Miss Pross, while engaged in the commission of their deed and in the removal of its traces, almost felt, and almost looked, like accomplices in a horrible crime. Sydney Carton's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life". Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there ... he looked sublime and prophetic". In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel, Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one. Water Hans Biedermann writes that water "is the fundamental symbol of all the energy of the unconscious—an energy that can be dangerous when it overflows its proper limits (a frequent dream sequence)." This symbolism suits Dickens' novel; in A Tale of Two Cities, the frequent images of water stand for the building anger of the peasant mob, an anger that Dickens sympathizes with to a point, but ultimately finds irrational and even animalistic. Early in the book, Dickens suggests this when he writes, "he sea did what it liked, and what it liked was destruction." The sea here represents the coming mob of revolutionaries. After Gaspard murders the Marquis, he is "hanged there forty feet high—and is left hanging, poisoning the water." The poisoning of the well represents the bitter impact of Gaspard's execution on the collective feeling of the peasants. After Gaspard's death, the storming of the Bastille is led (from the St. Antoine neighbourhood, at least) by the Defarges; "As a whirlpool of boiling waters has a centre point, so, all this raging circled around Defarge's wine shop, and every human drop in the cauldron had a tendency to be sucked towards the vortex..." The crowd is envisioned as a sea. "With a roar that sounded as if all the breath in France had been shaped into a detested word , the living sea rose, wave upon wave, depth upon depth, and overflowed the city..." Darnay's jailer is described as "unwholesomely bloated in both face and person, as to look like a man who had been drowned and filled with water." Later, during the Reign of Terror, the revolution had grown "so much more wicked and distracted ... that the rivers of the South were encumbered with bodies of the violently drowned by night..." Later a crowd is "swelling and overflowing out into the adjacent streets ... the Carmagnole absorbed them every one and whirled them away." During the fight with Miss Pross, Madame Defarge clings to her with "more than the hold of a drowning woman". Commentators on the novel have noted the irony that Madame Defarge is killed by her own gun, and perhaps Dickens means by the above quote to suggest that such vicious vengefulness as Madame Defarge's will eventually destroy even its perpetrators. So many read the novel in a Freudian light, as exalting the (British) superego over the (French) id. Yet in Carton's last walk, he watches an eddy that "turned and turned purposeless, until the stream absorbed it, and carried it onto the sea"—his fulfilment, while masochistic and superego-driven, is nonetheless an ecstatic union with the subconscious. Darkness and light As is frequent in European literature, good and evil are symbolized by light and darkness. Lucie Manette is the light, as represented literally by her name; and Madame Defarge is darkness. Darkness represents uncertainty, fear, and peril. It is dark when Mr Lorry rides to Dover; it is dark in the prisons; dark shadows follow Madame Defarge; dark, gloomy doldrums disturb Dr Manette; his capture and captivity are shrouded in darkness; the Marquis' estate is burned in the dark of night; Jerry Cruncher raids graves in the darkness; Charles' second arrest also occurs at night. Both Lucie and Mr Lorry feel the dark threat that is Madame Defarge. "That dreadful woman seems to throw a shadow on me," remarks Lucie. Although Mr Lorry tries to comfort her, "the shadow of the manner of these Defarges was dark upon himself". Madame Defarge is "like a shadow over the white road", the snow symbolising purity and Madame Defarge's darkness corruption. Dickens also compares the dark colour of blood to the pure white snow: the blood takes on the shade of the crimes of its shedders. Social justice Charles Dickens was a champion of the poor in his life and in his writings. His childhood included some of the pains of poverty in England, as he had to work in a factory as a child to help his family. His father, John Dickens, continually lived beyond his means and eventually went to debtors' prison. Charles was forced to leave school and began working ten-hour days at Warren's Blacking Warehouse, earning six shillings a week. Dickens considered the workings of a mob, in this novel and in Barnaby Rudge, creating believable characters who act differently when the mob mentality takes over. The reasons for revolution by the lower classes are clear, and given in the novel. Some of his characters, notably Madame Defarge, have no limit to their vengeance for crimes against them. The Reign of Terror was a horrific time in France, and she gives some notion for how things went too far from the perspective of the citizens, as opposed to the actions of the de facto government in that year. Dickens does not spare his descriptions of mob actions, including the night Dr Manette and his family arrive at Tellson's bank in Paris to meet Mr Lorry, saying that the people in the vicious crowd display "eyes which any unbrutalized beholder would have given twenty years of life, to petrify with a well-directed gun". The reader is shown that the poor are brutalised in France and England alike. As crime proliferates, the executioner in England is stringing up long rows of miscellaneous criminals; now hanging housebreaker ... now burning people in the hand" or hanging a broke man for stealing sixpence. In France, a boy is sentenced to have his hands removed and be burned alive, only because he did not kneel down in the rain before a parade of monks passing some fifty yards away. At the lavish residence of Monseigneur, we find "brazen ecclesiastics of the worst world worldly, with sensual eyes, loose tongues, and looser lives ... Military officers destitute of military knowledge ... Doctors who made great fortunes ... for imaginary disorders". This incident is fictional, but is based on a true story related by Voltaire in a famous pamphlet, An Account of the Death of the Chevalier de la Barre. So riled is Dickens at the brutality of English law that he depicts some of its punishments with sarcasm: "the whipping-post, another dear old institution, very humanising and softening to behold in action". He faults the law for not seeking reform: "Whatever is, is right" is the dictum of the Old Bailey. Dickens wants his readers to be careful that the same revolution that so damaged France will not happen in Britain, which (at least at the beginning of the book) is shown to be nearly as unjust as France; Ruth Glancy has argued that Dickens portrays France and England as nearly equivalent at the beginning of the novel, but that as the novel progresses, England comes to look better and better, climaxing in Miss Pross' pro-Britain speech at the end of the novel. But his warning is addressed not to the British lower classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping; if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time. The lower classes do not have any agency in this metaphor: they simply react to the behaviour of the aristocracy. In this sense it can be said that while Dickens sympathizes with the poor, he identifies with the rich: they are the book's audience, its "us" and not its "them". "Crush humanity out of shape once more, under similar hammers, and it will twist itself into the same tortured forms. Sow the same seed of rapacious licence and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind". With the people starving and begging the Marquis for food, his uncharitable response is to let the people eat grass; the people are left with nothing but onions to eat and are forced to starve while the nobles are living lavishly upon the people's backs. Every time the nobles refer to the life of the peasants it is only to destroy or humiliate the poorBook the First (November 1775) Lucie Manette is told to be 17, in Book One, Chapter Four. https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-old-characters-sydney-carton-madame-defarge-1573 Name: Laplace Biography: Pierre-Simon Laplace(23 March 1749 - 5 March 1827) Nationality:French Alma mater:University of Caen Fields:Astronomy and Mathematics Institutions:ecole Militaire (1769-1776) Notable students:Simeon Denis Poisson，Napoleon Bonaparte Laplace's theory of ocean tides took into account friction, resonance and natural periods of ocean basins. He also studied the tides through astronomical methods and explored the relationship between the tides and the gravity of celestial bodies. Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace (/l??plɑ?s/; French: ; 23 March 1749 - 5 March 1827) was a French scholar and polymath whose work was important to the development of engineering, mathematics, statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. He summarized and extended the work of his predecessors in his five-volume Mecanique Celeste (Celestial Mechanics) (1799-1825). This work translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems. In statistics, the Bayesian interpretation of probability was developed mainly by Laplace. Laplace formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform which appears in many branches of mathematical physics, a field that he took a leading role in forming. The Laplacian differential operator, widely used in mathematics, is also named after him. He restated and developed the nebular hypothesis of the origin of the Solar System and was one of the first scientists to postulate the existence of black holes and the notion of gravitational collapse. Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time. Sometimes referred to as the French Newton or Newton of France, he has been described as possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty superior to that of any of his contemporaries. He was Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon attended the ecole Militaire in Paris in 1784. Laplace became a count of the Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in 1817, after the Bourbon Restoration. Early years Some details of Laplace's life are not known, as records of it were burned in 1925 with the family chateau in Saint Julien de Mailloc, near Lisieux, the home of his great-great-grandson the Comte de Colbert-Laplace. Others had been destroyed earlier, when his house at Arcueil near Paris was looted in 1871. Laplace was born in Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy on 23 March 1749, a village four miles west of Pont l'evêque. According to W. W. Rouse Ball, his father, Pierre de Laplace, owned and farmed the small estates of Maarquis. His great-uncle, Maitre Oliver de Laplace, had held the title of Chirurgien Royal. It would seem that from a pupil he became an usher in the school at Beaumont; but, having procured a letter of introduction to d'Alembert, he went to Paris to advance his fortune. However, Karl Pearson is scathing about the inaccuracies in Rouse Ball's account and states: Indeed Caen was probably in Laplace's day the most intellectually active of all the towns of Normandy. It was here that Laplace was educated and was provisionally a professor. It was here he wrote his first paper published in the Melanges of the Royal Society of Turin, Tome iv. 1766-1769, at least two years before he went at 22 or 23 to Paris in 1771. Thus before he was 20 he was in touch with Lagrange in Turin. He did not go to Paris a raw self-taught country lad with only a peasant background! In 1765 at the age of sixteen Laplace left the "School of the Duke of Orleans" in Beaumont and went to the University of Caen, where he appears to have studied for five years and was a member of the Sphinx. The 'ecole Militaire' of Beaumont did not replace the old school until 1776. His parents, Pierre Laplace and Marie-Anne Sochon, were from comfortable families. The Laplace family was involved in agriculture until at least 1750, but Pierre Laplace senior was also a cider merchant and syndic of the town of Beaumont. Pierre Simon Laplace attended a school in the village run at a Benedictine priory, his father intending that he be ordained in the Roman Catholic Church. At sixteen, to further his father's intention, he was sent to the University of Caen to read theology. At the university, he was mentored by two enthusiastic teachers of mathematics, Christophe Gadbled and Pierre Le Canu, who awoke his zeal for the subject. Here Laplace's brilliance as a mathematician was quickly recognised and while still at Caen he wrote a memoir Sur le Calcul integral aux differences infiniment petites et aux differences finies. This provided the first intercourse between Laplace and Lagrange. Lagrange was the senior by thirteen years, and had recently founded in his native city Turin a journal named Miscellanea Taurinensia, in which many of his early works were printed and it was in the fourth volume of this series that Laplace's paper appeared. About this time, recognising that he had no vocation for the priesthood, he resolved to become a professional mathematician. Some sources state that he then broke with the church and became an atheist. Laplace did not graduate in theology but left for Paris with a letter of introduction from Le Canu to Jean le Rond d'Alembert who at that time was supreme in scientific circles. According to his great-great-grandson, d'Alembert received him rather poorly, and to get rid of him gave him a thick mathematics book, saying to come back when he had read it. When Laplace came back a few days later, d'Alembert was even less friendly and did not hide his opinion that it was impossible that Laplace could have read and understood the book. But upon questioning him, he realised that it was true, and from that time he took Laplace under his care. Another account is that Laplace solved overnight a problem that d'Alembert set him for submission the following week, then solved a harder problem the following night. D'Alembert was impressed and recommended him for a teaching place in the ecole Militaire. With a secure income and undemanding teaching, Laplace now threw himself into original research and for the next seventeen years, 1771-1787, he produced much of his original work in astronomy. From 1780-1784, Laplace and French chemist Antoine Lavoisier collaborated on several experimental investigations, designing their own equipment for the task. In 1783 they published their joint paper, Memoir on Heat, in which they discussed the kinetic theory of molecular motion. In their experiments they measured the specific heat of various bodies, and the expansion of metals with increasing temperature. They also measured the boiling points of ethanol and ether under pressure. Laplace further impressed the Marquis de Condorcet, and already by 1771 Laplace felt entitled to membership in the French Academy of Sciences. However, that year admission went to Alexandre-Theophile Vandermonde and in 1772 to Jacques Antoine Joseph Cousin. Laplace was disgruntled, and early in 1773 d'Alembert wrote to Lagrange in Berlin to ask if a position could be found for Laplace there. However, Condorcet became permanent secretary of the Academie in February and Laplace was elected associate member on 31 March, at age 24. In 1773 Laplace read his paper on the invariability of planetary motion in front of the Academy des Sciences. That March he was elected to the academy, a place where he conducted the majority of his science. On 15 March 1788, at the age of thirty-nine, Laplace married Marie-Charlotte de Courty de Romanges, an eighteen-year-old woman from a 'good' family in Besan?on. The wedding was celebrated at Saint-Sulpice, Paris. The couple had a son, Charles-emile (1789-1874), and a daughter, Sophie-Suzanne (1792-1813). Analysis, probability, and astronomical stability Laplace's early published work in 1771 started with differential equations and finite differences but he was already starting to think about the mathematical and philosophical concepts of probability and statistics. However, before his election to the Academie in 1773, he had already drafted two papers that would establish his reputation. The first, Memoire sur la probabilite des causes par les evenements was ultimately published in 1774 while the second paper, published in 1776, further elaborated his statistical thinking and also began his systematic work on celestial mechanics and the stability of the Solar System. The two disciplines would always be interlinked in his mind. "Laplace took probability as an instrument for repairing defects in knowledge." Laplace's work on probability and statistics is discussed below with his mature work on the analytic theory of probabilities. Stability of the Solar System Sir Isaac Newton had published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 in which he gave a derivation of Kepler's laws, which describe the motion of the planets, from his laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. However, though Newton had privately developed the methods of calculus, all his published work used cumbersome geometric reasoning, unsuitable to account for the more subtle higher-order effects of interactions between the planets. Newton himself had doubted the possibility of a mathematical solution to the whole, even concluding that periodic divine intervention was necessary to guarantee the stability of the Solar System. Dispensing with the hypothesis of divine intervention would be a major activity of Laplace's scientific life. It is now generally regarded that Laplace's methods on their own, though vital to the development of the theory, are not sufficiently precise to demonstrate the stability of the Solar System, and indeed, the Solar System is understood to be chaotic, although it happens to be fairly stable. One particular problem from observational astronomy was the apparent instability whereby Jupiter's orbit appeared to be shrinking while that of Saturn was expanding. The problem had been tackled by Leonhard Euler in 1748 and Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1763 but without success. In 1776, Laplace published a memoir in which he first explored the possible influences of a purported luminiferous ether or of a law of gravitation that did not act instantaneously. He ultimately returned to an intellectual investment in Newtonian gravity. Euler and Lagrange had made a practical approximation by ignoring small terms in the equations of motion. Laplace noted that though the terms themselves were small, when integrated over time they could become important. Laplace carried his analysis into the higher-order terms, up to and including the cubic. Using this more exact analysis, Laplace concluded that any two planets and the Sun must be in mutual equilibrium and thereby launched his work on the stability of the Solar System. Gerald James Whitrow described the achievement as "the most important advance in physical astronomy since Newton". Laplace had a wide knowledge of all sciences and dominated all discussions in the Academie. Laplace seems to have regarded analysis merely as a means of attacking physical problems, though the ability with which he invented the necessary analysis is almost phenomenal. As long as his results were true he took but little trouble to explain the steps by which he arrived at them; he never studied elegance or symmetry in his processes, and it was sufficient for him if he could by any means solve the particular question he was discussing. Tidal dynamics Main article: Theory of tides On the figure of the Earth During the years 1784-1787 he published some memoirs of exceptional power. Prominent among these is one read in 1783, reprinted as Part II of Theorie du Mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planètes in 1784, and in the third volume of the Mecanique celeste. In this work, Laplace completely determined the attraction of a spheroid on a particle outside it. This is memorable for the introduction into analysis of spherical harmonics or Laplace's coefficients, and also for the development of the use of what we would now call the gravitational potential in celestial mechanics. Planetary and lunar inequalities Jupiter-Saturn great inequality Laplace presented a memoir on planetary inequalities in three sections, in 1784, 1785, and 1786. This dealt mainly with the identification and explanation of the perturbations now known as the "great Jupiter-Saturn inequality". Laplace solved a longstanding problem in the study and prediction of the movements of these planets. He showed by general considerations, first, that the mutual action of two planets could never cause large changes in the eccentricities and inclinations of their orbits; but then, even more importantly, that peculiarities arose in the Jupiter-Saturn system because of the near approach to commensurability of the mean motions of Jupiter and Saturn. In this context commensurability means that the ratio of the two planets' mean motions is very nearly equal to a ratio between a pair of small whole numbers. Two periods of Saturn's orbit around the Sun almost equal five of Jupiter's. The corresponding difference between multiples of the mean motions, (2nJ ? 5nS), corresponds to a period of nearly 900 years, and it occurs as a small divisor in the integration of a very small perturbing force with this same period. As a result, the integrated perturbations with this period are disproportionately large, about 0.8° degrees of arc in orbital longitude for Saturn and about 0.3° for Jupiter. Further developments of these theorems on planetary motion were given in his two memoirs of 1788 and 1789, but with the aid of Laplace's discoveries, the tables of the motions of Jupiter and Saturn could at last be made much more accurate. It was on the basis of Laplace's theory that Delambre computed his astronomical tables. Books Black holes Laplace also came close to propounding the concept of the black hole. He suggested that there could be massive stars whose gravity is so great that not even light could escape from their surface (see escape velocity). However, this insight was so far ahead of its time that it played no role in the history of scientific development. Arcueil Main article: Society of Arcueil In 1806, Laplace bought a house in Arcueil, then a village and not yet absorbed into the Paris conurbation. The chemist Claude Louis Berthollet was a neighbour - their gardens were not separated - and the pair formed the nucleus of an informal scientific circle, latterly known as the Society of Arcueil. Because of their closeness to Napoleon, Laplace and Berthollet effectively controlled advancement in the scientific establishment and admission to the more prestigious offices. The Society built up a complex pyramid of patronage. In 1806, Laplace was also elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Analytic theory of probabilities In 1812, Laplace issued his Theorie analytique des probabilites in which he laid down many fundamental results in statistics. The first half of this treatise was concerned with probability methods and problems, the second half with statistical methods and applications. Laplace's proofs are not always rigorous according to the standards of a later day, and his perspective slides back and forth between the Bayesian and non-Bayesian views with an ease that makes some of his investigations difficult to follow, but his conclusions remain basically sound even in those few situations where his analysis goes astray. In 1819, he published a popular account of his work on probability. This book bears the same relation to the Theorie des probabilites that the Système du monde does to the Mechanique celeste. In its emphasis on the analytical importance of probabilistic problems, especially in the context of the "approximation of formula functions of large numbers," Laplace's work goes beyond the contemporary view which almost exclusively considered aspects of practical applicability. Laplace's Theorie analytique remained the most influential book of mathematical probability theory to the end of the 19th century. The general relevance for statistics of Laplacian error theory was appreciated only by the end of the 19th century. However, it influenced the further development of a largely analytically oriented probability theory. Inductive probability Probability-generating function Least squares and central limit theorem Laplace's demon Main article: Laplace's demon In 1814, Laplace published what may have been the first scientific articulation of causal determinism: We may regard the present state of the universe as the effect of its past and the cause of its future. An intellect which at a certain moment would know all forces that set nature in motion, and all positions of all items of which nature is composed, if this intellect were also vast enough to submit these data to analysis, it would embrace in a single formula the movements of the greatest bodies of the universe and those of the tiniest atom; for such an intellect nothing would be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes. —?Pierre Simon Laplace, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities This intellect is often referred to as Laplace's demon (in the same vein as Maxwell's demon) and sometimes Laplace's Superman (after Hans Reichenbach). Laplace, himself, did not use the word "demon", which was a later embellishment. As translated into English above, he simply referred to: "Une intelligence ... Rien ne serait incertain pour elle, et l'avenir comme le passe, serait present à ses yeux." Even though Laplace is generally credited with having first formulated the concept of causal determinism, in a philosophical context the idea was actually widespread at the time, and can be found as early as 1756 in Maupertuis' 'Sur la Divination'. Jesuit scientist Boscovich first proposed a version of scientific determinism very similar to Laplace's in his 1758 book Theoria philosophiae naturalis. Laplace transforms Other discoveries and accomplishments Mathematics Amongst the other discoveries of Laplace in pure and applied mathematics are: Discussion, contemporaneously with Alexandre-Theophile Vandermonde, of the general theory of determinants, (1772); Proof that every equation of an odd degree must have at least one real quadratic factor; Laplace's method for approximating integrals Solution of the linear partial differential equation of the second order; He was the first to consider the difficult problems involved in equations of mixed differences, and to prove that the solution of an equation in finite differences of the first degree and the second order might always be obtained in the form of a continued fraction; In his theory of probabilities: de Moivre-Laplace theorem that approximates binomial distribution with a normal distribution Evaluation of several common definite integrals; General proof of the Lagrange reversion theorem. Surface tension Main article: Young-Laplace equation § History Laplace built upon the qualitative work of Thomas Young to develop the theory of capillary action and the Young-Laplace equation. Speed of sound Laplace in 1816 was the first to point out that the speed of sound in air depends on the heat capacity ratio. Newton's original theory gave too low a value, because it does not take account of the adiabatic compression of the air which results in a local rise in temperature and pressure. Laplace's investigations in practical physics were confined to those carried on by him jointly with Lavoisier in the years 1782 to 1784 on the specific heat of various bodies. Politics Minister of the Interior In his early years Laplace was careful never to become involved in politics, or indeed in life outside the Academie des sciences. He prudently withdrew from Paris during the most violent part of the Revolution. In November 1799, immediately after seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon appointed Laplace to the post of Minister of the Interior. The appointment, however, lasted only six weeks, after which Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was given the post. Evidently, once Napoleon's grip on power was secure, there was no need for a prestigious but inexperienced scientist in the government. Napoleon later (in his Memoires de Sainte Helène) wrote of Laplace's dismissal as follows: Geomètre de premier rang, Laplace ne tarda pas à se montrer administrateur plus que mediocre; dès son premier travail nous reconn?mes que nous nous etions trompe. Laplace ne saisissait aucune question sous son veritable point de vue: il cherchait des subtilites partout, n'avait que des idees problematiques, et portait enfin l'esprit des 'infiniment petits' jusque dans l'administration. (Geometrician of the first rank, Laplace was not long in showing himself a worse than average administrator; from his first actions in office we recognized our mistake. Laplace did not consider any question from the right angle: he sought subtleties everywhere, conceived only problems, and finally carried the spirit of "infinitesimals" into the administration.) Grattan-Guinness, however, describes these remarks as "tendentious", since there seems to be no doubt that Laplace "was only appointed as a short-term figurehead, a place-holder while Napoleon consolidated power". From Bonaparte to the Bourbons Although Laplace was removed from office, it was desirable to retain his allegiance. He was accordingly raised to the senate, and to the third volume of the Mecanique celeste he prefixed a note that of all the truths therein contained the most precious to the author was the declaration he thus made of his devotion towards the peacemaker of Europe. In copies sold after the Bourbon Restoration this was struck out. (Pearson points out that the censor would not have allowed it anyway.) In 1814 it was evident that the empire was falling; Laplace hastened to tender his services to the Bourbons, and in 1817 during the Restoration he was rewarded with the title of marquis. According to Rouse Ball, the contempt that his more honest colleagues felt for his conduct in the matter may be read in the pages of Paul Louis Courier. His knowledge was useful on the numerous scientific commissions on which he served, and, says Rouse Ball, probably accounts for the manner in which his political insincerity was overlooked. Roger Hahn in his 2005 biography disputes this portrayal of Laplace as an opportunist and turncoat, pointing out that, like many in France, he had followed the debacle of Napoleon's Russian campaign with serious misgivings. The Laplaces, whose only daughter Sophie had died in childbirth in September 1813, were in fear for the safety of their son emile, who was on the eastern front with the emperor. Napoleon had originally come to power promising stability, but it was clear that he had overextended himself, putting the nation at peril. It was at this point that Laplace's loyalty began to weaken. Although he still had easy access to Napoleon, his personal relations with the emperor cooled considerably. As a grieving father, he was particularly cut to the quick by Napoleon's insensitivity in an exchange related by Jean-Antoine Chaptal: "On his return from the rout in Leipzig, he accosted Mr Laplace: 'Oh! I see that you have grown thin—Sire, I have lost my daughter—Oh! that's not a reason for losing weight. You are a mathematician; put this event in an equation, and you will find that it adds up to zero.'" Political philosophy In the second edition (1814) of the Essai philosophique, Laplace added some revealing comments on politics and governance. Since it is, he says, "the practice of the eternal principles of reason, justice and humanity that produce and preserve societies, there is a great advantage to adhere to these principles, and a great inadvisability to deviate from them". Noting "the depths of misery into which peoples have been cast" when ambitious leaders disregard these principles, Laplace makes a veiled criticism of Napoleon's conduct: "Every time a great power intoxicated by the love of conquest aspires to universal domination, the sense of liberty among the unjustly threatened nations breeds a coalition to which it always succumbs." Laplace argues that "in the midst of the multiple causes that direct and restrain various states, natural limits" operate, within which it is "important for the stability as well as the prosperity of empires to remain". States that transgress these limits cannot avoid being "reverted" to them, "just as is the case when the waters of the seas whose floor has been lifted by violent tempests sink back to their level by the action of gravity". About the political upheavals he had witnessed, Laplace formulated a set of principles derived from physics to favour evolutionary over revolutionary change: Let us apply to the political and moral sciences the method founded upon observation and calculation, which has served us so well in the natural sciences. Let us not offer fruitless and often injurious resistance to the inevitable benefits derived from the progress of enlightenment; but let us change our institutions and the usages that we have for a long time adopted only with extreme caution. We know from past experience the drawbacks they can cause, but we are unaware of the extent of ills that change may produce. In the face of this ignorance, the theory of probability instructs us to avoid all change, especially to avoid sudden changes which in the moral as well as the physical world never occur without a considerable loss of vital force. In these lines, Laplace expressed the views he had arrived at after experiencing the Revolution and the Empire. He believed that the stability of nature, as revealed through scientific findings, provided the model that best helped to preserve the human species. "Such views," Hahn comments, "were also of a piece with his steadfast character." In the Essai philosophique, Laplace also illustrates the potential of probabilities in political studies by applying the law of large numbers to justify the candidates’ integer-valued ranks used in the Borda method of voting, with which the new members of the Academy of Sciences were elected. Laplace’s verbal argument is so rigorous that it can easily be converted into a formal proof. Death Laplace died in Paris on 5 March 1827, which was the same day Alessandro Volta died. His brain was removed by his physician, Fran?ois Magendie, and kept for many years, eventually being displayed in a roving anatomical museum in Britain. It was reportedly smaller than the average brain. Laplace was buried at Père Lachaise in Paris but in 1888 his remains were moved to Saint Julien de Mailloc in the canton of Orbec and reinterred on the family estate. The tomb is situated on a hill overlooking the village of St Julien de Mailloc, Normandy, France. Religious opinions I had no need of that hypothesis See also: God of the gaps Views on God Excommunication of a comet In 1470 the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote that Pope Callixtus III had asked for prayers for deliverance from the Turks during a 1456 appearance of Halley's Comet. Platina's account does not accord with Church records, which do not mention the comet. Laplace is alleged to have embellished the story by claiming the Pope had "excommunicated" Halley's comet. What Laplace actually said, in Exposition du système du monde (1796), was that the Pope had ordered the comet to be "exorcised" (conjure). It was Arago, in Des Comètes en general (1832), who first spoke of an excommunication. Honors Correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1809. Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. The asteroid 4628 Laplace is named for Laplace. A spur of the Montes Jura on the Moon is known as Promontorium Laplace. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. The tentative working name of the European Space Agency Europa Jupiter System Mission is the "Laplace" space probe. A train station in the RER B in Arcueil bears his name. A street in Verkhnetemernitsky (near Rostov-on-Don, Russia). Known for Work in celestial mechanics Predicting the existence of black holes Bayesian inference Bayesian probability Laplace's equation Laplacian Laplace transform Inverse Laplace transform Laplace distribution Laplace's demon Young-Laplace equation Laplace number Laplace limit Laplace invariant Laplace principle Laplace's principle of insufficient reason Laplace's method Laplace force Laplace filter Laplace functional Laplacian matrix Laplace motion Laplace plane Laplace pressure Laplace resonance Laplace's spherical harmonics Laplace smoothing Laplace expansion Laplace expansion Laplace-Bayes estimator Laplace-Stieltjes transform Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector Nebular hypothesis Name: Poniatowski Biography: Józef Antoni Poniatowski(7 May 1763 - 19 October 1813) Position: Polish prince who became a Marshal of France but died a few days later at Leipzig Allegiance: Habsburg Monarchy，Poland-Lithuania，France，Duchy of Warsaw Branch/service: Polish Army, French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Prince Józef Antoni Poniatowski (Polish pronunciation: ; 7 May 1763 - 19 October 1813) was a Polish general, minister of war and army chief, who became a Marshal of the French Empire during the Napoleonic Wars. A nephew of king Stanislaus Augustus of Poland (r. 1764-1795), Poniatowski began his military career in 1780 in the Austrian army, where he attained the rank of colonel. In 1789, after leaving Austrian service, he joined the Polish army at the request of his uncle. Poniatowski, now in the rank of major general and commander of the Royal Guards, took part in the Polish-Russian War of 1792, leading the crown forces at the victorious Battle of Zieleńce. After the king's support for the Targowica Confederation of 1792, Poniatowski felt compelled to resign. In 1794 he participated in the Ko?ciuszko Uprising and took charge of defending Warsaw - for which the Russian authorities subsequently exiled him until 1798. In 1807, after Napoleon Bonaparte established the Duchy of Warsaw, Józef Poniatowski was appointed the minister of war. He commanded a 16,000-strong army during the Austro-Polish War (April to October 1809) and achieved tactical success over a larger and more experienced Austrian force in the Battle of Raszyn. There followed a Polish advance into the territory of Galicia. The conflict ended with a Polish victory, which allowed the Duchy to recover some of the lands lost in the Partitions of Poland. A staunch ally and supporter of Emperor Napoleon I of France, Poniatowski voluntarily took part in the French invasion of Russia of 1812. Injuries received during the fighting for Moscow eventually forced his return to Warsaw, where he worked on the reconstruction of the Polish forces intended to fight in Germany. Covering the retreat of the French army after Napoleon lost the "Battle of the Nations" at Leipzig (1813), Poniatowski was repeatedly wounded and drowned in the Elster river. Early Austrian years and war with Turkey Prince Józef Antoni Poniatowski was born in Vienna, Austria in the Palais Kinsky He was baptized in Vienna's Schottenkirche. He was the son of Andrzej Poniatowski, the brother of the last king of Poland Stanislaus II Augustus (born Stanis?aw Poniatowski), and a field marshal in the service of Austria. His mother was Countess Maria Theresia Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau, a lady in the court of Maria Theresa belonging to the influential Czech-Austrian aristocratic family. His father died when Józef was ten, Stanislaus Augustus then became his guardian and the two enjoyed a close personal relationship that lasted for the rest of their lives. Maria Theresa was a godmother of Józef's older sister, who was also named Maria Teresa, after the Empress. Józef was born and raised in Vienna, but was also spent time with his mother in Prague and later with his uncle the king in Warsaw. Brought up in the "ancient regime" society, he was tutored in French, and spoke to his mother in that language. He also learned Polish, German and later, Russian. As a child he acquired the nickname "Prince Pepi", the Czech diminutive form of Joseph. He was trained for a military career, but also learned how to play keyboard instruments and had a portable one which he carried with him later even during military campaigns. It was because of Stanislaus' influence that Poniatowski chose to consider himself a Polish citizen and he transferred to the Polish army at the age of 26. In Vienna, he represented the Polish king at the funeral of Maria Theresa. In 1787 he travelled with Stanislaus Augustus to Kaniov and Kiev, to meet with Catherine the Great. Having chosen a military career, Poniatowski joined the Austrian imperial army, where he was commissioned lieutenant in 1780, in 1786/1788 promoted to colonel, and, when Austria declared war against Ottoman Empire in 1788, he became an aide-de-camp to Emperor Joseph II. Poniatowski fought in that war and distinguished himself at the storming of ?abac on 25 April 1788, where he was seriously wounded. At ?abac he also reportedly saved the life of a younger colleague, Prince Karl Philipp Schwarzenberg. Later their military paths crossed repeatedly, as friends and foes, and at the end of Poniatowski's career Schwarzenberg delivered the crushing blow at the Battle of Leipzig in which Poniatowski was killed. Polish military service and defence of the 3 May Constitution Summoned by his uncle, Stanislaus II Augustus, and the Sejm when the Polish Army was reorganized, Poniatowski returned to Poland. The King had made previous arrangements with the Austrian authorities for this transfer, which in the end depended on his nephew's willingness to make the move. In October 1789, together with Tadeusz Ko?ciuszko and three others, Poniatowski received the rank of major-general, and was appointed commander of a division in Ukraine and devoted himself to rebuilding the small, and long-time neglected, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's army. This took place during the period of deliberations by the Four-Year Sejm, which ended with the proclamation of the 3 May Constitution in 1791. Poniatowski was an enthusiastic supporter of the reforms and a member of the Friends of the Constitution Association. The passage of the document was assured partially by the military forces under the Prince's command, which surrounded the Royal Castle during the final proceedings. He himself stood in the room with a group of soldiers. On 6 May 1792 Poniatowski was appointed Lieutenant-General and commander of the Polish army in the Ukraine, with the task of defending the country against the imminent Russian attack. There Prince Józef was aided by Ko?ciuszko and Micha? Wielhorski, a friend from the Austrian service. In the fighting, badly outnumbered and outgunned by the enemy, obliged constantly to retreat, but disputing every point of vantage, he turned on the pursuer whenever the Russian pressed too closely, and won several notable victories. The Battle of Zieleńce on 18 June was the first major victorious engagement of the Polish forces since John III Sobieski. Poniatowski personally got involved in the fighting when one of the Polish columns was faltering. To celebrate the victory and commemorate the occasion, the Polish king established the Virtuti Militari order, with which he decorated Poniatowski and Ko?ciuszko first. At the Battle of Dubienka fought by Ko?ciuszko and his soldiers on 18 July, the line of the Southern Bug River was defended for five days against fourfold odds. The Polish armies converged on Warsaw and prepared for a general engagement. There a courier from the capital informed the Commander in Chief that king Stanislaus had acceded to the pro-Russian Targowica Confederation and had pledged the adherence of the Polish Army to it as well. All hostilities were to be suspended. The army remained loyal to Prince Józef and he considered staging a coup d'etat option that involved kidnapping the King, but after issuing contradictory orders, he finally decided not to do so. Supposedly distressed by the political situation, at the last skirmish of the war at Markuszów on 26 July he supposedly sought his own death, but was saved. After an indignant but fruitless protest, Poniatowski and most of the other Polish generals resigned their commissions and left the army. In a farewell gesture, Prince Józef's soldiers expressed their gratitude by having a memorial medal minted, and wrote to the Prince's mother in Prague, thanking her for having such a great son. Poniatowski left Warsaw for Vienna, from where he repeatedly challenged the Targowica leader Szcz?sny Potocki to a duel. However, the Russian authorities wanted him removed away from Poland even further, and the fearful king pressured him to comply. Poniatowski left Vienna to travel in western Europe, which at the time was traumatized at that time by the violent events of the French Revolution. In 1792 in a letter to the King, Prince Józef expressed his opinion that in order to save the country and preserve Poland he should have already at the outset of this campaign (since it was not properly prepared militarily) raised the whole country, led the nobility on a horse, armed the towns and given freedom to the peasants. The Polish-Russian War was followed by the Second Partition of Poland. 1794 Ko?ciuszko Insurrection Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski wrote to his nephew in the spring of 1794, urging him to return to Poland and volunteer for service under his former subordinate Ko?ciuszko, in what came to be known as the Ko?ciuszko Uprising. Poniatowski came with Wielhorski again and reported for duty at Ko?ciuszko's camp near J?drzejów on 27 May. Ko?ciuszko proposed that Prince Józef lead the insurrection in Lithuania, where he was demoting the radical and successful leader Jakub Jasiński. However, Poniatowski not wanting to be so far from his uncle who needed him, declined. He suggested instead Wielhorski, which Ko?ciuszko approved. Poniatowski himself participated in combat in and around Warsaw; as a division commander he fought at B?onie between 7 and 10 July, and led cavalry in an anti-Prussian diversion at Marymont on 26-27 July. During the Prussian siege of the city Mokronowski was sent to Lithuania to replace the ailing Wielhorski and Poniatowski was given his post in Warsaw's defense. Between 5 and 10 August, in a victorious and promising series of confrontations, he took the Góry Szwedzkie region from the Prussians and then lost it after a couple of weeks in a counterattack, for which, despite Ko?ciuszko's warnings, he did not properly prepare. He was injured while trying to recover the lost ground when his horse was shot from under him. In October he led his outnumbered troops in an attack on Prussian entrenchments at the Bzura River, which, at the cost of heavy losses, tied up the Prussians and saved D?browski's corps by allowing it to return to Warsaw. During the course of the war and revolution the Prince felt alienated by the actions and influence of the radical wing led by Hugo Ko???taj, while the military cooperation between him, D?browski, and Józef Zaj?czek was not what it should have been, and worsened after Ko?ciuszko's capture at Maciejowice. Withdrawal into private life The Insurrection having failed, Poniatowski stayed for a while in Warsaw, his estates were confiscated, but having refused a position in the Russian army and unwilling to comply with the loyalty conditions that the Russian authorities wanted to impose on him, was ordered to leave the Polish capital and in April 1795 moved once more to Vienna. The Ko?ciuszko Rising led to the Third (and final) Partition of Poland. 1796 saw the death of Catherine II of Russia. Her son, Tsar Paul I returned Poniatowski's estates and again tried to hire him into the Russian army. To excuse himself Prince Józef claimed being (as a result of past wounds) in an extremely poor health. In 1798, however, his uncle, the former king Stanislaus Augustus, died in St. Petersburg. Poniatowski left Vienna for his funeral and to arrange for the proper disposition of the late king's finances, inheritance and obligations. He stayed in St. Petersburg for several months, and then, being on good terms with Tsar Paul and his court, returned to Poland, into his estates in Warsaw (Copper-Roof and My?lewicki palaces) and in Jab?onna. Warsaw at that time was under Prussian rule. There until 1806, Poniatowski lived a private life of parties and play, politically not very active, often shocking the public opinion by the conduct of himself and his friends. His household was managed strictly by one Henrietta Vauban, an older woman whom he brought from Vienna and who was apparently able to exert a great deal of influence over the Prince. His residences were open to various personalities. The future King Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI who was executed by the Revolution, who needed a place to stay with his family and court, was Poniatowski's guest at the ?azienki Palace for a few years after 1801. In 1802, beset by legal troubles stemming from Stanislaus' succession, Poniatowski made a trip to Berlin, where he stayed for months and established cordial personal relations with the Prussian royal family. Prince Józef never married; had two sons with two of his unmarried partners, the first one Józef Szcz?sny Poniatowski (1791-1860) with the singer Zelia Sitańska and Karol Józef Maurycy Poniatowski (1809-1855) with married Zofia Czosnowska, by birth Countess Potocka. Duchy of Warsaw and victory in the Austro-Polish War Further information: Austro-Polish War Following French Emperor Napoleon I's victory at the Battle of Jena and the ensuing evacuation by Prussia of her Polish provinces, in November 1806 Poniatowski was asked by the Prussian king Frederick William III to assume the governorship of Warsaw, to which he agreed; he also assumed the command of the city's municipal guard and citizen militia forces organized by local residents. All of this turned out to be a short-lived Polish provisional authority, because quick succession of events on the European scene presented the Poles with new opportunities and forced upon them new choices. At the end of that year Joachim Murat and his forces entered Warsaw and Poniatowski had to define his role within this new political reality. It took protracted negotiations with Murat (they liked each other and quickly became friends) and persuasion by Józef Wybicki (who urged the Prince to get on board, before the window of historic opportunity closes), but before the year was over Poniatowski was declared by Murat to be "chief of the military force" and was leading the military department on behalf of the French authorities. D?browski, who was the choice of many Polish veterans of the Polish Legions and of the Insurrection, as well as Zaj?czek were bypassed, even though they both had served under Napoleon when Poniatowski was inactive. On 14 January 1807, by the Emperor's decree, the Warsaw Governing Commission was created under Stanis?aw Ma?achowski, and within this structure Poniatowski became officially Director of the Department of War and set about organizing the Polish army. In July 1807 the Duchy of Warsaw was created. In its government Poniatowski on 7 October became Minister of War and Head of Army of the Duchy of Warsaw (minister wojny i naczelny wódz wojsk Ks. Warszawskiego), while Napoleon, not yet quite trusting him, left the supreme military command in Davout's hands until summer of 1808. Poniatowski officially became Commander in Chief on 21 March 1809. The Minister of War became completely devoted to the creation and development of this new, ostentatiously Polish army. The Duchy's army existed and operated under most difficult circumstances and its success depended largely on the military and political skills of the chief commander. For example, it was severely underfunded and most of the military units were kept by Napoleon outside of the country, to be used in numerous campaigns, which is why Prince Józef had a rather small force at his disposal during the war of 1809. In spring of 1809 Poniatowski led his army against an Austrian invasion under the Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este, in the war that was regarded by Austrian high command as a crucial element of their struggle with Napoleonic France. At the bloody Battle of Raszyn near Warsaw on 19 April, where he personally led his men in an infantry bayonet charge (throughout his career he did a number of these), Polish forces under Poniatowski's command fought to a standstill an Austrian force twice their number. Afterwards however decided not to defend Warsaw and withdrew with his units to the east bank of the Vistula River, to the fortified Praga suburb, which the Austrians attacked, but were defeated at Grochowo on 26 April. An Austrian division then crossed the Vistula again trying to pursue the Poles, but was routed on 2 May at Góra Kalwaria in a daring attack led by General Micha? Sokolnicki. Ferdinand made a couple of attempts more, trying to establish a bridgehead on the other side of the Vistula, but those were defeated, which left the initiative in Poniatowski's hands. From there he quickly advanced south, staying close to the Vistula to control the situation and taking over large areas of Galicia, that is southern Poland that was controlled by Austria under the partitioning arrangement. On 14 May Lublin was taken, on the 18th fortified and vigorously defended Sandomierz. On the 20th the Zamo?? fortress was overpowered, where 2000 prisoners and 40 cannons were taken, and even further east Lwów was taken on 27 May. These military developments compelled the Austrians to withdraw from Warsaw — a counteroffensive by their main force resulted in the retaking of Sandomierz on 18 June. But Poniatowski in the meantime moved west of the Vistula and on 5 July, the day of the Battle of Wagram, began from Radom, his new southbound offensive aimed at Kraków. He arrived there on 15 July, and while the demoralized and not capable of effective defense Austrians tried to turn the city over to the Russians, Poniatowski at this point was not to be outmaneuvered or intimidated: Seeing a Russian hussar cavalry unit in attack formation blocking the street leading to the bridge on the Vistula, he rode his raised up horse into them, so that several flipped as they were falling. Most of the liberated lands, with the exception of the Lvov region, became incorporated into the Duchy through the peace treaty of 14 October 1809. Prince Józef himself, celebrated by the residents of the old royal capital of Poland, remained in Kraków until the end of December, supervising the provisional Galician government in existence from 2 June to 28 December. The Austrians kept demanding the return of Kraków and he felt that his presence there was the best assurance that the city would remain in Polish hands. Napoleon's Russian campaign Further information: French invasion of Russia In April 1811 Poniatowski went to Paris, where he represented the King of Saxony and Duke of Warsaw Frederick Augustus I at the baptism ceremonies of Napoleon's son. He stayed there for four months and worked with the Emperor and his generals on plans for the campaign against Russia. He tried to convince the French leaders that the southern route, through the current day Ukraine would provide the most benefits. Not only was the region warmer, Polish gentry from the Russian partition would join in, and possible Turkish action against Russia could be supported, which was the most advantageous theater for the upcoming war. Napoleon rejected the idea, as well as the back-up scenario, according to which Poniatowski would follow such a route alone with the Polish corps, hoping to take over these formerly Polish areas with the expected help from a Polish uprising planned there. For the Russian Campaign of 1812 Poniatowski became commander of V Corps of the Grande Armee — at nearly 100,000 strong Polish forces in the Grande Armee were the greatest Polish military effort before the 20th century. The initial period of the offensive, when Poniatowski was placed under the direction of Jer?me Bonaparte, was wasted, but after Napoleon's brother left Poniatowski was briefly put in charge of Grande Armee's right wing. Fighting on the avant-garde on the advance to Moscow he distinguished himself at a number of battles. On 17 August at Smolensk he personally led his corps' assault on the city. On 7 September at Borodino the V Corps was involved in the daylong fight over the Utitza Mound, which was finally taken toward the evening, stormed by the entire corps led by Prince Józef again. On 14 September the Polish soldiers were the first ones to enter the Russian capital; by that time however Poniatowski, unlike Napoleon, was convinced that the campaign was doomed. The Polish corps fought then the battles at Chirikovo on 29 September and Vinkovo on 18 October, where Poniatowski saved Murat from a complete defeat by Kutuzov's forces. Rearguarding the retreat of the Grande Armee, Poniatowski was badly injured during the Viazma battle on 29 October. He continued in active service for a few days, but on 3 November his condition forced him to give up his command. He then continued the westbound trip in a carriage with two wounded aides. At the Berezina crossing they barely avoided being captured by the Russians but finally, on 12 December, arrived in Warsaw. German Campaign of 1813 and death at Leipzig See also: German Campaign of 1813 After the disastrous retreat of Napoleon's army, and while recovering from his injuries, Poniatowski quickly undertook the rebuilding of the Polish army in order to replace the forces devastated by the Moscow campaign. When many Polish leaders began to waver in their allegiance to the French Emperor, Poniatowski resisted this change of opinion and remained faithful to Napoleon, even when Tsar Alexander I offered him amnesty and proposed future cooperation. With the new army only partially completed, on 5 February, as the Russian army was about to enter Warsaw, the Polish units moved out, not sure of their immediate purpose. Eventually they reached Kraków, where they stayed for a few weeks getting ready. On 7 May, as the Russians were getting close again, Prince Józef and his army left Kraków, went through Bohemia, where, as the VIII Corps, they guarded the passes of the Bohemian mountains and defended the left bank of the Elbe River, to Saxony. The total forces with which he joined Napoleon during the armistice numbered 22,000, which included a small, separately operating D?browski's division. The corps fought major successful battles at L?bau on 9 September, and at Zedtlitz on 10 October, where General Pahlen attempted to stop their movement toward Leipzig, but was defeated in a cavalry charge led by Poniatowski. On 12 October he was about to sit down with Murat at the breakfast table, when they were surprised by enemy units. Poniatowski got on his horse, broke through (receiving a superficial wound in the arm) and returned with another timely cavalry charge, saving the situation. As a reward for his services, on 16 October during the Battle of Leipzig, Poniatowski was made a Marshal of the Empire and entrusted with the duty of covering the French Army's retreat. He defended Leipzig, losing half his corps in the attempt, finally falling back slowly upon a bridge over the river White Elster, near Leipzig. In the general confusion, the French blew up the bridge before he could reach it. Poniatowski tried to escape across the Elstermühlgraben (at modern Gottschedstrasse 42) but, badly injured and probably shot by his allies by mistake drowned in the river. Legacy Poniatowski's cult developed after his death - it was a Polish version of the Napoleonic legend. His remains were transported to Poland in 1817 and buried in the cathedral on Kraków's Wawel Hill, where he lies beside Tadeusz Ko?ciuszko and John III Sobieski. In 1829 his monument by Bertel Thorvaldsen was erected in Warsaw. It was destroyed during World War II, but a recent copy, the Monument to Prince Józef Poniatowski, is still standing before the presidential palace in Warsaw. Poniatowski never married and had only illegitimate issue. Among his living relatives is Elena Poniatowska, a Mexican journalist. He is one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko's 1891 painting, Constitution of 3 May 1791. He was an inspiration for Polish freedom fighters throughout a number of armed conflicts, but especially during the November Uprising of 1830, since many of its leaders had served under Poniatowski's command during the Napoleonic Wars. The Duchy of Warsaw, which Napoleon had created and Poniatowski defended, remained as a residual Polish state to the end of the Partitions period. A Japanese manga, Ten no Hate made - Porando hishi, was written by Riyoko Ikeda at 1991, commemorating the life of Józef Poniatowski. A Polish bomber squadron, named after Poniatowski, took part in aerial operations during the Second World War. It was 304 Sqn. RAF "Land of Silesia" Polish Bomber Squadron (Ziemi ?l?skiej im. Ks. Józefa Poniatowskiego) which mainly flew Fairey Battle, Vickers Wellington, Vickers Warwick and Handley Page Halifax bombers. Their base airfield was mostly RAF Chivenor in Devon. Welsh-Polish historian Norman Davies wrote: Like many of his countrymen, he had wavered long before throwing in his lot with the French. For him, Napoleonic service had demanded a painful change of direction and loyalties. It had involved years of devotion and blood-letting. To have changed his loyalties yet again, as his master the King of Saxony did, was all too worrying for an infinitely weary and honest man. Like the rest of his generation he hoped; he fought; he served; and only found rest in honorable defeat. Josef Anton Poniatowski was a Polish patriot and the only marshal created by Napoleon that was not French. With a personal motto of "God, Honor, Fatherland", he was a dashing figure and ladies man, but rumors said he was dominated by a woman ten years older. The French for their part recognized his abilities and honor and nicknamed him the Polish Bayard. The son of a Polish noble in the service of Austria, Poniatowski initially followed his father's footsteps by entering the Austrian army as a lieutenant in 1778. By 1787 he was a lieutenant colonel of dragoons, and the next year he was made an aide-de-camp to the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. He volunteered to lead an infantry column in an assault on the fortress of Sabatch and was badly wounded by a shell burst that hit his thigh, and this was his last major participation with the Austrian army. After traveling to Vienna and then Brussels, Poniatowski returned to Poland when Kosciuszko began his uprising in 1794. Initially he refused a command and fought as a common soldier, but Kosciuszko eventually persuaded him to take command of a division. Unfortunately, he was surprised and badly beaten in battle, and from shame he turned his division over to Dombrowski's command. With the defeat of the uprising, he refused an offer to serve in Russia's army and then retired to Vienna until 1798, when he returned to Warsaw. Poniatowski took no active part in events again until 1806 when the French, fresh from their victories over the Prussian army, arrived in Warsaw. Though he quickly became friends with Marshal Murat, Marshal Davout and Napoleon were suspicious of his intentions for a time. Nevertheless, and despite Dombrowski's and Zayonchek's experience fighting alongside the French, Poniatowski was selected as the Minister of War for the provisional government in Warsaw and then the Grand Duchy of Warsaw when it was created. In 1809 during the Austrian campaigns, Poniatowski successfully led a fight against the Archduke Ferdinand in Galicia. After suffering setbacks and abandoning Warsaw, he retook the offensive and in a series of daring maneuvers successfully forced back the Austrians and seized Lublin, Sandomir, Zamosc, and Brody. Napoleon was so impressed with his accomplishments that he sent Poniatowski a saber of honor, and later Poniatowski received the awards of a Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor and a Grand Cord of the Military Order of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Next Poniatowski founded an artillery and engineering school and then a hospital in Warsaw. The year 1812 finally brought Poniatowski his chance for revenge against the Russians. Taking command of V Corps of the Grande Armee, he led them into action at Smolensk and Borodino, where he commanded the right. During the retreat, he fought at Tscherikow, Winkowo, Maloyaroslavetz, and the Berezina where he was wounded. Seeing the plight of the soldiers at the Berezina, he wept. Once back in Poland, Poniatowski set about reorganizing what was left of the Polish army. As the allies began to circle for the blood of the French Empire, he sent a personal challenge to the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg who had wronged him, but Schwarzenberg did not accept. In the spring of 1813 he led the loyal Polish to Germany to continue to fight for the French. Throughout the months of fighting, Poniatowski was in the thick of it, and he was wounded by a lance blow on October 12th. At the Battle of Leipzig Poniatowski took command of the right wing, and Napoleon rewarded his service and abilities by making him a marshal of France. Tragically, Poniatowski did not have long to enjoy this honor. During the fighting at Leipzig, he was shot twice, once in the arm and once in the side. The French were forced to withdraw, and when the bridge was prematurely destroyed, Poniatowski and his men were trapped in the city. Despite his wounds, he rode his horse into the Elster River, trying to escape capture. The current proved too strong, and he was swept under and drowned, having only been a marshal for three days. Name: Peale Biography: Charles Willson Peale Position: Painter, soldier Allegiance: America Branch/service: Continental Army Rank: Captain Charles Willson Peale (April 15, 1741 - February 22, 1827) was an American painter, soldier, scientist, inventor, politician and naturalist. He is best remembered for his portrait paintings of leading figures of the American Revolution, and for establishing one of the first museums in the United States. Early life Peale was born in 1741 between modern-day Queenstown and Centreville, Queen Anne's County, Maryland, the son of Charles Peale and his wife Margaret. He had a younger brother, James Peale (1749-1831). He was the brother-in-law of Nathaniel Ramsey, a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation. Charles became an apprentice to a saddle maker when he was fourteen years old. Upon reaching maturity, he opened his own saddle shop and joined the Sons of Liberty. However, he was unsuccessful in saddle making. He then tried fixing clocks and working with metals, but both of these endeavors failed as well. He then took up painting. Career as a painter Finding that he had a talent for painting, especially portraiture, Peale studied for a time under John Hesselius and John Singleton Copley. John Beale Bordley and friends eventually raised enough money for him to travel to England to take instruction from Benjamin West. Peale studied with West for three years beginning in 1767, afterward returning to America and settling in Annapolis, Maryland. There, he taught painting to his younger brother, James Peale, who in time also became a noted artist. American Revolution Peale's enthusiasm for the nascent national government brought him to the capital, Philadelphia, in 1776, where he painted portraits of American notables and visitors from overseas. His estate, which is on the campus of La Salle University in Philadelphia, can still be visited. He also raised troops for the War of Independence and eventually gained the rank of captain in the Pennsylvania militia by 1776, having participated in several battles. While in the field, he continued to paint, doing miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. He produced enlarged versions of these in later years. He served in the Pennsylvania state assembly in 1779-1780, after which he returned to painting full-time. Peale was quite prolific as an artist. While he did portraits of scores of historic figures (such as James Varnum, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton), he is probably best known for his portraits of George Washington. The first time Washington sat for a portrait was with Peale in 1772, and they had six other sittings; using these seven as models, Peale produced altogether close to 60 portraits of Washington. In January 2005, a full-length portrait of Washington at Princeton from 1779 sold for $21.3 million, setting a record for the highest price paid for an American portrait. One of his most celebrated paintings is The Staircase Group (1795), a double portrait of his sons Raphaelle and Titian, painted in the trompe-l'?il style. It is in the collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Peale Museum Peale had a great interest in natural history, and organized the first U.S. scientific expedition in 1801. These two major interests combined in his founding of what became the Philadelphia Museum, later known as Peale's American Museum. It housed a diverse collection of botanical, biological, and archaeological specimens. In 1786, Peale was elected to the American Philosophical Society. The museum contained a large variety of birds which Peale himself acquired, and in many instances mounted, having taught himself taxidermy. In 1792, Peale initiated a correspondence with Thomas Hall, of the Finsbury Museum, City Road, Finsbury, London proposing to purchase British stuffed items for his museum. Eventually, an exchange system was established between the two, whereby Peale sent American birds to Hall in exchange for an equal number of British birds. This arrangement continued until the end of the century. The Peale Museum was the first to display a mastodon skeleton (which in Peale's time were referred to as mammoth bones; these common names were amended by Georges Cuvier in 1800, and his proposed usage is that employed today) that Peale found in New York State. Peale worked with his son to mount the skeleton for display. The display of the "mammoth" bones entered Peale into a long-standing debate between Thomas Jefferson and Comte de Buffon. Buffon argued that Europe was superior to the Americas biologically, which was illustrated through the size of animals found there. Jefferson referenced the existence of these "mammoths" (which he believed still roamed northern regions of the continent) as evidence for a greater biodiversity in America. Peale's display of these bones drew attention from Europe, as did his method of re-assembling large skeletal specimens in three dimensions. The museum was among the first to adopt Linnaean taxonomy. This system drew a stark contrast between Peale's museum and his competitors who presented their artifacts as mysterious oddities of the natural world. The museum underwent several moves during its existence. At various times it was located in several prominent buildings including Independence Hall and the original home of the American Philosophical Society. The museum would eventually fail, in large part because Peale was unsuccessful at obtaining government funding. After his death, the museum was sold to, and split up by, showmen P. T. Barnum and Moses Kimball. Personal life In 1762, Peale married Rachel Brewer (1744-1790), who bore him ten children, most of them named for Peale's favorite artists, male and female. Among their sons and daughters, some of whom he taught to paint, were: Raphaelle Peale (1774-1825), who some consider to be the first professional American painter of still-life. Angelica Kauffman Peale (1775-1853), who was named for Angelica Kauffman (Peale's favorite female painter) and who married Alexander Robinson. Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860), portrait painter, inventor, businessman, museum owner/operator in Baltimore. He founded the "Gas Light Company of Baltimore" in 1817, now Baltimore Gas and Electric Company (BGE). He was the father of artist Rosalba Carriera Peale. Titian Ramsay Peale I (1780-1798), ornithologist. He died at age of 18. Rubens Peale (1784-1865), museum administrator and artist. Sophonisba Angusciola Peale (1786-1859), ornithologist. She married Coleman Sellers (1781-1834) in 1805. She was the mother of Coleman Sellers II. After Rachel's death in 1790, Peale married Elizabeth de Peyster (1765-1804), a descendant of Johannes de Peyster, the next year. With his second wife, he had six additional children, including: Charles Linnaeus Peale (1794-1832), who was named for Charles Linnaeus, the Swedish botanist and zoologist. Franklin Peale (1795-1870), who became the Chief Coiner at the Philadelphia Mint. Titian Ramsay Peale II (1799-1885), explorer, ornithologist, scientific illustrator, and photographer. Elizabeth De Peyster Peale (1802-1857), who married William Augustus Patterson (1792-1833) in 1820. Hannah Moore, a Quaker from Philadelphia, married Peale in 1805, becoming his third wife. She helped to raise the younger children from his previous two marriages. Peale's slave, Moses Williams, was also trained in the arts while growing up in the Peale household and later became a professional silhouette artist. n 1810, Peale purchased a farm in Germantown, where he intended to retire. He named this estate "Belfield" and cultivated extensive gardens there. After Hannah's death in 1821, Peale lived with his son Rubens and sold Belfield in 1826. Peale died on February 22, 1827, and was buried at the Saint Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia alongside his wife Elizabeth DePeyster. Expertise A Renaissance man, Peale had expertise not only in painting but also in many diverse fields, including carpentry, dentistry, optometry, shoemaking, and taxidermy. In 1802, John Isaac Hawkins patented the second official physiognotrace, a mechanical drawing device, and partnered with Peale to market it to prospective buyers. Peale sent a watercolor sketch of the physiognotrace, along with a detailed explanation, to Thomas Jefferson. The drawing is now held with the Jefferson Papers in the Library of Congress. Around 1804, Peale obtained the American patent rights to the polygraph from its inventor John Isaac Hawkins, about the same time as the purchase of one by Thomas Jefferson. Peale and Jefferson collaborated on refinements to this device, which enabled a copy of a handwritten letter to be produced simultaneously with the original. Peale wrote several books. Two of these were An Essay on Building Wooden Bridges (1797) and An Epistle to a Friend on the Means of Preserving Health (1803). Legacy and honors Three of his sons, Rembrandt Peale, Raphaelle Peale, and Titian Ramsay Peale, became noted artists. The World War II cargo Liberty Ship S.S. Charles Willson Peale was named in his honor. Name: Goethe Biography: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 - 22 March 1832) Position: Poet, novelist, playwright, natural philosopher, diplomat, civil servant Alma mater :Leipzig University,University of Strasbourg Literary movement: Sturm und Drang,Weimar Classicism,Romanticism in science Notable works :Faust,The Sorrows of Young Werther,Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. Elective Affinities,"Prometheus",Zur Farbenlehre,Italienische Reise,West-?stlicher Divan Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 - 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature and aesthetic criticism, and treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour. He is considered to be the greatest German literary figure of the modern era. Goethe took up residence in Weimar in November 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). He was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Karl August, in 1782. He was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, Goethe became a member of the Duke's privy council, sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace. Goethe's first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. In 1791 he was made managing director of the theatre at Weimar, and in 1794 he began a friendship with the dramatist, historian, and philosopher Friedrich Schiller, whose plays he premiered until Schiller's death in 1805. During this period Goethe published his second novel, Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship; the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808, the first part of his most celebrated drama, Faust. His conversations and various shared undertakings throughout the 1790s with Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Gottfried Herder, Alexander von Humboldt, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and August and Friedrich Schlegel have come to be collectively termed Weimar Classicism. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer named Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship one of the four greatest novels ever written, while the American philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson selected Goethe as one of six "representative men" in his work of the same name (along with Plato, Emanuel Swedenborg, Montaigne, Napoleon, and Shakespeare). Goethe's comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, notably Johann Peter Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe (1836). Goethe's father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house (today the Goethe House) in Frankfurt, then a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar Goethe was not involved in the city's official affairs. Johann Caspar married Goethe's mother, Catharina Elizabeth Textor, at Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17. All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister Cornelia Friederica Christiana (born in 1750), died at early ages. His father and private tutors gave the young Goethe lessons in common subjects of their time, especially languages (Latin, Greek, French, Italian, English and Hebrew). Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding and fencing. Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not. Although Goethe's great passion was drawing, he quickly became interested in literature; Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724-1803) and Homer were among his early favorites. He had a devotion to theater as well, and was greatly fascinated by puppet shows that were annually arranged in his home; this became a recurrent theme in his literary work Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. He also took great pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period: I had from childhood the singular habit of always learning by heart the beginnings of books, and the divisions of a work, first of the five books of Moses, and then of the Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses. ... If an ever busy imagination, of which that tale may bear witness, led me hither and thither, if the medley of fable and history, mythology and religion, threatened to bewilder me, I readily fled to those oriental regions, plunged into the first books of Moses, and there, amid the scattered shepherd tribes, found myself at once in the greatest solitude and the greatest society. Goethe also became acquainted with Frankfurt actors. In early literary attempts he showed an infatuation with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust, and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit. He adored Caritas Meixner (1750-1773), a wealthy Worms trader's daughter and friend of his sister, who would later marry the merchant G. F. Schuler. Legal career Early years in Weimar In 1775, Goethe was invited, on the strength of his fame as the author of The Sorrows of Young Werther, to the court of Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, who would become Grand Duke in 1815. (The Duke at the time was 18 years of age, to Goethe's 26.) Goethe thus went to live in Weimar, where he remained for the rest of his life and where, over the course of many years, he held a succession of offices, including superintendent of the ducal library, as the Duke's friend and chief adviser. In 1776, Goethe formed a close relationship to Charlotte von Stein, an older, married woman. The intimate bond with von Stein lasted for ten years, after which Goethe abruptly left for Italy without giving his companion any notice. She was emotionally distraught at the time, but they were eventually reconciled. Goethe, aside from official duties, was also a friend and confidant to the Duke, and participated in the activities of the court. For Goethe, his first ten years at Weimar could well be described as a garnering of a degree and range of experience which perhaps could be achieved in no other way. In 1779, Goethe took on the War Commission of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, in addition to the Mines and Highways commissions. In 1782, when the chancellor of the Duchy's Exchequer left his office, Goethe agreed to act in his place for two and a half years; this post virtually made him prime minister and the principal representative of the Duchy. Goethe was ennobled in 1782 (this being indicated by the "von" in his name). As head of the Saxe-Weimar War Commission, Goethe participated in the recruitment of mercenaries into the Prussian and British military during the American Revolution. The author W. Daniel Wilson claims that Goethe engaged in negotiating the forced sale of vagabonds, criminals, and political dissidents as part of these activities. Italy Goethe's journey to the Italian peninsula and Sicily from 1786 to 1788 was of great significance in his aesthetic and philosophical development. His father had made a similar journey, and his example was a major motivating factor for Goethe to make the trip. More importantly, however, the work of Johann Joachim Winckelmann had provoked a general renewed interest in the classical art of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus Goethe's journey had something of the nature of a pilgrimage to it. During the course of his trip Goethe met and befriended the artists Angelica Kauffman and Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, as well as encountering such notable characters as Lady Hamilton and Alessandro Cagliostro (see Affair of the Diamond Necklace). He also journeyed to Sicily during this time, and wrote that "To have seen Italy without having seen Sicily is to not have seen Italy at all, for Sicily is the clue to everything." While in Southern Italy and Sicily, Goethe encountered, for the first time genuine Greek (as opposed to Roman) architecture, and was quite startled by its relative simplicity. Winckelmann had not recognized the distinctness of the two styles. Goethe's diaries of this period form the basis of the non-fiction Italian Journey. Italian Journey only covers the first year of Goethe's visit. The remaining year is largely undocumented, aside from the fact that he spent much of it in Venice. This "gap in the record" has been the source of much speculation over the years. In the decades which immediately followed its publication in 1816, Italian Journey inspired countless German youths to follow Goethe's example. This is pictured, somewhat satirically, in George Eliot's Middlemarch. Weimar In late 1792, Goethe took part in the Battle of Valmy against revolutionary France, assisting Duke Karl August of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach during the failed invasion of France. Again during the Siege of Mainz, he assisted Carl August as a military observer. His written account of these events can be found within his Complete Works. In 1794, Friedrich Schiller wrote to Goethe offering friendship; they had previously had only a mutually wary relationship ever since first becoming acquainted in 1788. This collaborative friendship lasted until Schiller's death in 1805. In 1806, Goethe was living in Weimar with his mistress Christiane Vulpius, the sister of Christian A. Vulpius, and their son August von Goethe. On 13 October, Napoleon's army invaded the town. The French "spoon guards", the least disciplined soldiers, occupied Goethe's house: The 'spoon guards' had broken in, they had drunk wine, made a great uproar and called for the master of the house. Goethe's secretary Riemer reports: 'Although already undressed and wearing only his wide nightgown... he descended the stairs towards them and inquired what they wanted from him.... His dignified figure, commanding respect, and his spiritual mien seemed to impress even them.' But it was not to last long. Late at night they burst into his bedroom with drawn bayonets. Goethe was petrified, Christiane raised a lot of noise and even tangled with them, other people who had taken refuge in Goethe's house rushed in, and so the marauders eventually withdrew again. It was Christiane who commanded and organized the defense of the house on the Frauenplan. The barricading of the kitchen and the cellar against the wild pillaging soldiery was her work. Goethe noted in his diary: "Fires, rapine, a frightful night... Preservation of the house through steadfastness and luck." The luck was Goethe's, the steadfastness was displayed by Christiane. Days afterward, on 19 October 1806, Goethe legitimized their 18-year relationship by marrying Christiane in a quiet marriage service at the Jakobskirche in Weimar . They had already had several children together by this time, including their son, Julius August Walter von Goethe (1789-1830), whose wife, Ottilie von Pogwisch (1796-1872), cared for the elder Goethe until his death in 1832. August and Ottilie had three children: Walther, Freiherr von Goethe (1818-1885), Wolfgang, Freiherr von Goethe (1820-1883) and Alma von Goethe (1827-1844). Christiane von Goethe died in 1816. Johann reflected, "There is nothing more charming to see than a mother with her child in her arms, and there is nothing more venerable than a mother among a number of her children." Later life After 1793, Goethe devoted his endeavours primarily to literature. By 1820, Goethe was on amiable terms with Kaspar Maria von Sternberg. In 1823, having recovered from a near fatal heart illness, the 74-year-old Goethe fell in love with the teenaged Ulrike von Levetzow whom he wanted to marry, but because of the opposition of her mother he never proposed. Their last meeting in Carlsbad on 5 September 1823 inspired his famous Marienbad Elegy which he considered one of his finest works. During that time he also developed a deep emotional bond with the Polish pianist Maria Agata Szymanowska. In 1821 Goethe's friend Carl Friedrich Zelter introduced him to the 12-year-old Felix Mendelssohn. Goethe, now in his seventies, was greatly impressed by the child, leading to perhaps the earliest confirmed comparison with Mozart in the following conversation between Goethe and Zelter: "Musical prodigies ... are probably no longer so rare; but what this little man can do in extemporizing and playing at sight borders the miraculous, and I could not have believed it possible at so early an age." "And yet you heard Mozart in his seventh year at Frankfurt?" said Zelter. "Yes", answered Goethe, "... but what your pupil already accomplishes, bears the same relation to the Mozart of that time that the cultivated talk of a grown-up person bears to the prattle of a child." Mendelssohn was invited to meet Goethe on several later occasions, and set a number of Goethe's poems to music. His other compositions inspired by Goethe include the overture Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (Op. 27, 1828), and the cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht (The First Walpurgis Night, Op. 60, 1832). Death In 1832, Goethe died in Weimar of apparent heart failure. His last words, according to his doctor Carl Vogel, were, Mehr Licht! (More light!), but this is disputed as Vogel was not in the room at the moment Goethe died. He is buried in the Ducal Vault at Weimar's Historical Cemetery. Eckermann closes his famous work, Conversations with Goethe, with this passage: The morning after Goethe's death, a deep desire seized me to look once again upon his earthly garment. His faithful servant, Frederick, opened for me the chamber in which he was laid out. Stretched upon his back, he reposed as if asleep; profound peace and security reigned in the features of his sublimely noble countenance. The mighty brow seemed yet to harbour thoughts. I wished for a lock of his hair; but reverence prevented me from cutting it off. The body lay naked, only wrapped in a white sheet; large pieces of ice had been placed near it, to keep it fresh as long as possible. Frederick drew aside the sheet, and I was astonished at the divine magnificence of the limbs. The breast was powerful, broad, and arched; the arms and thighs were elegant, and of the most perfect shape; nowhere, on the whole body, was there a trace of either fat or of leanness and decay. A perfect man lay in great beauty before me; and the rapture the sight caused me made me forget for a moment that the immortal spirit had left such an abode. I laid my hand on his heart - there was a deep silence - and I turned away to give free vent to my suppressed tears. The first production of Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin took place in Weimar in 1850. The conductor was Franz Liszt, who chose the date 28 August in honour of Goethe, who was born on 28 August 1749. Literary work Overview The most important of Goethe's works produced before he went to Weimar were G?tz von Berlichingen (1773), a tragedy that was the first work to bring him recognition, and the novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (German: Die Leiden des jungen Werthers) (1774), which gained him enormous fame as a writer in the Sturm und Drang period which marked the early phase of Romanticism. Indeed, Werther is often considered to be the "spark" which ignited the movement, and can arguably be called the world's first "best-seller." During the years at Weimar before he met Schiller in 1794, he began Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship and wrote the dramas Iphigenie auf Tauris (Iphigenia in Tauris), Egmont, and Torquato Tasso and the fable Reineke Fuchs. To the period of his friendship with Schiller belong the conception of Wilhelm Meister's Journeyman Years (the continuation of Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship), the idyll of Hermann and Dorothea, the Roman Elegies and the verse drama The Natural Daughter. In the last period, between Schiller's death, in 1805, and his own, appeared Faust Part One (1808), Elective Affinities (1809), the West-Eastern Diwan (an 1819 collection of poems in the Persian style, influenced by the work of Hafez), his autobiographical Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit (From My Life: Poetry and Truth, published between 1811 and 1833) which covers his early life and ends with his departure for Weimar, his Italian Journey (1816-17), and a series of treatises on art. Faust, Part Two was completed before his 1832 death and published posthumously later that year. His writings were immediately influential in literary and artistic circles. Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa's Abhij?āna?ākuntalam, which was one of the first works of Sanskrit literature that became known in Europe, after being translated from English to German. Scientific work See also: Goethean science Religion and politics Goethe was a freethinker who believed that one could be inwardly Christian without following any of the Christian churches, many of whose central teachings he firmly opposed, sharply distinguishing between Christ and the tenets of Christian theology, and criticizing its history as a "hodgepodge of fallacy and violence". His own descriptions of his relationship to the Christian faith and even to the Church varied widely and have been interpreted even more widely, so that while Goethe's secretary Eckermann portrayed him as enthusiastic about Christianity, Jesus, Martin Luther, and the Protestant Reformation, even calling Christianity the "ultimate religion," on one occasion Goethe described himself as "not anti-Christian, nor un-Christian, but most decidedly non-Christian," and in his Venetian Epigram 66, Goethe listed the symbol of the cross among the four things that he most disliked. According to Nietzsche, Goethe had "a kind of almost joyous and trusting fatalism" that has "faith that only in the totality everything redeems itself and appears good and justified." Born into a Lutheran family, Goethe's early faith was shaken by news of such events as the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the Seven Years' War. Goethe's preoccupation with and reverence for Spinoza are well known and documented in the history of Western thought. He was one of the central figures in a great flowering of a highly influential Neo-Spinozism which occurred in German philosophy and literature of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries—that was the first remarkable Spinoza revival in history. Like Lessing and Herder, in many respects, Goethe was a devoted Spinozist. He was also a pantheist, like some other prominent Spinozists such as Flaubert and Albert Einstein. His later spiritual perspective incorporated elements of pantheism (heavily influenced by Spinoza's thought), humanism, and various elements of Western esotericism, as seen most vividly in part 2 of Faust. Like Heinrich Heine, Nietzsche mentions in his writings frequently Goethe and Spinoza as a pair. A year before his death, in a letter to Sulpiz Boisseree, Goethe wrote that he had the feeling that all his life he had been aspiring to qualify as one of the Hypsistarians, an ancient sect of the Black Sea region who, in his understanding, sought to reverence, as being close to the Godhead, what came to their knowledge of the best and most perfect. Goethe's unorthodox religious beliefs led him to be called "the great heathen" and provoked distrust among the authorities of his time, who opposed the creation of a Goethe monument on account of his offensive religious creed. August Wilhelm Schlegel considered Goethe "a heathen who converted to Islam." Politically, Goethe described himself as a "moderate liberal." He was critical of the radicalism of Bentham and expressed sympathy for the prudent liberalism of Fran?ois Guizot. At the time of the French Revolution, he thought the enthusiasm of the students and professors to be a perversion of their energy and remained skeptical of the ability of the masses to govern. Goethe sympathized with the American Revolution and later wrote a poem in which he declared "America, you're better off than our continent, the old." He did not join in the anti-Napoleonic mood of 1812, and he distrusted the strident nationalism which started to be expressed. The medievalism of the Heidelberg Romantics was also repellent to Goethe's eighteenth-century ideal of a supra-national culture. Goethe was a {Freemason}, joining the lodge Amalia in Weimar in 1780, and frequently alluded to Masonic themes of universal brotherhood in his work. He was also attracted to the Bavarian Illuminati, a secret society founded on 1 May 1776. Although often requested to write poems arousing nationalist passions, Goethe would always decline. In old age, he explained why this was so to Eckermann: How could I write songs of hatred when I felt no hate? And, between ourselves, I never hated the French, although I thanked God when we were rid of them. How could I, to whom the only significant things are civilization and barbarism, hate a nation which is among the most cultivated in the world, and to which I owe a great part of my own culture? In any case this business of hatred between nations is a curious thing. You will always find it more powerful and barbarous on the lowest levels of civilization. But there exists a level at which it wholly disappears, and where one stands, so to speak, above the nations, and feels the weal or woe of a neighboring people as though it were one's own. Influence Goethe had a great effect on the nineteenth century. In many respects, he was the originator of many ideas which later became widespread. He produced volumes of poetry, essays, criticism, a theory of colours and early work on evolution and linguistics. He was fascinated by mineralogy, and the mineral goethite (iron oxide) is named after him. His non-fiction writings, most of which are philosophic and aphoristic in nature, spurred the development of many thinkers, including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Schopenhauer, S?ren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ernst Cassirer, and Carl Jung. Along with Schiller, he was one of the leading figures of Weimar Classicism. Schopenhauer cited Goethe's novel Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship as one of the four greatest novels ever written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Helo?se and Don Quixote. Nietzsche wrote, "Four pairs it was that did not deny themselves to my sacrifice: Epicurus and Montaigne, Goethe and Spinoza, Plato and Rousseau, Pascal and Schopenhauer. With these I must come to terms when I have long wandered alone; they may call me right and wrong; to them will I listen when in the process they call each other right and wrong." Goethe embodied many of the contending strands in art over the next century: his work could be lushly emotional, and rigorously formal, brief and epigrammatic, and epic. He would argue that Classicism was the means of controlling art, and that Romanticism was a sickness, even as he penned poetry rich in memorable images, and rewrote the formal rules of German poetry. His poetry was set to music by almost every major Austrian and German composer from Mozart to Mahler, and his influence would spread to French drama and opera as well. Beethoven declared that a "Faust" Symphony would be the greatest thing for art. Liszt and Mahler both created symphonies in whole or in large part inspired by this seminal work, which would give the 19th century one of its most paradigmatic figures: Doctor Faustus. The Faust tragedy/drama, often called Das Drama der Deutschen (the drama of the Germans), written in two parts published decades apart, would stand as his most characteristic and famous artistic creation. Followers of the twentieth-century esotericist Rudolf Steiner built a theatre named the Goetheanum after him—where festival performances of Faust are still performed. Goethe was also a cultural force. During his first meeting with Napoleon in 1808, the latter famously remarked: "Vous êtes un homme (You are a man)!" The two discussed politics, the writings of Voltaire, and Goethe's Sorrows of Young Werther, which Napoleon had read seven times and ranked among his favorites. Goethe came away from the meeting deeply impressed with Napoleon's enlightened intellect and his efforts to build an alternative to the corrupt old regime. Goethe always spoke of Napoleon with the greatest respect, confessing that "nothing higher and more pleasing could have happened to me in all my life" than to have met Napoleon in person. Germaine de Sta?l, in De l'Allemagne (1813), presented German Classicism and Romanticism as a potential source of spiritual authority for Europe, and identified Goethe as a living classic. She praised Goethe as possessing "the chief characteristics of the German genius" and uniting "all that distinguishes the German mind." Sta?l's portrayal helped elevate Goethe over his more famous German contemporaries and transformed him into a European cultural hero. Goethe met with her and her partner Benjamin Constant, with whom he shared a mutual admiration. In Victorian England, Goethe exerted a profound influence on George Eliot, whose partner George Henry Lewes wrote a Life of Goethe. Eliot presented Goethe as "eminently the man who helps us to rise to a lofty point of observation" and praised his "large tolerance", which "quietly follows the stream of fact and of life" without passing moral judgments. Matthew Arnold found in Goethe the "Physician of the Iron Age" and "the clearest, the largest, the most helpful thinker of modern times" with a "large, liberal view of life." It was to a considerable degree due to Goethe's reputation that the city of Weimar was chosen in 1919 as the venue for the national assembly, convened to draft a new constitution for what would become known as Germany's Weimar Republic. Goethe became a key reference for Thomas Mann in his speeches and essays defending the republic. He emphasized Goethe's "cultural and self-developing individualism", humanism, and cosmopolitanism. The Federal Republic of Germany's cultural institution, the Goethe-Institut, is named after him, and promotes the study of German abroad and fosters knowledge about Germany by providing information on its culture, society and politics. The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2001 in recognition of its historical significance. Goethe's influence was dramatic because he understood that there was a transition in European sensibilities, an increasing focus on sense, the indescribable, and the emotional. This is not to say that he was emotionalistic or excessive; on the contrary, he lauded personal restraint and felt that excess was a disease: "There is nothing worse than imagination without taste". Goethe praised Francis Bacon for his advocacy of science based on experiment and his forceful revolution in thought as one of the greatest strides forward in modern science. However, he was critical of Bacon's inductive method and approach based on pure classification. He said in Scientific Studies: We conceive of the individual animal as a small world, existing for its own sake, by its own means. Every creature is its own reason to be. All its parts have a direct effect on one another, a relationship to one another, thereby constantly renewing the circle of life; thus we are justified in considering every animal physiologically perfect. Viewed from within, no part of the animal is a useless or arbitrary product of the formative impulse (as so often thought). Externally, some parts may seem useless because the inner coherence of the animal nature has given them this form without regard to outer circumstance. Thus... the question, What are they for? but rather, Where do they come from? Goethe's scientific and aesthetic ideas have much in common with Denis Diderot, whose work he translated and studied. Both Diderot and Goethe exhibited a repugnance towards the mathematical interpretation of nature; both perceived the universe as dynamic and in constant flux; both saw "art and science as compatible disciplines linked by common imaginative processes"; and both grasped "the unconscious impulses underlying mental creation in all forms." Goethe's Naturanschauer is in many ways a sequel to Diderot's interprète de la nature. His views make him, along with Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson, and Ludwig van Beethoven, a figure in two worlds: on the one hand, devoted to the sense of taste, order, and finely crafted detail, which is the hallmark of the artistic sense of the Age of Reason and the neo-classical period of architecture; on the other, seeking a personal, intuitive, and personalized form of expression and society, firmly supporting the idea of self-regulating and organic systems. George Henry Lewes celebrated Goethe's revolutionary understanding of the organism. Thinkers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson would take up many similar ideas in the 1800s. Goethe's ideas on evolution would frame the question that Darwin and Wallace would approach within the scientific paradigm. The Serbian inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla was heavily influenced by Goethe's Faust, his favorite poem, and had actually memorized the entire text. It was while reciting a certain verse that he was struck with the epiphany that would lead to the idea of the rotating magnetic field and ultimately, alternating current. Name: MadamTussaud Biography: Marie Tussaud(1 December 1761 - 16 April 1850) Position: Sculptor Allegiance: France,United Kingdom Anna Maria "Marie" Tussaud (French: ; nee Grosholtz; 1 December 1761 - 16 April 1850) was a French artist known for her wax sculptures and Madame Tussauds, the wax museum she founded in London. Biography Marie Tussaud was born 1 December 1761 in Strasbourg, France. Her father, Joseph Grosholtz, was killed in the Seven Years' War just two months before Marie was born. When she was six years old, her mother, Anne-Marie Walder, took her to Bern, in Switzerland. There the family moved into the home of local doctor Philippe Curtius (1741-1794), for whom Anne-Marie acted as housekeeper. Curtius, whom Marie would call her uncle, was skilled in wax modeling. He initially used this talent to illustrate anatomy, but he later used it for portraits. He moved to Paris in 1765 to establish a Cabinet de Portraits En Cire (Wax portraiture firm). In that year, he made a waxwork of Louis XV's last mistress, Madame du Barry, a casting that is the oldest waxwork currently on display. A year later, Tussaud and her mother joined Curtius in Paris. The first exhibition of Curtius' waxworks was shown in 1770 and attracted a large crowd. In 1776, the exhibition was moved to the Palais Royal and, in 1782, Curtius opened a second exhibit, the Caverne des Grands Voleurs (Cavern of the Grand Thieves), a precursor to Tussaud's Chamber of Horrors, on Boulevard du Temple. Curtius taught Tussaud the art of wax modelling. She showed talent for the technique and began working for him as an artist. In 1777, she created her first wax figure, that of Voltaire. From 1780 until the Revolution in 1789, Tussaud created many of her most famous portraits of celebrities such as those of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Benjamin Franklin and Voltaire. During this period her memoirs claim she became employed to teach votive making to elisabeth, the sister of Louis XVI. In her memoirs, she admitted to be privy to private conversations between the princess and her brother and members of his court. She also claimed that members of the royal family were so pleased with her work that she was invited to live at Versailles for a period of nine years, although no contemporary evidence exists to confirm her accounts. French Revolution On 12 July 1789, wax heads of Jacques Necker and the duc d'Orleans made by Curtius were carried in a protest march two days before the attack on the Bastille. Tussaud was perceived as a royal sympathiser; in the Reign of Terror she was arrested, along with Josephine de Beauharnais, and her head was shaved in preparation for her execution by guillotine. She said she was released thanks to Collot d'Herbois' support for Curtius and his household. Tussaud said she was then employed to make death masks and whole body casts of the revolution's famous victims, including Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Princesse de Lamballe, Marat, and Robespierre. When Curtius died in 1794, he left his collection of wax works to Tussaud. In 1795, she married Fran?ois Tussaud, a civil engineer. The couple had three children: a daughter who died after birth and two sons, Joseph and Fran?ois. Great Britain In 1802, after the Treaty of Amiens, Tussaud went to London with her son Joseph, then four years old, to present her collection of portraits. She had accepted an invitation from Paul Philidor, a magic lantern and phantasmagoria pioneer, to exhibit her work alongside his show at the Lyceum Theatre. She did not fare particularly well financially, and left for Edinburgh in 1803. As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Tussaud was unable to return to France so she travelled with her collection throughout the British Isles. In 1822, she reunited with her other son, Fran?ois, who joined her in the family business. Her husband remained in France and the two never saw each other again. In November, 1825 her touring exhibition was in the Wisbech Georgian theatre (now the Angles Theatre), having already been at Yarmouth, Norwich, King's Lynn and Bury St Edmunds. Entrance was 1s. In 1835, after 33 years touring Britain, she established her first permanent exhibition in Baker Street, on the upper floor of the "Baker Street Bazaar". In 1838, she wrote her memoirs. In 1842, she made a self-portrait which is now on display at the entrance of her museum. Some of the sculptures done by Tussaud herself still exist. She died in her sleep in London on 16 April 1850 at the age of 88. There is a memorial tablet to Madame Marie Tussaud on the right side of the nave of St. Mary's Roman Catholic Church, Cadogan Street, London. Legacy Upon Marie Tussaud's retirement, her son Fran?ois (or Francis) became chief artist for the Exhibition. He was succeeded in turn by his son Joseph, who was succeeded by his son John Theodore Tussaud. Madame Tussaud's wax museum has now grown to become one of the major tourist attractions in London, and has expanded with branches in Amsterdam, Istanbul, Beijing, Bangkok, Berlin, Blackpool, Sydney, Hong Kong, Grand Prairie, Texas, Las Vegas, San Francisco, San Antonio, Shanghai, Washington, D.C., New York City, Orlando, Hollywood, Singapore, Tokyo, Vienna and recently New Delhi. As of 2019, the newest museum is in Prague. The current owner is Merlin Entertainments, a company owned by Blackstone Group. Marie Tussauds was featured as a minor character and quest giver in the video game Assassin's Creed Unity, which takes place during the French Revolution. She is one of the main characters in the book Faces of the Dead by Suzanne Weyn. Edward Carey's 2018 novel Little is a novelization of her work and life. Name: Dobeln Biography: Georg Carl von Dobeln (29 April 1758 - 16 February 1820) Position: Swedish/Finnish war hero/ legendary Allegiance:Sweden Branch/service: Swedish Army Rank: Lieutenant General Georg Carl von D?beln (29 April 1758 - 16 February 1820) was a Swedish friherre (baron), Lieutenant general and above all known for his efforts on the Swedish side during the Finnish War. He successfully led the Swedish retreat from the ?land islands over the frozen Baltic sea. Having re-organized his troops, he engaged Russian forces which ultimately stopped a planned attack on the Swedish capital, Stockholm. Battles/wars Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790) Battle of Porrassalmi Finnish War Battle of Pyh?joki Battle of Siikajoki Battle of Kauhajoki Battle of Jutas ?land Offensive War of the Sixth Coalition Awards Commander with the Great Cross of the Order of the Sword Knight with the Great Cross of the Order of the Sword Early life Georg Carl was born at the Stora Torpa manor in Segerstads parish in V?sterg?tland (now Falk?ping Municipality) to Johan Jakob von D?beln and Anna Maria Lindgren. When von D?beln was eight years old his father died and he was put in school by relatives with the aim of him becoming a priest. The boy however, showed affinity for a military life and he was enrolled at the Karlskrona naval academy in 1773. Upon graduating as an officer in 1775, he was directed by the family towards a career in law. Disliking this, he sought employment as a junior officer in 1778. Military career As a lieutenant, D?beln took part in Gustav III's Russian War and was shot in the head at the Battle of Porrassalmi. The wound did not heal properly and he was forced to wear a black silken bandanna for the rest of his life. During the operation he stayed awake and wrote about it while looking at the whole process with the help of a mirror. He then rapidly advanced to colonel and took part in the Finnish War. On 13 September 1808, he led the Swedish troops in the Battle of Jutas. For this, he would become legendary as the main hero of the war. His reputation was further enhanced when Johan Ludvig Runeberg wrote his epic D?beln at Jutas in the Finnish National Poem F?nrik St?ls S?gner (in Swedish). He successfully led the Swedish retreat from the ?land islands over the frozen Baltic sea. Having re-organized his troops, he engaged Russian forces which ultimately stopped a planned attack on the Swedish capital, Stockholm. D?beln was the commanding officer of the North Army on 8 October 1809, when the last formal ties between Sweden and Finland were cut through the dismissal of the last Swedish-Finnish army in the church park of Ume? in V?sterbotten North Sweden. D?beln's final orders to the parading army, issued verbally prior to dismissal, is considered to be the very essence of rhetoric in Swedish, and has been taught to generations of school-children. In the Second War against Napoleon he led troops in Swedish Pomerania and sent troops to relieve Hamburg, which was besieged by the French, without authorisation. For this, he was court-martialled and sentenced to be executed. However, he was pardoned by Crown Prince Charles John, later crowned Charles XIV John of Sweden. Personal life He was married to Kristina Karolina Ullstr?m (they later divorced). The couple had one son, Napoleon (1802-1847). Although popular, having had a great career and after his death considered a war hero, von D?beln lived his last years impoverished. D?belns Park in central Ume? in northern Sweden is the oldest park in Ume?. It came to be named after D?beln when his monument was placed in the park in 1867. There is also a smaller park called "D?belns plan" in the same city. Name: Knox Biography: Henry Knox (July 25, 1750 - October 25, 1806) Position: 1st Senior Officer of the U.S. Army 2nd United States Secretary at War 1st United States Secretary of War Allegiance: United States Branch/service: Continental Army United States Army Rank: Major General Commands: Chief of Artillery In 1777 while the army was in winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, Knox returned to Massachusetts to improve the Army's artillery manufacturing capability. He raised an additional battalion of artillerymen and established an armory at Springfield, Massachusetts before returning to the main army in the spring. That armory, and a second at Yorktown, Pennsylvania established by one of his subordinates, remained valuable sources of war material for the rest of the war. Henry Knox was a senior general of the Continental Army and later the United States Army. He directed the artillery in the successful war for independence. He was close to George Washington, who appointed him first United States Secretary of War from 1789 to 1794. Born and raised in Boston, Massachusetts, Knox owned and operated a bookstore there, cultivating an interest in military history and joining a local artillery company. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, he helped General George Washington on artillery matters which proved decisive in driving the British out of Boston in 1776. Knox quickly rose to become the chief artillery officer of the Continental Army. In this role he accompanied Washington on most of his campaigns, and had some involvement in many major actions of the war. He established training centers for artillerymen and manufacturing facilities for weaponry that were valuable assets to the army that won the war for independence. He saw himself as the embodiment of revolutionary republican ideals. Knox initiated the concept of The Society of the Cincinnati, formally organizing the society and authoring its founding document as the war ended in 1783. It was an elite organization of veteran officers. The Continental Congress appointed him Secretary of War, where he dealt mostly with Indian affairs. Following the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1789, he became President Washington's Secretary of War. In this role he oversaw the development of coastal fortifications, worked to improve the preparedness of local militia, and oversaw the nation military activity in the Northwest Indian War. He was formally responsible for the nation's relationship with the Indian population in the territories it claimed, articulating a policy that established federal government supremacy over the states in relating to Indian nations, and called for treating Indian nations as sovereign. Knox's idealistic views on the subject were frustrated by ongoing illegal settlements and fraudulent land transfers involving Indian lands.He retired to Thomaston, District of Maine in 1795, where he oversaw the rise of a business empire built on borrowed money. He died in 1806, leaving an estate that was bankrupt. Early life and marriage Henry Knox's parents, William and Mary (nee Campbell), were Ulster Scots immigrants who emigrated from Derry to Boston in 1729. His father was a shipbuilder who, due to financial reverses, left the family for Sint Eustatius in the West Indies where he died in 1762 of unknown causes. Henry was admitted to the Boston Latin School, where he studied Greek, Latin, arithmetic, and European history. Since he was the oldest son still at home when his father died, he left school at the age of 9 and became a clerk in a bookstore to support his mother. The shop's owner, Nicholas Bowes, became a surrogate father figure for the boy, allowing him to browse the shelves of the store and take home any volume that he wanted to read. The inquisitive future war hero, when he was not running errands, taught himself French, learned some philosophy and advanced mathematics, and devoured tales of ancient warriors and famous battles. He immersed himself in literature from a tender age. However, Knox was also involved in Boston's street gangs, becoming one of the toughest fighters in his neighborhood. Impressed by a military demonstration, at 18 he joined a local artillery company called The Train. On March 5, 1770, Knox was a witness to the Boston massacre. According to his affidavit, he attempted to defuse the situation, trying to convince the British soldiers to return to their quarters. He also testified at the trials of the soldiers, in which all but two were acquitted. In 1771 he opened his own bookshop, the London Book Store, in Boston "opposite William's Court in Cornhill." The store was, in the words of a contemporary, a "great resort for the British officers and Tory ladies, who were the ton at that period." Boasting an impressive selection of excellent English products and managed by a friendly proprietor, it quickly became a popular destination for the aristocrats of Boston. As a bookseller, Knox built strong business ties with British suppliers (like Thomas Longman) and developed relationships with his customers, but he retained his childhood aspirations. Largely self-educated, he stocked books on military science, and also questioned soldiers who frequented his shop in military matters. The genial giant initially enjoyed reasonable pecuniary success, but his profits slumped after the Boston Port Bill and subsequent citywide boycott of British goods. In 1772 he cofounded the Boston Grenadier Corps as an offshoot of The Train, and served as its second in command. Shortly before his 23rd birthday Knox accidentally discharged a gun, shooting two fingers off his left hand. He managed to bind the wound up and reach a doctor, who sewed the wound up. Knox supported the Sons of Liberty, an organization of agitators against what they considered tyrannical policies by the British Parliament. It is unknown if he participated in the 1773 Boston Tea Party, but he did serve on guard duty before the incident to make sure no tea was unloaded from the Dartmouth, one of the ships involved. The next year he refused a consignment of tea sent to him by James Rivington, a Loyalist in New York. Henry married Lucy Flucker (1756-1824), the daughter of Boston Loyalists, on June 16, 1774, despite opposition from her father that was due to their differing political views. Lucy's brother served in the British Army, and her family attempted to lure Knox to service there. Despite long separations due to his military service, the couple were devoted to one another for the rest of his life, and carried on an extensive correspondence. After the couple fled Boston in 1775, she remained essentially homeless until the British evacuated the city in March 1776. Even afterward, she often traveled to visit Knox in the field. Her parents left, never to return, with the British during their withdrawal from Boston after the Continental Army fortified Dorchester Heights, a success that hinged upon Knox's Ticonderoga expedition. Military career Siege of Boston When the war broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, Knox and Lucy snuck out of Boston, and Knox joined the militia army besieging the city. His abandoned bookshop was looted and all of its stock destroyed or stolen. He served under General Artemas Ward, putting his acquired engineering skills to use developing fortifications around the city. He directed rebel cannon fire at the Battle of Bunker Hill. When General George Washington arrived in July 1775 to take command of the army, he was impressed by the work Knox had done. The two also immediately developed a liking for one another, and Knox began to interact regularly with Washington and the other generals of the developing Continental Army. Knox did not have a commission in the army, but John Adams in particular worked in the Second Continental Congress to acquire for him a commission as colonel of the army's artillery regiment. Knox bolstered his own case by writing to Adams that Richard Gridley, the older leader of the artillery under Ward, was disliked by his men and in poor health. As the siege wore on, the idea arose that cannon recently captured at the fall of forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point in upstate New York could have a decisive impact on its outcome. Knox is generally credited with suggesting the prospect to Washington, who thereupon put him in charge of an expedition to retrieve them even though Knox's commission had not yet arrived. Reaching Ticonderoga on December 5, Knox commenced what came to be known as the noble train of artillery, hauling by ox-drawn sled 60 tons of cannon and other armaments across some 300 miles (480 km) of ice-covered rivers and snow-draped Berkshire Mountains to the Boston siege camps. The region was lightly populated and Knox had to overcome difficulties hiring personnel and draft animals. On several occasions cannon crashed through the ice on river crossings, but the detail's men were always able to recover them. In the end, what Knox had expected to take just two weeks actually took more than six, and he was finally able to report the arrival of the weapons train to Washington on January 27, 1776. Called by historian Victor Brooks "one of the most stupendous feats of logistics" of the entire war, Knox's effort is commemorated by a series of plaques marking the Henry Knox Trail in New York and Massachusetts. Upon the cannon's arrival in Cambridge they were immediately deployed to fortify the Dorchester Heights recently taken by Washington. So commanding was the new battery over Boston harbor the British withdrew their fleet to Halifax. With the siege ended, Knox undertook the improvement of defenses in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New York City in anticipation of a possible British assault. In New York he became friends with Alexander Hamilton, commander of the local artillery. He also established a close friendship with Massachusetts general Benjamin Lincoln. New York and New Jersey campaign Knox was with Washington's army during the New York and New Jersey campaign, including most of the major engagements resulting in the loss of New York City. He narrowly escaped capture following the British invasion of Manhattan, only making it back to the main Continental Army lines through the offices of Aaron Burr. He was in charge of logistics in the critical crossing of the Delaware River that preceded the December 26, 1776 Battle of Trenton. Though hampered by ice and cold, with John Glover's Marbleheaders (14th Continental Regiment) manning the boats, he got the attack force of men, horses and artillery across the river without loss. Following the battle he returned the same force, along with hundreds of prisoners, captured supplies and all the boats back across the river by the afternoon of December 26. Knox was promoted to brigadier general for this accomplishment, and given command of an artillery corps expanded to five regiments. The army again crossed the river a few days later after the decision to make a stand at Trenton. Knox was with the army at the January 2, 1777 at the Battle of the Assunpink Creek, and again the next day at the Battle of Princeton. Philadelphia campaign Knox returned to the main army for the 1777 campaign. In June he learned that Congress had appointed Philippe Charles Tronson du Coudray, a French soldier of fortune, to command the artillery. Du Coudray's appointment upset not only Knox, who immediately threatened his resignation to Congress, but also John Sullivan and Nathanael Greene, who also protested the politically motivated appointment. Du Coudray was subsequently reassigned to the post of inspector general, and died in a fall from his horse while crossing the Schuylkill River in September 1777. Knox was present at Brandywine, the first major battle of the Philadelphia campaign, and at Germantown. At Germantown he made the critical suggestion, approved by Washington, to capture rather than bypass the Chew House, a stone mansion that the British had occupied as a strong defensive position. This turned out to significantly delay the army's advance and gave the British an opportunity to reform their lines. Knox afterward wrote to Lucy, "To the enemy's taking possession of some stone buildings in Germantown, is to be ascribed the loss of the victory." Knox was also present at the Battle of Monmouth in July 1778, where Washington commended him for the artillery's performance. The army saw no further action that year, but privateers that Knox and fellow Massachusetts native Henry Jackson invested in were not as successful as they hoped; many of them were captured by the British. Artillery training school and Yorktown Knox and the artillery established a winter cantonment at Pluckemin (a hamlet of Bedminster, New Jersey). There Knox established the Continental Army's first school for artillery and officer training. This facility was the precursor to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. While there, through the summer of 1779, General Knox spent most of his time training more than 1,000 soldiers in conditions of low morale and scarce supplies. Conditions were exceptionally harsh in the winter of 1779-80, and Washington's army was again largely inactive in 1780 while the main action in the war moved south. In late September 1780 Knox was a member of the court martial that convicted Major John Andre, the British officer whose arrest exposed the treachery of Benedict Arnold. (Knox had briefly shared accommodations with Andre while en route to Ticonderoga in 1775, when the latter was traveling south on parole after being captured near Montreal.) During these years of relative inaction Knox made several trips to the northern states as Washington's representative to increase the flow of men and supplies to the army. In 1781 Knox accompanied Washington's army south and participated in the decisive Siege of Yorktown. He was personally active in the field, directing the placement and aiming of the artillery. The Marquis de Chastellux, with whom Knox established a good friendship, wrote of Knox, "We cannot sufficiently admire the intelligence and activity with which he collected from different places and transported to the batteries more than thirty pieces ...", and "one-half has been said in commending his military genius. Washington specifically called out both Knox and the French artillery chief for their roles in the siege, and recommended to Congress that Knox be promoted. Secretary of War Congress finally appointed Knox the nation's second United States Secretary at War on March 8, 1785, after considering a number of other candidates. At the time, Knox is reported to have been of "immense girth", weighing nearly 300 pounds and 6 feet 3 inches. The army was by then a fraction of its former size, and the new nation's westward expansion was exacerbating frontier conflicts with Indian tribes. The War Department Knox took over had two civilian employees and a single small regiment. Congress in 1785 authorized the establishment of a 700-man army. Knox was only able to recruit six of the authorized ten companies, which were stationed on the western frontier.Some members of the Confederation Congress opposed the establishment of a peacetime army, and also opposed the establishment of a military academy (one of Knox's key proposals) on the basis that it would establish an superior military class capable of dominating society. Knox first proposed an army mainly composed of state militia, specifically seeking to change attitudes in Congress about a democratically managed military. Although the plan was initially rejected, many of its details were eventually adopted in the formation and administration of the United States Army. The need for an enhanced military role took on some urgency in 1786 when Shays' Rebellion broke out in Massachusetts, threatening the Springfield Armory. Knox personally went to Springfield to see to its defense. Although Benjamin Lincoln raised a militia force and put down the rebellion, it highlighted the weakness of both the military and defects in the Articles of Confederation that hampered Congressional ability to act on the matter. In the rebellion's aftermath Congress called the Constitutional Convention, in which the United States Constitution was drafted. Knox in early 1787 sent Washington a proposal for a government that bears significant resemblance to what was eventually adopted. When Washington asked Knox if he should attend the convention, Knox urged him to do so: "It would be circumstance highly honorable to your fame, in the judgment of the present and future ages, and double entitle you to the glorious epithet — Father of Your Country." This is possibly the earliest documented application of the phrase "Father of His Country" to Washington. Knox actively promoted the adoption of the new constitution, engaging correspondents in many colonies on the subject, but especially concentrating on achieving its adoption by Massachusetts, where its support was seen as weak. After its adoption he was considered by some to be a viable candidate for vice president, but he preferred to remain in the war office, and the office went to John Adams. With the adoption of the new Constitution and the establishment of the War Department, Knox's title changed to Secretary of War. As part of his new duties, Knox was responsible for implementation of the Militia Act of 1792. This included his evaluation of the arms and readiness of the militia finding that only 20% of the 450,000 members of the militia were capable of arming themselves at their own expense for militia service as required by the act. To resolve this arms shortage, Knox recommended to Congress that the federal government increase the purchase of imported weapons, ban the export of domestically produced weapons and establish facilities for the domestic production and stockpiling of weapons. These facilities included the existing Springfield Armory and another at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. In 1792 Congress, acting on a detailed proposal from Knox, created the short-lived Legion of the United States. When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in 1793, American merchant shipping began to be affected after Washington formally declared neutrality in the conflict. Both France and Britain began seizing American shipping that was trading with the enemy nation. Most of the Continental Navy's few ships were sold off at the end of the Revolutionary War, leaving the nation's merchant fleet without any defenses against piracy or seizure on the high seas. Knox urged and presided over the creation of a regular United States Navy and the establishment of a series of coastal fortifications. Native American diplomacy and war Knox was responsible for managing the nation's relations with the Native Americans resident in lands it claimed, following a 1789 act of U.S. Congress. Knox, in several documents drafted for Washington and Congress, articulated the nation's early Native American policy. He stated that Indian nations were sovereign and possessed the land they occupied, and that the federal government (and not the states) should therefore be responsible for dealings with them. These policies were implemented in part by the passage of the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1790, which forbade the sale of Native American lands except in connection with a treaty with the federal government. Knox wrote, "The Indians, being the prior occupants, possess the right to the soil. It cannot be taken from them except by their consent, or by rights of conquest in case of a just war. To dispossess them on any other principle would be a great violation of the fundamental laws of nature." Historian Robert Miller claims that statements like these seem to support indigenous rights to land, but were ignored in the practice of the Doctrine of Discovery, which came to govern the taking of Native lands. The British supported the northwestern tribes from frontier bases that they continued to occupy after the Revolutionary War ended (in violation of the Treaty of Paris), and the Cherokee and Creek continued to contest illegal encroachment of colonial settlers on their lands. In October 1790 Knox organized a campaign led by General Josiah Harmar into the Northwest Territory in retaliation for Native American raids against colonial settlers in that territory and that of present-day Kentucky. That campaign failed. A second campaign was organized by Knox, financed by William Duer, and to be led by territorial Governor Arthur St. Clair. Knox and Duer failed to provide enough supplies for the Army, which led to the American Army's greatest defeat in history. These campaigns failed to pacify the Native Americans, and Knox was widely blamed for the failure to protect the frontier. Seeking to close the issue before he left office, he organized an expedition led by Anthony Wayne that brought the conflict to a meaningful end with the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers. Wayne's "troops had burned 'immense fields of corn' for a stretch of about fifty miles along the river", in a move that affected civilian non-combatants. The result of American military action in the Northwest led to the Treaty of Greenville, which forced the defeated Native Americans to cede lands in the Ohio area. The bloody campaigns that Secretary Knox oversaw in some cases involved armies many times larger than later battles in the 1870s. The Native American nations were reluctant to leave their hunting grounds but Knox thought he could make a deal with the southern tribes headed by Alexander McGillivray. He would promise the U.S.Army would protect them from land-hungry squatters. Washington and Knox generally felt the use of force would be too costly to Americans and a violation of republican ideals. Knox proposed furnishing the Natives with livestock, farming implements, and missionaries, in order to make them pacific farmers. Knox signed the Treaty of New York (1790) on behalf of the nation, ending conflict with some, but not all, Cherokee tribal units. Of the dying off of the native populations in the nation's most heavily populated areas, Knox wrote, "A future historian may mark the causes of this destruction of the human race in sable colors." In the 1990s leftist writer Noam Chomsky claims that the nation's leaders "knew what they were doing", and often used language saying they were the natives' "benefactors", "philanthropists and humanitarians", when in reality they were engaged in the "genocidal practices" of extermination and "Indian Removal". Knox said how the American government and settlers were treating the Indian tribes were so harmful that "our modes...have been more destructive to the Indian natives than the conduct of the conquerors of Mexico and Peru". He went on to cite the fact that where there was white settlement, there was "the utter extirpation" of natives, or almost none left alive. Regardless of whether the Americans wanted to obtain Native American lands by purchase, conquest or other means, "there would be no lasting peace while land remained the object of American Indian policy", which continued after Knox left office. Washington's policies, as carried out by Secretary Knox, set the stage for the rise of Tecumseh two decades later. Many thousands of Native Americans refused to accept treaties, claiming that they had not approved them and that their only purpose was to remove them from their lands. They specifically cited the Treaty of Greenville, and reoccupied ancestral lands, beginning renewed resistance in the Northwest that was finally crushed in the War of 1812.On January 2, 1795, Knox left the government and returned to his home in Thomaston, District of Maine, which was then part of Massachusetts, to devote himself to caring for his growing family. He was succeeded in the post of Secretary of War by Timothy Pickering. Business ventures and land speculation Knox settled in Thomaston, and built a magnificent three story mansion surrounded by outbuildings called Montpelier, the whole of "a beauty, symmetry and magnificence" said to be unequaled in the Commonwealth. He spent the rest of his life engaged in cattle farming, ship building, brick making and real estate speculation. Connections formed during the war years served Knox well, as he invested widely in frontier real estate, from the Ohio valley to Maine (although his largest holdings by far were those in Maine). Although he claimed to treat settlers on his Maine lands fairly, he used intermediaries to evict those who did not pay their rents or squatted on the land. These tactics upset those settlers to the point where they once threatened to burn Montpelier down. One of the people Knox took land from was Joseph Plumb Martin, a soldier who settled in Maine and wrote a memoir of his war experiences. Knox briefly represented Thomaston in the Massachusetts General Court, but he eventually became so unpopular that he lost the seat to a local blacksmith. Many incidents in Knox's career attest to his character, both good and bad. As one example, when he and Lucy were forced to leave Boston in 1775, his home was used to house British officers who looted his bookstore. In spite of personal financial hardships, he managed to make the last payment of ￡1,000 to Longman Printers in London to cover the price of a shipment of books that he never received. In Maine, however, he would be remembered as a grasping tyrant and was forever immortalized in Nathanial Hawthorne's 1851 novel The House of the Seven Gables, for which he served as the model for Col. Pyncheon. Knox was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1805. As well as building a landed estate, Knox attempted to enlarge his fortune through industrial craft enterprises. He had interests in lumbering, ship building, stock raising and brick manufacturing. Unfortunately for him, these businesses failed (due in part to a lack of focused investment), and Knox built up significant debts. Knox was forced to sell large tracts of land in Maine to satisfy some of his creditors. The purchaser of his Maine lands was a Pennsylvania banker named William Bingham, leading those tracts to become known locally as the Bingham Purchase. Death Knox died at his home on October 25, 1806, at the age of 56, three days after swallowing a chicken bone which lodged in his throat and caused a fatal infection. He was buried on his estate in Thomaston with full military honors.Lucy Flucker died in 1824, having sold off more portions of the family properties to pay the creditors of Knox's insolvent estate. The couple had 3 children, although only one son survived to adulthood. The son, Henry Jackson Knox, became known as a wastrel for his drinking and scandalous behavior. Before his death in 1832, Henry Jackson Knox became "impressed with a deep sense of his own unworthiness", requesting in penance that his remains not be interred with his honored relatives but deposited in a common burial ground "with no stone to tell where." Montpelier remained in the family until it was demolished in 1871, to make way for the Brunswick-Rockland railroad line. The only surviving structure is an outbuilding that was deeded to the Thomaston Historical Society upon its founding in 1972. The current Montpelier Museum is a 20th-century reconstruction not far from the site of the original. HonorsTowns and cities in Maine, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Maryland, and Tennessee are named Knox or Knoxville in his honor. There are counties named for Knox in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, Tennessee, and Texas. The house he used as a headquarters in New Windsor, New York, during the Revolution has been preserved as Knox's Headquarters State Historic Site; it is a listed National Historic Landmark. Knox Township, Illinois, is named after Knox, as is Knox Place in the Bronx, New York. Knox has been honored by the U.S. Postal Service with an 8￠ Great Americans series postage stamp.Know was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1791. Two forts, Fort Knox in Kentucky and Fort Knox (Maine) were named after him. Knox Hall at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, home of the U.S. Army Field Artillery School, is named in his honor, as is an annual award recognizing the performance of U.S. artillery batteries. The Major General Nathanael Greene-class large coastal tug USAV Major General Henry Knox (LT-802) is named in honor of Knox. His papers have been preserved at the Massachusetts Historical Society, and his personal library resides in the Boston Athenaeum in proximity to that of his friend, George Washington. In popular culture Russell Gordon Carter's 1948 young adult short story "Colonel Knox's Oxen" tells the story of the winter trek of the cannons from Ticonderoga to Boston. Farnham Scott portrayed Henry Knox in the 1984 miniseries George Washington, and the 1986 sequel George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation. In the 2000 film The Crossing, which tells the story of the Revolutionary War's Battle of Trenton, Knox is played by actor John Henry Canavan. Knox is portrayed in the 2008 HBO miniseries John Adams, which chronicled the life of John Adams. Abigail Adams (the wife of John Adams) walks out of her home, and upon seeing Knox and his men traveling down the road pulling two British cannons which they captured from Fort Ticonderoga, Abigail says, "Mr. Knox! You used to sell books to my husband; and now look at you!" In the 2015 musical Hamilton, George Washington says to Hamilton, “Nathanael Greene and Henry Knox wanted to hire you” during the song "Right Hand Man". Name: Von Fersen Biography: Axel von Fersen the Younger (Swedish: ; 4 September 1755 - 20 June 1810) Position: Marshal of the Realm Lord of the Realm Minister to the King of France Minister to the Emperor of Austria Minister to the Second Congress of Rastatt Chancellor of Uppsala University Allegiance:Sweden Branch/service: Swedish Army Rank: Mestre de camp proprietaire of Regiment Royal-Suedois (France) General of Horse (Sweden) Awards: Knight of the Order of the Sword, 1781Member of the Society of the Cincinnati, 1783 Member of the Institution of Military Merit, 1786 Knight Commander of the Order of the Sword, 1791 Knight Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, 1798 Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim, 1800. Relationship with Marie-Antoinette The young nobleman was a favourite at the French court, owing partly to the recollection of his father's devotion to France, but principally because of his own amiable qualities. Queen Marie-Antoinette, who had first met von Fersen when they both were 18, was especially attracted by the grace and wit of "le beau" von Fersen. However, it was nearly four years later, on von Fersen's second visit to France in the summer of 1778, when the relationship blossomed. Here he was accepted by Marie-Antoinette into her trusted circle and invited to her private gatherings at the Petit Trianon. It seems that the friendship grew very quickly and caused jealousy among those at court. By the account of Beaumont's, von Fersen left for the war in America in the early part of 1780 to avoid causing a scandal, as it was widely known that the two were close, and it was rumoured that he was the queen's lover. Beaumont wrote in his memoirs that von Fersen asked Gustaf Philip Creutz to use his influence as Swedish ambassador to France to get him appointed as aide-de-camp to Rochambeau. According to Creutz in a letter to Gustav III: The young Count Fersen has been so well received by the queen that this has given umbrage to several persons. I own that I cannot help thinking that she had a liking for him; I have seen too many indications to doubt it. The conduct of the young count has been admirable on this occasion for its modesty and reserve, but above all, in the decision he made to go to America. By thus departing he avoided all dangers; but it needed, evidently, a firmness beyond his years, to surmount that seduction. The queen's eyes could not leave him, during the last days, and they often filled with tears. It is impossible to know how far their relationship went. It was difficult for the Queen of France to remain alone for long; she was almost always accompanied by others, such as attendants of the court. At the time that Marie-Antoinette was rumoured to be Axel's lover, she was also rumoured to be the lover of the Duc d'Orleans and the Comte d'Artois, among others (although all of these latter were based on groundless and malicious libelles). Axel von Fersen was born in 1755 to Field Marshal Axel von Fersen the Elder and countess Hedvig Catharina De la Gardie. He was nephew of Eva Ekeblad and grandson of General Hans Reinhold Fersen. Axel was the second of four children; he had two sisters, Hedvig Eleonora and Eva Sophie, and one brother, Fabian Reinhold. Two female cousins, Ulrika von Fersen and Christina Augusta von Fersen, were Swedish ladies-in-waiting and leading socialites of the Gustavian age. Hans Axel von Fersen, known as Axel de Fersen in France, was a Swedish count, Marshal of the Realm of Sweden, a General of Horse in the Royal Swedish Army, one of the Lords of the Realm, aide-de-camp to Rochambeau in the American Revolutionary War, diplomat and statesman, and a friend of Queen Marie-Antoinette of France. He died at the hands of a Stockholm lynch mob. Von Fersen's ancestors came from Estonia to Sweden at the time of the Thirty Years' War, which took place from 1618 to 1648. The family made their name during the reigns of Christina (queen regnant), Charles X, and Charles XI. In 1735, the von Fersen family purchased Steninge Palace, which overlooks M?laren, a lake outside Stockholm, Sweden. Von Fersen's father, the de facto parliamentary leader of the Hats party, was the most politically influential man in Sweden at that time and also one of the richest in the realm. He was the lord of four grand houses in Sweden: L?fstad , Steninge, Ljung and M?ls?ker. He also owned mines, land, forests and iron foundries in Sweden and Finland, and a large share of Sweden's East India Company, the country's most profitable undertaking ever. The younger Axel was influenced by French culture, owing in part to his father's services to Louis XV of France. Under his childhood tutor, von Fersen learned several languages including French, Latin, English, German and Italian. His later education was primarily military. Marie-Antoinette In the late summer of 1778, von Fersen travelled to Normandy with his friends, Barrington Beaumont and the Baron de Stedingk, to see a large army camp that was training under the command of the Duke of Broglie. Besides military matters, they were treated to dinner and dances attended by the officers and their wives. Von Fersen later paid his respects to the French royal family for the first time since his grand tour more than three years earlier: 26 August: "Last Tuesday I went to Versailles to be presented to the royal family. The queen, who is charming, said when she saw me, 'Ah! Here is an old acquaintance.' The rest of the family did not say a word to me." 8 September: "The queen, who is the prettiest and most amiable princess that I know, has had the kindness to inquire about me often; she asked Creutz why I did not go to her card parties on Sundays; and hearing that I did go one Sunday when there was none, she sent me a sort of excuse. Her pregnancy advances and is quite visible." 19 November: The queen treats me with great kindness; I often pay her my court at her card-games, and each time she makes to me little speeches that are full of good-will. As someone had told her of my Swedish uniform, she expressed a wish to see me in it; I am to go Thursday thus dressed, not to Court, but to the queen's apartments. She is the most amiable princess that I know." Marie-Antoinette's personal property, the Petit Trianon, was on the grounds of the Palace of Versailles. In contrast to Versailles, the dress and manners at the Petit Trianon were simple and down-to-earth; her guests were personally invited and treated equally, as friends. However, the private festivities often caused jealousy among those who were excluded from them. The French Revolution In late-February 1787, the Assembly of Notables was convened. Von Fersen attended the closing of the last day of that meeting, and described the gathering as "imposing". von Fersen was secretly entrusted, by Gustavus III, with the role of special envoy to the King and Queen of France. Some sensitive diplomatic contacts between Sweden and France were conducted, not through the Swedish embassy, but through von Fersen. To be closer to Paris, he moved into a house in Auteuil borrowed from Count Esterhazy. In spring, 1788, von Fersen joined Gustav for the latter's Finnish campaign against Russia as lieutenant-colonel of the Royal Horse Guards but by December 1788, von Fersen was again with his French regiment in Valenciennes to witness the following: All men's minds are in a ferment. Nothing is talked of but a constitution. The women especially are joining in the hubbub, and you know as well as I what influence they have in this country. It is a mania, everybody is an administrator and can talk only of progress; the lackeys in the antechambers are occupied in reading the pamphlets that come out, ten or twelve in a day, and I do not know how the printing-presses can do the work. On 2 May 1789, the Estates-General finally met. Von Fersen and Beaumont sat in one of the boxes of the Salle des Menus Plaisirs on 5 May, as Louis read his opening speech. Before long, however, the Third Estate reconstituted itself as the National Assembly, arguing that the three orders were no more than arbitrary divisions of one body. By the end of June, the monarchy had reinforced its concentration of regiments around the capital, ostensibly to maintain order in and around Paris, although many believed the troops would be turned against the recalcitrant Third Estate. Von Fersen wrote: They have brought about 12,000 to 15,000 troops into the neighborhood of Versailles, La Muette, Meudon, etc. What is most grievous is that they are not sure of the French soldier, and they are forced to employ foreigners as much as possible. On 14 July 1789, the Invalides and the Bastille were both stormed and taken, and on 16 July, von Fersen was at Versailles with the king and queen to debate how to forestall the incipient revolution in Paris. After much discussion, Louis decided to go to Paris with the guardsmen to show his personal goodwill towards the revolution. The Princess de Lamballe (who in 1792 would lose her life in the September Massacres) related the scene: No sooner, however, had the king left the room than it was as much as the Count de Fersen, Princess Elizabeth, and all of us could do to recover from the most violent convulsions. At last, coming to herself, she retired ... at the same time requesting Fersen to follow to the H?tel de Ville. Again and again she implored him, as she went, in case the king should be detained, to interest himself with all the foreign ministers to interpose for his liberation. Von Fersen followed Louis to the capital and arrived in time to watch Louis take the national cockade from the mayor, Jean Sylvain Bailly, and placed it in his own hat. On 8 August, the August Decrees, which abolished many aspects of monarchy, including tithes and hereditary titles, were enacted. Von Fersen wrote from Valenciennes: Riots are taking place in all the cities of the kingdom ... So far all is confined to breaking into the tax offices and opening the prisons, for it is the lowest of the populace who make the disorder. The bourgeoisie was immediately armed and that did much to restore tranquility. We have had our little riot here but it is all over. Now the idle scoundrels have spread themselves over the country districts; they are pillaging, or putting under contribution all the abbeys and chateaux. They are hunted everywhere, and yesterday, in one spot, we captured 119; many more will probably be taken ... Disorder is increasing throughout the country. The has better pay than in our regiments and there are no means not employed to entice them. It is said that ... there have been, since July 13th, 12,750 deserters, without counting the gardes fran?aises. The king's authority is totally annihilated, so is that of the parliaments and the magistrates. The States-General themselves tremble before Paris, and this fear greatly influences their deliberations. Months later, with the revolution spreading to the rest of the country and the royal army in disintegration, the Flanders Regiment was brought to Versailles to replace the French Guards who had mutinied. The King's bodyguard decided to host a fraternal dinner party for the regiment, and von Fersen and Beaumont attended. Despite having reservations at first, the king and Queen made an appearance towards the end. This banquet, however, provided fuel for the Women's March on Versailles four days later, when it was rumored that the tricolour (cockade) was trampled upon at the banquet. Von Fersen was in Versailles to witness the march. On the morning of 6 October 1789, an armed crowd made their way to the royal apartments. Two of the royal bodyguards were killed before the National Guard restored order. In order to calm the protestors, Louis agreed to go to the balcony of the Cour de Marbre and tell the crowd that he would return with them to Paris. Von Fersen recounts the departure in his diaries: I was witness of it all and I returned to Paris in one of the carriages of the king's suite: we were six hours and a half on the way . God keep me from ever again seeing so afflicting a sight as that of those two days. Flight to Varennes "I have to be away tonight," said Axel, "and I will return for a few hours on Tuesday if I can ... It is supposed that I am going to Varennes to join my regiment." "But I need not suppose so?" I queried. "Not unless you like ... If I have not arrived at Arlon by twelve on Friday night, come back to Paris, unlock my bureau, and burn everything you find...; and, if within the next 24 hours you hear I am killed or imprisoned, burn all my papers. But I hope it will not come to that, for we have so arranged matters." Conversation recalled by Barrington Beaumont on the afternoon of 20 June 1791 The situation of the royal family became considerably more desperate on 18 April 1791, when they were prevented from travelling to Saint-Cloud to attend Mass by a large hostile crowd. Escape plans had been broached earlier between Comte de Mirabeau and von Fersen, but Mirabeau's death on 2 April 1791 put an end to that discussion. Following the aborted trip to Saint Cloud, von Fersen revived these plans with vigor. In June, he acquired a Berline and drove it to a courtyard at Eleanore Sullivan's residence on the Rue de Clichy in Paris. The escape was arranged to take place on 20 June, coinciding with a particular guard change. At 11:15 p.m. the royal children were brought out without difficulty. At 11:45 the king's sister, Madame Elizabeth, appeared, followed by Louis himself. Half an hour later they were still waiting for Marie-Antoinette. However, she came out at the same time as the torchlit carriage of Marquis de Lafayette, who was responsible for the royal family's custody, appeared with some of his men, Marie-Antoinette was able to conceal herself and the royal family slipped away. Von Fersen drove the carriage, first from the Place du Carrousel to the Porte Saint-Martin, and then on to the Barrier Saint-Martin where they switched to the Berine. Von Fersen continued to drive as far as Bondy, seven miles from Paris, where the Queen's maids and a fresh relay of horses awaited them. The royal family took the post road and von Fersen took a different route to Bourget. The royal family reached Varennes on 22 June around 11 p.m., but here they were discovered and eventually held in custody until troops from the National Convention arrived. They departed Varennes surrounded by 6,000 armed citizens and National Guardsmen. Having left behind him a long declaration which had been read and published in all the newspapers in his absence, Louis himself had made it impossible to sustain the pretence that he had been "abducted". War against France (1791-1793) Even before the royal family returned to Paris, it was discovered that von Fersen was one of the people who facilitated their escape, and a warrant was put out for his arrest. Von Fersen left France and in Koblenz he put himself in touch with Comte d'Artois, the exiled prince, and Charles Alexandre de Calonne, the former Controller-General; together they made plans to convince the other European powers to declare war on France. In Brussels, von Fersen worked out a steganography technique for writing with Beaumont and Marie-Antoinette: The simplest plan was to write an ordinary letter with the lines rather far apart, and then to write the real information between the lines, using milk instead of ink. The milk calligraphy was invisible until the paper was covered with coal or other dust; when the dust was shaken off, the secret writing stood out as black as that for which ink had been used. In this manner we wrote to each other, and sent the letters by couriers. From 2-14 August, von Fersen was in Vienna to discuss the situation with Marie-Antoinette's brother Leopold, now Emperor. On 27 August 1791 the Declaration of Pillnitz was issued from Pillnitz Castle near Dresden; it declared the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia for King Louis XVI against the Revolution but stipulated that Austria would only go to war if the other European powers followed them into war, which at this point in time was not likely to happen. Von Fersen wrote: I can see clearly that they are dragging things along purposely to prevent the king of Sweden from sending troops this year; they fear his activity, and also that he may command in person. They want to avoid acting, or else to act alone if it becomes necessary. Nothing is being done; the requisitions have not been sent, although they assure me the troops are to march at once ... I see a well-formed plan to do only trifling things over the winter, to try to patch up matters for the time being, and not to act until spring, and not then unless it is absolutely necessary. In December 1791, von Fersen confided to Beaumont about another possible escape attempt for the royal family. Because the roads were closely watched, it was decided that Louis should escape through the woods and then by sea, while von Fersen conveyed Marie-Antoinette and the children by another route. Because security was tight around the royal family, von Fersen travelled to Paris wearing a large wig and false moustache, and assumed the identity of a minister plenipotentiary of the Queen of Portugal. They arrived in Paris without difficulty, and were able to sneak into the Tuileries and speak with Marie-Antoinette. Von Fersen laid the escape plan before Louis, however, the king did not feel that it would work. As he told von Fersen: I know that I am called feeble and irresolute, but no one has ever been in a position such as mine. It is true that I lost the opportune moment; it was July 14, I ought to have gone then, but you must remember that monsieur himself entreated me to stay, and the Marechal de Broglie said, "We can go to Metz certainly, but what is to be done when we get there?" I lost the opportunity, and it has not come again. That night von Fersen saw the king and queen for the last time. After the meeting, von Fersen and Beaumont headed back north. Outside Cambrai, their carriage was stopped by a Frenchman doubting the authenticity of their passport but, with von Fersen feigning sleep, Beaumont managed to talk himself out of trouble and they continued on. On 16 March 1792, Gustav III was shot at the Royal Opera House in Stockholm, and died almost two weeks later. In Sweden, Gustav's younger brother, the Duke Karl, became regent to the underage Gustav IV. On 20 April, France officially declared war on Austria, and invaded the Austrian Netherlands. On 20 June, the Tuileries was stormed by a large crowd and Louis was made to wear a red bonnet of liberty and drink a toast to the health of the people of Paris and the Nation. Three days later Marie-Antoinette was able to get an encrypted letter out to von Fersen: "Your friend is in the greatest danger. His illness is making terrible progress ... Tell his relations about his unfortunate situation". On 7 November, following the French victory at Jemappes, von Fersen wrote from Brussels: Breteuil came to tell me that the Austrians have been defeated before Mons ... that retreat from Brussels is decided on ... At nine o’clock the news was made public; consternation and fear general; nothing as seen but people running about in search for means to get away. For two days there had been orders to give no post-horses without permission ... The whole road from Mons was covered with war equipages and carts with wounded. On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined at the Place de Grève. Von Fersen heard the news while in Cologne: "Received last night at 10:30, from the Archbishop of Tours, the sad details of the death of the King of France". On 1 February, France officially declared war against Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, but the tide quickly turned against the French in the Netherlands. The general in charge of the northern army, Dumouriez, was defeated 18 March at Neerwinden and Louvain. On 18 March, von Fersen was able to meet with him: We struggled through a crowd of people and found him in a lower room, the windows besieged by the people outside. He was alone with three aides-de-camp. He recognised Simolin ; I named myself; he made me a compliment, saying he ought to have known me by my handsome face ... On the whole, I found him a true Frenchman, vain, confident, heedless; with much intelligence and little judgement. His scheme failed through excess of confidence in his strength and in his influence with the army. On 2 August, Marie-Antoinette was moved to the Conciergerie while awaiting her trial. During this time von Fersen was still attempting to find a way to save her and the remaining royal family. On 11 August he wrote: Having talked with La Marck on the means of saving the queen, and agreeing that there were none except to push forward at once a strong body of cavalry to Paris - which would be the easier to do at this moment, because there are no troops before the city and the granaries are full, - I went to see Mercy about it and found him all ice to the idea ... He believes the royal family lost and that nothing can be done for them. He does not think the factious would negotiate. On 6 October 1793, von Fersen paid a visit to Jean-Baptisite Drouet at the Saint-Elizabeth prison on the slim hope of hearing news that might be of use. Drouet was the postmaster who recognised Louis on his flight to Varennes and was able to alert the authorities in time to stop them. Beaumont related the scene from his memoirs: Fersen stood with his back to the light, wasted as few words as possible, and was stony in manner; even when both Drouet and the officer had the effrontery to assure him that Madame Capet was very well treated, had all she wished, and was in no danger, he did not comment. Could Madame de Sta?l have witnessed, she would doubtless have reiterated her usual observation as to his icy coldness of temperament, and his absolute insensitivity and passionless. I should have said that his nerves were strained almost to snapping, and that to see and speak to this Drouet was an almost unbearable test, even of his remarkable self-control. Marie-Antoinette was executed 10 days later. Von Fersen heard the news of this while in Brussels: Though I was prepared for it and expected it since the transfer to the Conciergerie, I was devastated by the reality. I did not have the strength to feel anything ... I thought about her constantly, about all the horrible circumstances of her sufferings, of the doubt she might have had about me, my attachment, my interest. That thought tortured me. Von Fersen returned to Sweden, from where he was forced to watch the ever-increasing expansion of the French revolutionary empire,[26] and in late December 1793, he was suspected of possible complicity in Baron Armfeldt's conspiracy to deprive the Duke of S?dermanland of the regency. As a result, von Fersen was deprived of his diplomatic appointments and his post as ambassador. In November 1796, Prince Gustav was declared of age and become King Gustav IV Adolf. His accession restored von Fersen, and other supporters of Gustav III's, back to favour at court. Von Fersen and his best friend, Baron Taube, became two of the most influential advisers to the young king, inculcating in him a "steadfast opposition to Revolutionary France, close relations with Russia, and hostility to Denmark, with the ultimate objective of acquiring Norway".[ In the autumn of 1799, Gustav IV Adolf was concerned about the level of sympathy for the French Revolution in the city of Uppsala. After students at Uppsala University celebrated Bonaparte's return to France from his Italian campaigns, Gustav IV Adolf appointed von Fersen as Chancellor of Uppsala. According to Adlerbeth, this amounted to "a declared French royalist being made the Swedish Jacobins' schoolmaster".[citation needed] That winter a wave of rioting occurred in Stockholm, Gothenburg, Norrk?ping, Link?ping, Malm?, and other Swedish towns following the onset of a severe winter and famine. Von Fersen wrote: "Who, given the spirit that now prevails, can guarantee that there will not be a general upheaval."[29] In 1801, von Fersen was appointed Marshal of the Realm. He was now the highest official in the court of Sweden. Around this time, von Fersen's sister, Sophie, returned to Sweden from Germany and took over his household in lieu of a wife. Swedish politics and death Following the overthrow and exile of King Gustavus IV in 1809, a dispute over the Royal succession divided the nobility and much of Swedish society. Von Fersen, now Earl Marshal of Sweden, led a political faction ("the Gustavians") which supported Gustavus' son against the popular Crown Prince Charles August. On 28 May 1810, while reviewing troops in Scania, Charles August fell from his horse and died from apoplexy. Rumours were rife throughout the country that he had been poisoned by the partisans of Gustav IV Adolf; von Fersen and his sister Sophie were seen as prime suspects. They were abused in public, and von Fersen received anonymous death threats. 20 June 1810 was the date set for the Crown Prince's public funeral. The Livgarde till H?st (Horse Guards) formed the advance guard in the procession; von Fersen, as Marshal of the Realm, and other court dignitaries, rode in coaches before the coffin, while the rear of the procession was brought up by a squadron of cavalry which had accompanied the Crown Prince's remains from Scania. Foot Guards paraded on the Riddarhustorget. General Silfversparre (sv), commander of the Stockholm garrison, was alerted to the possibility of disturbances but may himself have been a member of the court party that opposed von Fersen. The procession proceeded slowly through the Hornsgatan and S?dermalm Square, and was met with threats and insults as soon as it entered the city. First curses then copper coins and various missiles were hurled at the carriage till its windows were broken; then savage threats and showers of stones become continuous, and, at last in the Riddarhustorget, at the instant when the escort was turning to the right, a tremendous crowd barred the way of Fersen's carriage ... the remained passive while the rabble unharnessed the horses, and dragged Fersen out of the coach. Von Fersen, with a violent effort, flung back one of the assailants who grasped him and shook himself free of the others who were pressing round. There was a momentary lull, and the curses shrank from shouts to mutterings. Von Fersen's face bled where a stone had cut it, his decorations glittering in the sun. The guards, who were supposed to protect him, gazed at him with a sort of curious expectancy. It was at this moment when Beaumont arrived on the scene with General Silfversparre and a small detachment of troops. This intervention further enraged the large crowd. Von Fersen, realising that the authorities planned to do nothing, turned and dashed into the first door he could find. The crowd converged on this spot, and a few ran into the house in pursuit of him. Before long, one man appeared at the window "and with a triumphant shout" hurled down von Fersen's cloak and sword, which were seized by the angry crowd. Von Fersen was dragged back out into the square. His gloves were pulled off and thrown in his face, and his coat torn off and trampled upon. Silfversparre, attempting to save von Fersen, offered to arrest him and have him tried in court for the Crown Prince's murder. At this moment, the mounted escort turned and rode away. The mob "had been almost quiet, but now raised yells of delight and triumph, and fell upon von Fersen". Von Fersen's contemporary, Baron Gustaf Armfelt, stated afterward: One is almost tempted to say that the government wanted to give the people a victim to play with, just as when one throws something to an irritated wild beast to distract its attention. The more I consider it all, the more I am certain that the mob had the least to do with it ... But in God's name what were the troops about? How could such a thing happen in broad daylight during a procession, when troops and a military escort were actually present? Axel von Fersen died that day in Stockholm as Sweden's highest-ranking official next to the king; his death sent shockwaves throughout the country. The cause of death was determined to be "crushing of the ribcage" when the Swedish-Finn Otto Johan Tandefelt jumped with both feet on Fersen's chest. Aftermath A few months after the murder, von Fersen and his family were cleared of any suspicion connected with the death of Carl August of Augustenburg, and he finally received a state burial with all pomp and ceremony. His sister, Sophie Piper, withdrew from Stockholm to her L?fstad manor, near Norrk?ping. Here she raised a memorial to her brother, with the inscription: ?t en of?rg?tlig broder, mannamodet uti hans sista stunder den 20 juni 1810 vittna om hans dygder och sinnes lugn (English: To an unforgettable brother, the courage in his last moments on 20 June 1810, bears testimony to his virtues and clean conscience) Name: Elhuyar Biography: Fausto Elhuyar Nationality:Spanish Known for:Tungsten Fields:Chemistry austo de Elhuyar (11 October 1755 - 6 February 1833) was a Spanish chemist, and the first to isolate tungsten with his brother Juan Jose Elhuyar in 1783. He was in charge, under a King of Spain commission, of organizing the School of Mines in Mexico City and so was responsible for building an architectural jewel known as the "Palacio de Minería". Elhuyar left Mexico after the Mexican War of Independence, when most of the Spanish residents in Mexico were expelled. Life He was born in Logro?o, La Rioja, Spain son of Basque-French parents from Hasparren, France. Between 1773 and 1777, Elhúyar studied medicine, surgery and chemistry, as well as mathematics, physics and natural history with his brother Juan Jose Elhuyar in Paris. After graduating, he returned to Spain, where he exercised himself in the study of mineralogy, specially that of the Basque Country and Navarre, where he resided. In 1781, he was appointed a member of the Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País (Royal Basque Society of Friends to the Country), an enlightened institution thanks to which he started teaching as professor of mineralogy and metallurgy in Bergara, the seat of both the Vascongada Society and the University of Vergara (nowadays merged with the University of the Basque Country). During those years, he published numerous articles and dossiers about minerals, ways to extract and purify them, etc., which made him famous throughout Europe as one of the top experts on the subject. In 1780, he started working in the Laboratorium Chemicum of Vergara along with Fran?ois Chavaneau, with whom he was the first to purify platinum. After several months, he was the first person to discover and isolate tungsten, of which he's credited, along with his brother Juan Jose, as its discoverer. He also collaborated with Joseph-Louis Proust, the famous French chemist at the service of king Charles IV of Spain, who directed the National Laboratory in Segovia. In 1783, he visited several European universities, such as the School of Mines of Freiberg, at which he lectured on metallurgy and mine machinery; the University of Uppsala, where he collaborated with Torbern Olof Bergman; and K?ping, where he visited Carl Wilhelm Scheele, the one who announced Elhúyar's discovery of tungsten, and for some reason is credited for having made the discovery himself. After his return to Spain, in 1785 he renounced his professorship and, in July 1786, was appointed General Director of Mines in Mexico. Before departing to his new office, he toured Europe again from 1786 to 1788 in order to study Born's method on refining silver. During this trip, he married Joan Raab in Vienna, in 1787. For the next thirty three years, he resided in Mexico City, where the crown founded the capital's School of Mines (January 1, 1792), with Elhuyar as its first director. During his tenure, he commissioned and directed the construction of that institution's seat, the Palacio de Minería, which was finished in 1813 and is considered one of the jewels of the Spanish American neoclassicism. He also visited and improved several of the existing Royal Mines of Mexico, dramatically increasing their productivity due to the introduction of new methods of exploitation. He aided Alexander von Humboldt during his time in New Spain, along with other mining experts then in Mexico, allowing Humboldt's section on mining in his Political essay on the Kingdom of New Spain to be replete with statistics and insights. After Mexican Independence, he returned to Spain, where, due to his wide experience in modern minery methods, he was appointed Minister of Minery in 1822, and supervised the modern mining of the mines in Almaden, Guadalcanal, and Río Tinto. After falling from his ministry, he was appointed yet again General Director of Mines, and resumed his research activities in chemistry from this quieter office till his death in Madrid on January 6, 1833. Name: Somerviue Biography: Mary Somerville (26 December 1780 - 29 November 1872) Nationality : Scottish Citizenship : British Awards : Patron's Medal (1869) Fields : Science writing，Mathematics Somerville was a popular science writer, and her popular science books allow the public to understand advanced scientific theories. As a writer, she has made achievements in many scientific fields, and these achievements have brought her international achievements in mathematics and science. Mary Somerville (nee Fairfax, formerly Greig; 26 December 1780 - 29 November 1872) was a Scottish scientist, writer, and polymath. She studied mathematics and astronomy, and in 1835 she was elected together with Caroline Herschel as the first female Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. When John Stuart Mill, the philosopher and economist, organised a massive petition to Parliament to give women the right to vote, he had Somerville put her signature first on the petition. When she died in 1872, The Morning Post declared in her obituary that "Whatever difficulty we might experience in the middle of the nineteenth century in choosing a king of science, there could be no question whatever as to the queen of science". Somerville College, a college of the University of Oxford, is named after her, reflecting the virtues of liberalism and academic success which the college wished to embody. She is featured on the front of the Royal Bank of Scotland polymer ￡10 note launched in 2017, alongside a quote from her work The Connection of the Physical Sciences. Early life and education Somerville was the daughter of Vice-Admiral Sir William George Fairfax, scion of a distinguished family of Fairfaxes, and she was related to several prominent Scottish houses through her mother, the admiral's second wife, Margaret Charters, daughter of Samuel Charters, a solicitor. She was born at the manse of Jedburgh, in the Borders, which was the house of her maternal aunt, wife of Rev. Dr. Thomas Somerville (1741-1830) (author of My Own Life and Times). Her childhood home was at Burntisland, Fife, where her mother was from. She was the second of four surviving children (three of her siblings had died in infancy). She was particularly close to her oldest brother Sam. The family lived in genteel poverty because her father's naval pay remained meagre as he rose through the ranks. Her mother supplemented the household's income by growing vegetables, maintaining an orchard and keeping cows for milk. Her mother taught her to read the Bible and Calvinist catechisms, and when not occupied with household chores Mary roamed among the birds and flowers in the garden. In her autobiography Somerville recollects that after returning from sea her father said to her mother "This kind of life will never do, Mary must at least know how to write and keep accounts". Thus the 10-year-old was sent for a year of tuition at an expensive boarding school in Musselburgh. Somerville learned the first principles of writing, rudimentary French and English grammar. Upon returning home, she: ...was no longer amused in the gardens, but wandered about the country. When the tide was out I spent hours on the sands, looking at the star-fish and sea-urchins, or watching the children digging for sand-eels, cockles, and the spouting razor-fish. I made collections of shells, such as were cast ashore, some so small that they appeared like white specks in patches of black sand. There was a small pier on the sands for shipping limestone brought from the coal mines inland. I was astonished to see the surface of these blocks of stone covered with beautiful impressions of what seemed to be leaves; how they got there I could not imagine, but I picked up the broken bits, and even large pieces, and brought them to my repository. Her shell collection was given to Somerville College, Oxford by her descendants. During bad weather she occupied herself with reading the books in her father's library, including Shakespeare, and fulfilling her "domestic duties". In later life she recollected "These occupied a great part of my time; besides, I had to shew my sampler, working the alphabet from A to Z, as well as the ten numbers, on canvas". Her aunt Janet came to live with the family and reportedly said to her mother "I wonder you let Mary waste her time in reading, she never shews more than if she were a man". As a consequence Mary was sent to the village school to learn plain needlework. The youngster "was annoyed that my turn for reading was so much disapproved of, and thought it unjust that women should have been given a desire for knowledge if it were wrong to acquire it." The village school master came to the house on several evenings in the week to teach Mary. He taught her how to use the two small globes in the house. In her Personal Recollections Mary notes that in the village school the boys learned Latin, "but it was thought sufficient for the girls to be able to read the Bible; very few even learnt writing." When Mary was 13 her mother sent her to writing school in Edinburgh during the winter months, where she improved her writing skills and studied the common rules of arithmetic. Back in Burntisland she taught herself sufficient Latin to read the books in the home library. While visiting her aunt in Jedburgh she met her uncle Dr. Thomas Somerville and picked up the courage to tell him that she had been trying to learn Latin. Dr. Somerville assured her that in ancient times many women had been very elegant scholars, and proceeded to teach her Latin by reading Virgil with her. While visiting another uncle, William Charters, in Edinburgh, Mary was sent to Strange's dancing school, where she learned manners and how to curtsey. She also accompanied her uncle and aunt on their visits to the Lyell family in Kinnordy; Charles Lyell would go on to become a celebrated geologist and a friend of Mary. With regard to the political upheaval of the time and the French Revolution she later wrote that her father was a Tory and that the "unjust and exaggerated abuse of the Liberal party made me a Liberal. From my earliest years my mind revolved against oppression and tyranny, and I resented the injustice of the world in denying all those privileges of education to my sex which were so lavishly bestowed on men." Mary and her oldest brother Sam would refuse to take sugar in their tea, in protest against the institution of slavery. Somerville asserted that her liberal religious and political opinions remained unchanged throughout her life, but that she was never a republican. While accompanying her uncle and aunt to Burntisland in the summer she had access to elementary books on algebra and geometry. She spent the summer learning to play the piano and learning Greek so that she could read Xenophon and Herodotus. Back in Edinburgh she was allowed to attend the academy Alexander Nasmyth, which had opened for ladies. Nasmyth advised another student to study Euclid's Elements to gain a foundation in perspective, astronomy and mechanical science. Somerville spotted the opportunity, as she thought the book would help her understand Navigations by John Robertson. She continued in the traditional role of the daughter of a well-connected family, attending social events and maintaining a sweet and polite manner - she was nicknamed "the Rose of Jedburgh" among Edinburgh socialites. Back in Burntisland a young tutor came to stay with the family to educate her younger brother Henry. Mr Craw was a Greek and Latin scholar, and Somerville asked him to purchase elementary books on algebra and geometry for her. He presented Somerville with Euclid's Elements and Algebra by John Bonnycastle. Somerville would rise early to play the piano, painted during the day, and stayed up late to study Euclid and algebra. When the family friend Lord Balmuto invited her to visit his family, Somerville first saw a laboratory. She also spent some time with the Oswalds family in Dunnikeir. Somerville was impressed with their daughter Elizabeth Oswald, a bold horsewoman who became a Greek and Latin scholar and married Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin. The winters were usually spent in Edinburgh, and under the care of Lady Burchan she made her first appearance at a ball, her first dancing partner being the Earl of Minto. In the following autumn of 1797 her father was caught up in a mutiny while serving as flag-captain under Admiral Duncan on HMS Venerable, but the Battle of Camperdown against the Dutch fleet was won. Her father was knighted and made Colonel of Marines. Her eldest brother died at the age of 21 in Calcutta while serving in the East India Company's military service. The family had hoped that he would make a sufficient fortune in a few years to enable him to come home again. Marriage and studies In 1804 she met her first husband, her distant cousin Lieutenant Samuel Greig, son of Admiral Samuel Greig, when he came to pay a visit. He was commissioner of the Russian navy and Russian consul for Britain. They married and had two children, one of whom, Woronzow Greig, would become a barrister and scientist. They lived in London, but it was not a happy time for Somerville. Although she could study, her husband did not think much of women's capacity to pursue academic interests. Indeed, Greig "possessed in full the prejudice against learned women which was common at that time." Somerville took lessons in French. When her husband died in 1807, while she was still nursing their youngest child, she returned home to Scotland. Back in Scotland she resumed her mathematical studies. By that time she had studied plane and spherical trigonometry, conic sections and James Ferguson's Astronomy. Now she first read Isaac Newton's Principia, which she continued to study. Her inheritance from Greig gave her the freedom to pursue intellectual interests. John Playfair, professor of natural philosophy at University of Edinburgh, encouraged her studies, and through him she began a correspondence with William Wallace, with whom she discussed mathematical problems. She started to solve mathematical problems posed in the mathematical journal of the Military College at Marlow and she eventually made a name for herself when solving a diophantine problem for which she was awarded a silver medal in 1811. Somerville had five solutions published in Volumes 3 and 4 of the Mathematical Repository under the pseudonym 'A Lady'; two of these solutions demonstrated her early adoption of differential calculus, and therefore her contribution to the circulation and visibility of this mathematics in early 19th-century Britain. Wallace suggested that she should study the writings of the French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, which summarised the theory of gravity and collected the mathematical results that had been established in the 50 years since Principia had been published. She said that studying Laplace's work gave her the confidence to persevere in her mathematical studies. Somerville extended her studies into astronomy, chemistry, geography, microscopy, electricity and magnetism. At the age of 33 she bought herself a library of scientific books. These included: Louis-Benjamin Franc?ur's Elements of Mechanics, Sylvestre Fran?ois Lacroix' Algebra and Calculus Treatise, Jean-Baptiste Biot's Analytical Geometry and Astronomy, Simeon Denis Poisson's Treatise on Mechanics, Joseph-Louis Lagrange's Theory of Analytical Functions, Leonhard Euler's Elements of Algebra and Isoperimetrical Problems, Alexis Clairaut's Figure of the Earth, Gaspard Monge's Application of Analysis to Geometry, and Fran?ois Callet's Logarithmus. In her Personal Recollections Somerville expressed the opinion that at the time mathematical science was at a low ebb in Britain, because reverence for Newton had prevented local scientists from adopting the calculus, while outside Britain astronomical and mechanical science had reached a high degree of perfection. In her opinion this deadlock was only broken when in 1816 Charles Babbage, John Herschel and George Peacock published a translation from French of the lectures of Lacroix, which was then the state-of-the-art calculus textbook. While staying with her family in Scotland, Somerville became acquainted with several leading intellectual lights, such as Henry Brougham. In 1812 she married another cousin, Dr William Somerville (1771-1860), inspector of the Army Medical Board, who encouraged and greatly aided her in the study of the physical sciences. Her husband was elected to the Royal Society and together they moved in the leading social circles of the day. As well as scientists, she was well known to leading writers and artists, for example J.M.W. Turner. Her husband's family were neighbours of the writer Walter Scott. She wrote "I shall never forget the charm of this little society, especially the supper-parties at Abbotsford, when Scott was in the highest glee, telling amusing tales, ancient legends, ghost and witch stories." In her second marriage Somerville had four children. In 1819 her husband was appointed physician to Chelsea Hospital and the family moved to Hanover Square into a government house in Chelsea. Somerville was a friend of Anne Isabella Milbanke, Baroness Wentworth, and was mathematics tutor to her daughter, Ada Lovelace. With Somerville, Ada attended the scientific gatherings where she met Charles Babbage. Somerville College owns a letter from Babbage to Somerville inviting her to view his 'Calculating Engine'. Somerville visited Babbage frequently while he was "making his Calculating-machines". Somerville and Lovelace maintained a close friendship and when Lovelace encountered difficulties with a mathematical calculation she would walk to Somerville's house and discuss the matter over a cup of tea. In 1823 the Somervilles' youngest daughter died after illness. While living in Chelsea the Somervilles travelled across Europe on a number of occasions, leaving their children with their German governess. Among their travel companions was the jurist and politician Sir James Mackintosh. Before leaving London the Somervilles made contact with people they wanted to meet, and on their European tours they paid visits to numerous celebrated intellectuals. The Somervilles also received frequent visitors; Maria Edgeworth would visit them when in England. Science practice and writing Somerville conducted experiments to explore the relationship between light and magnetism and she published her first paper, "The magnetic properties of the violet rays of the solar spectrum", in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1826. Sir David Brewster, inventor of the kaleidoscope, wrote in 1829 that Mary Somerville was "certainly the most extraordinary woman in Europe - a mathematician of the very first rank with all the gentleness of a woman". Somerville was requested by Lord Brougham to translate for the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge the Mecanique Celeste of Pierre-Simon Laplace. Laplace had, in five exhaustive volumes, summed up the current state of gravitational mathematics and Mecanique Celeste was acclaimed as the greatest intellectual achievement since the Principia. Somerville produced not a translation, but an expanded version of the first two volumes. She wrote a standalone exposition of the mathematics behind the workings of the solar system, of which she said "I translated Laplace's work from algebra into common language". It was published in 1831, under the title of The Mechanism of the Heavens. It made her at once famous. Mechanism was set as a textbook for undergraduates at University of Cambridge until the 1880s. After receiving a copy of Mechanism Joanna Baillie wrote to Somerville, "I feel myself greatly honoured by receiving such a mark of regard from one who has done more to remove the light estimation in which the capacity of women is too often held than all that has been accomplished by the whole Sisterhood of Poetical Damsels & novel-writing Authors." The book was praised by George Peacock, Professor of the University of Cambridge, thus many of the 750 copies printed were bought in Cambridge. Reviews were favourable and Somerville received letters of congratulation from "many men of science". She was elected honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy, of the Bristol Philosophical Institution and the Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève in 1834. The British Crown granted her a civil pension of ￡200 a year in recognition of her eminence in science and literature. Somerville was passionate about astronomy and believed it to be the most extensive example of the connection of the physical sciences in that it combined the sciences of number and quantity, of rest and motion. In we perceive the operation of a force which is mixed up with everything that exists in the heavens or on earth; which pervades every atom, rules the motions of animate and inanimate beings, and is as sensible in the descent of a rain-drop as in the falls of Niagara; in the weight of the air, as in the periods of the moon. In Somerville's time the value of scientific publications depended on the currency of the information, therefore frequent editions had to be produced. Her subsequent books reflect the time she could free in her domestic life as her children became more independent but also the need to earn money, as the Somervilles had a number of financial crises that peaked in 1835. As a middle-class woman she publicly and plausibly maintained that she wrote only for pleasure. Privately she paid considerable attention to the profitability of her books. Through personal connections she could secure John Murray as the publisher of her first book Mechanism, and he remained her publisher throughout her long career. Murray later commented that despite him having made little profit he was very pleased to have had the honour of publishing the works of such an extraordinary person. Her second book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences sold 15,000 copies and established her reputation in elite science. She was among those who discussed a hypothetical planet perturbing Uranus. In the 6th edition of Connexion (1842) she wrote, "If after the lapse of years the tables formed from a combination of numerous observations should be still inadequate to represent the motions of Uranus, the discrepancies may reveal the existence, nay, even the mass and orbit of a body placed for ever beyond the sphere of vision". Predictions were fulfilled in 1846 by the discovery of Neptune revolving at the distance of 3,000,000,000 miles from the sun. "The mass of Neptune, the size and position of his orbit in space, and his periodic time, were determined from his disturbing action on Uranus before the planet itself had been seen." Connexion ran to 10 editions, more than 9,000 copies and was its publisher's most successful science book until The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859. It was translated into German and Italian and went through various editions in the United States. Her book Physical Geography was published in 1848 and was the first English textbook on the subject. It remained in use as textbook until the early 20th century. At the time of publication it was financially very successful and brought her the Victoria Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society. Somerville followed, as she said, "the noble example of Baron Humboldt, the patriarch of physical geography", and she took an extended view of geography that included the earth, its animal, "vegetable inhabitants", as well as "the past and present condition of man, the origin, manners, and languages of existing nations, and the monuments of those that have been". Physical Geography starts with describing the overall structure of planet earth, and a brief allusion to the location of the earth within the solar system. Subsequently, the book focuses on terrestrial topics, such as the most basic features of land and water, and formations such as mountains, volcanoes, oceans, rivers and lakes. Somerville goes on to discuss the elements that govern temperature, such as light, electricity, storms, the aurora and magnetism. Eventually the book turns to vegetation, birds and mammals, and their geographical distribution on the planet in the Arctic, Europe, Asia, Africa, America and the Antarctic. Somerville ends the book with a discussion of "the distribution, condition, and future prospects of the human race".< Somerville emphasises the reciprocal dependencies in physical geography and the relationship between human beings and nature. In line with Victorian thinking, Somerville asserts the superiority of human beings, but maintains the interdependencies and interconnectedness of creation. Physical Geography sold more copies than any of her other books and earned Humboldt's admiration. After receiving a copy of the book he wrote to Somerville: "You alone could provide your literature with an original cosmological work". Her fourth book Molecular and Microscopic Science was published in 1869 and had taken her 10 years to write. But she started to have doubts about her choice to devote herself to popularising science, instead of concentrating on mathematics alone. Of the book she said: "In writing this book I made a great mistake, and repent it - Mathematics are the natural bent of my mind. If I had devoted myself exclusively to that study, I might probably have written something useful, as a new era had begun in that science." Regardless, the book was another success. It gave an up-to-date description of the latest discoveries revealed through the microscope and was published in two volumes and three parts. In the first part Somerville explained the latest thinking on atoms and molecules, the second part covered plant life and the third part explored animal life. The book included 180 illustrations, which caused her publisher great expense. She was elected to the American Geographical and Statistical Society in 1857 and the Italian Geographical Society in 1870, and was made a member of the American Philosophical Society. Death From 1833 onwards Somerville and her husband spent most of their time in Italy. Somerville maintained correspondence with a large number of leading scientists and remained engaged in current debates on facts and theories. In 1868, four years before her death aged 91, she was the first person to sign John Stuart Mill's unsuccessful petition for female suffrage. In her autobiography Somerville wrote that "British laws are adverse to women". She detailed the obstacles she had faced in obtaining an education as a young girl, though she did not speculate on the nature of the problem. During her lifetime the agitation for establishing women's access to higher education had grown. In 1875 the astronomer Maria Mitchell was told by a college president that he "would hire a woman scientist if she was as good as Mary Somerville". Somerville died at Naples on 29 November 1872, and was buried there in the English Cemetery. Legacy In the year following Somerville's death, her autobiographical Personal Recollections was published, consisting of reminiscences written during her old age. Over 10,000 pieces are in the Somerville Collection of the Bodleian Library and Somerville College, Oxford. The collection includes papers relating to her writing and published work, and correspondence with family members, numerous scientists and writers, and other figures in public life. Also included is substantial correspondence with the Byron and Lovelace families. Somerville Square in Burntisland is named after her family and marks the site of their home. Somerville College, Oxford, was named after Somerville, as is Somerville House, Burntisland, where she lived for a time and Somerville House, a high school for girls in Brisbane, Australia. One of the Committee Rooms of the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh has been named after her. Somerville Island (74°44′N 96°10′W), a small island in Barrow Strait, Nunavut, was named after her by Sir William Edward Parry in 1819. The Somerville Club was founded in 1878 in London, by 1887 it was re-established as the New Somerville Club and had disappeared by 1908. The vessel Mary Somerville was launched in 1835 at Liverpool. She traded with India for Taylor, Potter & Co., of Liverpool, and disappeared with the loss of all aboard in late 1852 or early 1853. Mary Somerville featured in miniature in The English Bijou Almanack, 1837, with poetry by Letitia Elizabeth Landon. 5771 Somerville (1987 ST1) is a main-belt asteroid discovered on 21 September 1987 by E. Bowell at Lowell Observatory Flagstaff, Arizona, and named after her. Somerville crater is a small lunar crater in the eastern part of the Moon. It lies to the east of the prominent crater Langrenus. It is one of a handful of lunar craters named after women. In February 2016 she was shortlisted, along with Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell and civil engineer Thomas Telford, in a public competition run by the Royal Bank of Scotland to decide whose face should appear on the bank's new ￡10 notes, to be issued in 2017. Later that month RBS announced that she had won the public vote, held on Facebook. The banknotes, bearing her image, were issued in the second half of 2017. On February 2, 2020, Google celebrated her with a Google Doodle. Children From her first marriage she had a son, Woronzow Greig (1805-1865), named after Count Semyon Vorontsov, the Russian ambassador in London who had appointed Samuel Greig as his Consul General. Woronzow married Agnes Graham but all their children died at birth or in infancy. From her second marriage she had three daughters and one son: Margaret Farquhar Somerville (1813-1823; died in childhood), Thomas Somerville (1814-1815; died in infancy), Martha Charters Somerville (1815-1879) and Mary Charlotte Somerville (1817-1875). Her two surviving daughters spent most of their lives caring for Mary. Bibliography 1826 "On the magnetizing power of the more refrangible solar rays" 1831 Mechanism of the Heavens 1832 "A Preliminary Dissertation on the Mechanisms of the Heavens" 1834 On the Connection of the Physical Sciences 1848 Physical Geography 1869 Molecular and Microscopic Science 1874 Personal recollections, from early life to old age, of Mary Somerville Name: Germain Biography: Fran?ois-Thomas Germain Position: silversmith, Sage, and Grand Master of the French Templars Allegiance: Templar Order Branch/service: French Templars "For centuries we have focused on the trappings of power: the titles of nobility, the offices of Church and State. Caught in the very lie we crafted to shepherd the masses... In the wake of revolution, the Order will adapt. They will retreat to the shadows and we will, at last, be the secret masters that we were meant to be." -Germain to elise de la Serre, regarding the Templars' agenda, 1794. Fran?ois-Thomas Germain (1726 - 1794) was a French silversmith, Sage, and Grand Master of the French Templars during the French Revolution. After experiencing visions of the First Civilization and reading the Codex Pater Intellectus, he took it upon himself to reform the Order, which he believed had grown corrupt after aligning itself with the aristocracy for centuries. Inspired by Grand Master Jacques de Molay, Germain sought to carry out the "Great Work" and create a capitalist society in which the Templars could more easily control the populace. Fran?ois de la Serre, who was Grand Master of the Parisian Rite at the time, considered Germain's ideas too radical, and exiled him from the Order. Undeterred, he began turning de la Serre's advisors to his cause, forming a radical faction within the Templar Order. In 1789, he had de la Serre assassinated in the Palace of Versailles, leaving most of the Order under his control. As the French Revolution broke out, Germain and his followers exploited discontent with the monarchy and sought to create as much chaos as possible. In this way, the aristocracy and clergy would be crushed and the populace would fear the idea of rising against the establishment again. The Templars hoarded food and framed the royal family, eventually leading to the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793. Under the Templar Maximilien de Robespierre, the Reign of Terror began, bringing the revolution to a violent and chaotic climax. Along the way, elise de la Serre, the daughter of the deceased Grand Master, opposed Germain. She and her lover, the Assassin Arno Dorian, eventually eliminated Germain's followers and tracked him down to the Temple in 1794. After the Grand Master killed elise with a Sword of Eden, he himself was killed by Arno. In his final moments, Germain triggered a vision, telling the Assassin that his goals of reforming society and the Templar Order had already succeeded, even if he would not live to see the changes. Biography Early life "Great towers of gold, cities shining white as silver. I thought I was going mad. Then I found this place - Jacques de Molay's vault. Through his writings, I understood. I was connected to Grand Master de Molay. That I had been chosen to purge the Order of the decadence and corruption that had set in like rot. And to wash the world clean, and restore to the truth the Father of Understanding intended. Prophets are seldom appreciated in their own time. Exile and abasement forced me to reevaluate my strategy. Find new avenues for the realization of my purpose." -Germain on his visions and expulsion, 1794.- Germain was born a Sage in 1726 to Thomas Germain and Anne-Denise Gauchelet. The Germains were a distinguished family of silversmiths, and Germain was raised and trained by his father to continue the family business. He became the royal silversmith and sculptor to the King of France, and employed dozens of workers in a workshop at the Louvre that produced thousands of pieces. Since his recorded death in 1791 however, most of his works works have either been stolen, lost or melted down. After a poorly-defined scandal in 1765, possibly involving the violation of guild regulations, Germain lost the prestigious position as royal silversmith and sculptor and was kicked out of his workshop in the Louvre. At some point in his life, Germain became a member of the Parisian Rite of the Templar Order, rising to become the lieutenant of Grand Master Fran?ois de la Serre. He crafted silver pins for members of the Order, and was trained in swordsmanship by fellow Templar Frederick Weatherall. Germain eventually began experiencing visions of the First Civilization. Initially, he believed that he was descending into insanity, but realized the truth of his visions upon the discovery of the Codex Pater Intellectus written by Jacques de Molay, in the vault beneath the Parisian Temple. Through the readings of de Molay, Germain learned that the two of them were connected somehow, and became determined to shape the destiny of the human race in the way envisioned by de Molay. He believed that by stripping the aristocracy of power and giving it to the middle class, he would create a capitalist society which could be easily controlled by the Templars. As Germain told the Order of these ideas, several Templars began to support them. De Molay was already a controversial figure among the Templars, and voicing support for him was considered heresy. Wishing to end the dissension, de la Serre pleaded with Germain to renounce his radical notions. As the latter refused, the heavy-hearted Grand Master decided to expel him from the Order. At a ceremony, de la Serre announced Germain's expulsion and claimed that anyone offering relief to him would be expelled as well. Embittered, Germain deemed the Order corrupt and having forgotten its original purpose, and requested aid from Marie Levesque, one of the Grand Master's advisors who had protested the expulsion. He also recruited other individuals who were dissatisfied with the state of living in France, and the French monarchy itself. By 1788, he was believed dead by some. It was also likely Germain had contacted the Spanish Rite, Roman Rite and the reorganized American Rite and convinced them that overthrowing the de la Serre family was necessary. The new Grand Master Germain: "I tried to make him see. But the Order had become corrupt, clutching at power and privilege for their own sake." Arno: "But you could set it right, is that it? All by killing the man in charge." Germain: "No, de la Serre's death was only the first stage." —Germain speaking with Arno Dorian about de la Serre's death, 1793.- To take control of the Templar Order from de la Serre, Germain orchestrated his assassination. Crafting a silver pin laced with poison to serve as the murder weapon, Germain entrusted two of his followers, Charles Gabriel Sivert and the Roi des Thunes, with killing de la Serre. On the day where the assassination was to take place, Germain was briefly encountered by Arno Dorian, though both were unaware of each other's identities. Arno mistook Germain's carriage for Fran?ois de la Serre's, when he attempted to deliver a message from a Templar loyalist, Chretien Lafrenière, to the Grand Master. Both Sivert and the Roi des Thunes succeeded in assassinating de la Serre, and reported to Germain. With the Grand Master dead, Germain gained control of a majority of the Templar Order. However, he was still opposed by Lafrenière and de la Serre's daughter, elise. Meeting Arno In March 1791, Arno, now an Assassin, snuck into Germain's workshop to ask him questions behind de la Serre's murder. Since the Assassin did not recognize him, Germain omitted the fact that he was once a Templar himself, and pretended to be a simple silversmith who had unintentionally discovered Chretien Lafrenière's secrets while working for him, and had become a prisoner in his own shop as a result. Germain catered to Arno's desire for revenge, and falsely accused Lafrenière of ordering the creation of the poisoned pin, as well as plotting something ominous in Les Halles. At the H?tel de Beauvais, Germain met with several of his Templar subordinates. Levesque informed him of the success of inflating the price of grain, to further stir the populace to revolt, but noted that the process would take too long. However, Germain said that it would be a small price to pay for successfully discrediting King Louis XVI, as he desired to see the King condemned before his death, rather than hailed as a martyr, despite Frederic Rouille's suggestions of simply assassinating the monarch. Aloys la Touche informed Germain of the deaths of Sivert and the Roi des Thunes, though the Grand Master remained confident that their demise would not hinder his plans for long. Rouille also expressed concern that elise may have rallied the moderate members of the Order against them, but Germain revealed that he had already lured her into a trap, and that Lafrenière was no longer a factor in their plans. Unbeknownst to the Templars, Arno had overheard their plot, and headed off to save elise. By the time Arno had discovered Germain's deception from elise herself, the Grand Master had already abandoned his residence, knowing that his act would not hold up for long. Having gone to ground, he was once again believed to have died by many. Execution of the King "The King is... merely a symbol. A symbol can inspire fear, and fear can inspire control - but men inevitably lose their fear of symbols. As you can see. This was the truth de Molay died for: the Divine Right of Kings is nothing but the reflection of sunlight upon gold. When the Crown and Church are ground to dust, we who control the gold will decide the future. (Jacques de Molay, you are avenged.)" -Germain to Arno during King Louis XVI's execution, 1793.- On 21 January 1793, Germain was present at the Place de la Concorde, where Louis XVI was about to be executed. The Grand Master confronted Arno once again, proclaiming the rebirth of the Templar Order. Germain mentioned to Arno that the reason for de la Serre's murder was to rid the Templars of corruption. He also stated that the Grand Master's murder was only the first phase of the Order's reconstruction, and that it would truly be reborn with the death of King Louis. Germain then revealed his plans as Louis XVI was placed on the guillotine. By stripping France's upper class and aristocracy of power and giving it to the rising middle class, it would be far easier for the Templars to gain control of the populace. Once the King was beheaded, Germain proclaimed that Jacques de Molay had been avenged, then made his escape, leaving Arno to deal with his subordinates. With the death of Louis XVI, Germain entrusted the control of the newly founded French Republic to one of his followers, Maximilien de Robespierre. Robespierre would enforce Templar subjugation over the people in France through the Reign of Terror, carrying out mass executions of those accused of treason and moderatism. Last stand elise: "Did you think this day would never come? That because Fran?ois de la Serre had no sons to avenge him, that your crime would go unanswered?" Germain: "Revenge, is it? Your vision is as narrow as your father's." —elise and Germain's confrontation in the Temple, 1794.- During the Reign of Terror, Germain secluded himself within the Temple, which was heavily guarded with no weak points. While there, Germain attempted to commune with de Molay and made use of a Sword of Eden. After the fall of Robespierre's regime, knowledge of Germain's base of operations at the Temple was exposed to Arno and elise, as each infiltrated the structure on their own and attempted to assassinate the Grand Master. It was during this endeavor that Germain was tracked by Arno to the Temple's rooftop. As the Assassin attempted to kill him, he soon discovered that the Templar wielded the Sword of Eden. Germain retreated to the vault beneath the Temple, in preparation for the final confrontation. Arno requested that elise distract Germain, which she successfully did. As she confronted the Grand Master over the nature of the Templar Order, the distraction allowed Arno to land three successive strikes. Prompted to use the Sword's power, Germain blasted Arno away with the artifact's power, pinning the Assassin under a large chunk of debris. Faced with the choice of helping Arno free himself or preventing Germain's escape, elise initially went to aid Arno, but soon changed her mind, engaging in a duel with the Templar. In the exchange of blows, elise managed to damage the Sword of Eden enough for it to destabilize, with the resulting explosion injuring Germain and killing elise. Just prior to the blast, Arno succeeded in breaking free, but arrived too late to save elise. Death "Bravo. You've slain the villain. That is how you've cast this little morality play in your mind, isn't it? At the moment, I'm bleeding out on the floor of the Temple. But it seems the Father of Understanding has seen fit to give us this time to talk. Think on this: the march of progress is slow, but it is inevitable as a glacier. All you have accomplished is to delay the inevitable. One death cannot stop the tide. Perhaps it will not be my hand that shepherds mankind back to its proper place - but it will be someone's. Think on this when you remember her." -Germain's final words, 1794.- Mournfully, Arno looked over to the body of his dead love, before turning to assassinate Germain with his Hidden Blade. As Germain bled out, he spoke to Arno through a vision, telling the Assassin of his memories of the First Civilization, and the motive of his purge of the Templar Order. Germain further explained his reasons for influencing the revolution to become chaotic and violent. Before succumbing to his wounds, Germain told Arno that his death would do little to stop his plans, elise's death an example of this. In 1808, Arno entered the Temple once more, accompanied by Napoleon Bonaparte. They discovered Germain's corpse which had long since decayed, and buried his skeletal remains in the Parisian catacombs. Legacy Being a Sage, Germain was important to both Templars and Assassins of the 21st century. Finding information regarding the whereabouts of his body through the memories of Arno was an important goal of the modern Assassins, but no recovery effort was made after they had learned that his remains were poorly buried in a Parisian catacomb, and would have been badly decomposed by modern times. Even with Germain's death, his long-term goal of restoring order amongst the violent anarchy in France would eventually succeed in a way. In 1799, the revolution orchestrated by him enabled Napoleon Bonaparte to establish himself as the new leader of France and re-establish about law and order across the nation. Personality and characteristics As a reincarnation of Aita, a member of the First Civilization, Germain displayed contempt towards humanity, believing that it should revert back to being the subjugated race they had been millennia before. His beliefs were also influenced by the ideologies of Jacques de Molay, a fellow Sage. Germain was extremely ruthless, willing to go to great lengths to see his ambitions fulfilled, and humanity returned to the role of slaves. This was seen through the turmoil of the French Revolution, where his machinations caused millions of civilians across France to starve, and thousands more to die under the Reign of Terror. He also expressed little remorse for the deaths of his Templar followers, even forsaking them if they were ever to outlive their usefulness, as seen with Robespierre. Germain believed these sacrifices to be for the greater good. He cared little for his own well-being, calmly embracing death in his conversation with Arno. This was due to his confidence that others would carry on his ideals in the future, and the knowledge that as a Sage, he would be born again. Equipment and skills As a Sage, Germain was capable of using First Civilization artifacts without suffering from any detrimental effects. He was able to wield the Sword of Eden with great proficiency, accessing its abilities of physical displacement, creating illusions and projecting energy with relative ease. Germain could use the sword as a melee weapon as well, being able to hold his own in a sword fight against elise, as he was trained in the art of swordsmanship by Frederick Weatherall, making him a highly skilled swordsman. As a silversmith, Germain was a skilled craftsman, and was able to manufacture silver pins used as symbols of recognition within the Templar Order. These pins could be used for offensive purposes, and laced with poisons if needed. Germain was a master of manipulation, able to recruit certain individuals by exploiting their dissatisfaction with the corruption in France, such as Aloys la Touche and Frederic Rouille. Likewise, Germain was able to take advantage of Arno's desire for redemption for de la Serre's death to eliminate Chretien Lafrenière. Behind the scenes Fran?ois-Thomas Germain is a historical figure introduced in the 2014 video game Assassin's Creed: Unity, where he was voiced by Julian Casey. Trivia According to Bishop, Germain was the second known Sage who became a Templar Grand Master, following Jacques de Molay, as Abstergo Industries suggested. Shaun Hastings claimed to have one of Germain's silver antiques in his possession, which he used as a paperweight. During the execution of King Louis XVI, Germain exclaimed "Jacques de Molay, you are avenged." A recurring real life Templar legend states that during the execution, a French {Freemason} either dipped his hand in the king's blood or held the king's head and yelled "Jacques de Molay, thou art avenged!" Germain is only partly based on the French Silversmith. His character, profile and nature as the Sage derives from the Comte de Saint Germain, a courtier whose tall claims and urban legends made him popular in the 19th Century occult as a supposed immortal, who was formerly the Wandering Jew and who prophesied the French Revolution. Germain's plot to usher the French Revolution to unleash vengeance on the royal family for the purge of the Templars, to manipulate the people to chaos and violence by instigating hatred against Church and Crown derives from a real-life book by Augustin Barruel. Name: Berzelius Biography: J?ns Jacob Berzelius (Swedish: ; by himself and his contemporaries named only Jacob Berzelius, 20 August 1779 - 7 August 1848) Nationality:Swedish Alma mater:Uppsala University Known for:Atomic weights Chemical notation catalysis Silicon Selenium Thorium Cerium Awards:Copley medal (1836) Fields:Chemistry Institutions:Karolinska Institute Berzelius stated in 1810 that living things work by some mysterious "vital force", a hypothesis called vitalism. Relations with other scientists:Berzelius was a prolific correspondent with leading scientists of his time, such as Gerardus Johannes Mulder, Claude Louis Berthollet, Humphry Davy, Friedrich W?hler, Eilhard Mitscherlich and Christian Friedrich Sch?nbein. In 1812, Berzelius traveled to London, England, including Greenwich to meet with prominent British scientists of the time. These included Humphry Davy, chemist William Wollaston, physician-scientist Thomas Young, astronomer William Herschel, chemist Smithson Tennant, and inventor James Watt, among others. Berzelius also visited Davy's laboratory. After his visit to Davy's laboratory, Berzelius remarked, "A tidy laboratory is a sign of a lazy chemist." Baron J?ns Jacob Berzeliuswas a Swedish chemist. Berzelius is considered, along with Robert Boyle, John Dalton, and Antoine Lavoisier, to be one of the founders of modern chemistry. Berzelius became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1808 and served from 1818 as its principal functionary. He is known in Sweden as the "Father of Swedish Chemistry". Berzelius Day is celebrated on 20 August in honour of him. Although Berzelius began his career as a physician, his enduring contributions were in the fields of electrochemistry, chemical bonding and stoichiometry. In particular, he is noted for his determination of atomic weights and his experiments that led to a more complete understanding of the principles of stoichiometry, which is the branch of chemistry pertaining to the quantitative relationships between elements in chemical compounds and chemical reactions and that these occur in definite proportions. This understanding came to be known as the "Law of Constant Proportions". Berzelius was a strict empiricist, expecting that any new theory must be consistent with the sum of contemporary chemical knowledge. He developed improved methods of chemical analysis, which were required to develop the basic data in support of his work on stoichiometry. He investigated isomerism, allotropy, and catalysis, phenomena that owe their names to him. Berzelius was among the first to articulate the differences between inorganic compounds and organic compounds. Among the many minerals and elements he studied, he is credited with discovering cerium and selenium, and with being the first to isolate silicon and thorium. Following on his interest in mineralogy, Berzelius synthesized and chemically characterized new compounds of these and other elements. Berzelius demonstrated the use of an electrochemical cell to decompose certain chemical compounds into pairs of electrically opposite constituents. From this research, he articulated a theory that came to be known as electrochemical dualism, contending that chemical compounds are oxide salts, bonded together by electrostatic interactions. This theory, while useful in some contexts, came to be seen as insufficient. Berzelius's work with atomic weights and his theory of electrochemical dualism led to his development of a modern system of chemical formula notation that showed the composition of any compound both qualitatively and quantitatively. His system abbreviated the Latin names of the elements with one or two letters and applied superscripts to designate the number of atoms of each element present in the compound. Later, chemists changed to use of subscripts rather than superscripts. Early life and education Berzelius was born in the parish of V?versunda in ?sterg?tland in Sweden. His father Samuel Berzelius was a school teacher in the nearby city of Link?ping, and his mother Elizabeth Dorothea Sj?steen was a homemaker. His parents were both from families of church pastors. Berzelius lost both his parents at an early age. His father died in 1779, after which his mother married a pastor named Anders Eckmarck, who gave Berzelius a basic education including knowledge of the natural world. Following the death of his mother in 1787, relatives in Link?ping took care of him. There he attended the school today known as Katedralskolan. As a teenager, he took a position as a tutor at a farm near his home, during which time he became interested in collecting flowers and insects and their classification. Berzelius later enrolled as a medical student at Uppsala University, from 1796 to 1801. Anders Gustaf Ekeberg, the discoverer of tantalum, taught him chemistry during this time. He worked as an apprentice in a pharmacy, during which time he also learned practical matters in the laboratory such as glassblowing. On his own during his studies, he successfully repeated the experimentation conducted by Swedish chemist Carl William Scheele which led to Scheele's discovery of oxygen. He also worked with a physician in the Medevi mineral springs. During this time, he conducted an analysis of the water from this source. Additionally as part of his studies, in 1800, Berzelius learned about Alessandro Volta's electric pile, the first device that could provide a constant electric current (i.e., the first battery). He constructed a similar battery for himself, consisting of alternating disks of copper and zinc, and this was his initial work in the field of electrochemistry. As thesis research in his medical studies, he examined the influence of galvanic current on several diseases. This line of experimentation produced no clear-cut evidence for such influence. Berzelius graduated as a medical doctor in 1802. He worked as a physician near Stockholm until the chemist and mine-owner Wilhelm Hisinger recognized his abilities as an analytical chemist and provided him with a laboratory. Academic career In 1807, Berzelius was appointed professor in chemistry and pharmacy at the Karolinska Institute. Between 1808 and 1836, Berzelius worked together with Anna Sundstr?m, who acted as his assistant and was the first female chemist in Sweden. In 1808, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. At this time, the Academy had been stagnating for several years, since the era of romanticism in Sweden had led to less interest in the sciences. In 1818, Berzelius was elected the Academy's secretary and held the post until 1848. During Berzelius' tenure, he is credited with revitalising the Academy and bringing it into a second golden era (the first being the astronomer Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin's period as secretary from 1749 to 1783). He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. In 1827, he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, and in 1830 associate member. In 1837, he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy, on chair number 5. Later life Through much of his life, Berzelius suffered various medical ailments. These included recurrent migraine headaches and then later on he suffered from gout. He also had episodes of depression. In 1818, Berzelius had a nervous breakdown, said to be due to the stress of his work. The medical advice he received was to travel and take vacation. However, during this time, Berzelius traveled to France to work in the chemical laboratories of Claude Louis Berthollet. In 1835, at the age of 56, he married Elizabeth Poppius, the 24-year-old daughter of a Swedish cabinet minister. He died on 7 August 1848 at his home in Stockholm, where he had lived since 1806. He is buried in the Solna Cemetery. Achievements Law of definite proportions Soon after arriving in Stockholm, Berzelius wrote a chemistry textbook for his medical students, L?rboki Kemien, which was his first significant scientific publication. He had conducted experimentation, in preparation for writing this textbook, on the compositions of inorganic compounds, which was his earliest work on definite proportions. In 1813, he published an essay on the proportions of elements in compounds. The essay commenced with a general description, introduced his new symbolism, examined all the known elements, included a table of specific weights, and finished with a selection of compounds written in his new formalism. In 1818, he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where oxygen was set to 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favour of the atomic theory proposed by John Dalton: that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms of different elements combined in whole number amounts. In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved Prout's hypothesis that elements are built up from atoms of hydrogen.:682-683 Berzelius's last revised version of his atomic weight tables was first published in a German translation of his Textbook of Chemistry in 1826. Chemical notation In order to aid his experiments, he developed a system of chemical notation in which the elements composing any particular chemical compound were given simple written labels—such as O for oxygen, or Fe for iron—with their proportions in the chemical compound denoted by numbers. Berzelius thus invented the system of chemical notation still used today, the main difference being that instead of the subscript numbers used today (e.g., H2O or Fe2O3), Berzelius used superscripts (H2O or Fe2O3) Discovery of elements Berzelius is credited with discovering the chemical elements cerium and selenium and with being the first to isolate silicon and thorium. Berzelius discovered cerium in 1803 and selenium in 1817. Berzelius discovered how to isolate silicon in 1824, and thorium in 1824. Students working in Berzelius's laboratory also discovered lithium, lanthanum, and vanadium. Berzelius discovered silicon by repeating an experiment performed by Gay-Lussac and Thenard. In the experiment, Berzelius reacted silicon tetrafluoride with potassium metal and then purified its product by washing it until it became a brown powder. Berzelius recognized this brown powder as the new element of silicon, which he called silicium, a name proposed earlier by Davy. Berzelius was the first to isolate zirconium in 1824, but pure zirconium was not produced until 1925, by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer. New chemical terms Berzelius is credited with originating the chemical terms "catalysis", "polymer," "isomer," "protein" and "allotrope," although his original definitions in some cases differ significantly from modern usage. As an example, he coined the term "polymer" in 1833 to describe organic compounds which shared identical empirical formulas but which differed in overall molecular weight, the larger of the compounds being described as "polymers" of the smallest. At this time the concept of chemical structure had not yet been developed so that he considered only the numbers of atoms of each element. in this way, he viewed for example glucose (C6H12O6) as a polymer of formaldehyde (CH2O), even though we now know that glucose is not a polymer of the monomer formaldehyde. Biology and organic chemistry Berzelius was the first person to make the distinction between organic compounds (those containing carbon), and inorganic compounds. In particular, he advised Gerardus Johannes Mulder in his elemental analyses of organic compounds such as coffee, tea, and various proteins. The term protein itself was coined by Berzelius, after Mulder observed that all proteins seemed to have the same empirical formula and came to the erroneous conclusion that they might be composed of a single type of very large molecule. The term is derived from the Greek, meaning "of the first rank", and Berzelius proposed the name because proteins were so fundamental to living organisms. In 1808, Berzelius discovered that lactic acid occurs in muscle tissue, not just in milk. He also determined that lactic acid occurs in two different optical isomers. The term biliverdin was coined by Berzelius in 1840, although he preferred "bilifulvin" (yellow/red) over "bilirubin" (red). Vitalism Berzelius stated in 1810 that living things work by some mysterious "vital force", a hypothesis called vitalism. Vitalism had first been proposed by prior researchers, although Berzelius contended that compounds could be distinguished by whether they required any organisms in their manufacture (organic compounds) or whether they did not (inorganic compounds). However, in 1828, Friedrich W?hler accidentally obtained urea, an organic compound, by heating ammonium cyanate. This showed that an organic compound such as urea could be prepared synthetically and not exclusively by living organisms. Berzelius corresponded with W?hler on the urea synthesis findings. However, the notion of vitalism continued to persist, until further work on abiotic synthesis of organic compounds provided overwhelming evidence against vitalism. Humphry Davy in 1810 proposed that chlorine is an element. Berzelius refuted this claim because of his belief that all acids were based on oxygen, and HCl contains no oxygen and so could not be an element, in Berzelius's perception. However, in 1812, Bernard Courtois proved that the isoelectronic substance iodine is an element. This finding resolved Berzelius's disagreement. Berzelius continued his investigations into the chemistry of chlorine during his stay in Claude Louis Berthollet's laboratory. Honors and recognition In 1818 Berzelius was ennobled by King Carl XIV Johan. In 1835, he received the title of friherre. In 1820 he was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society. The Royal Society of London gave Berzelius the Copley Medal in 1836 with the citation "For his systematic application of the doctrine of definite proportions to the analysis of mineral bodies, as contained in his Nouveau Systeme de Mineralogie, and in other of his works." In 1840, Berzelius was named Knight of the Order of Leopold. In 1842, he received the honor Pour le Merite for Sciences and Arts. The mineral berzelianite, a copper selenide, was discovered in 1850 and named after him by James Dwight Dana. In 1852, Stockholm, Sweden, built a public park and statue, both to honor Berzelius. Berzeliusskolan, a school situated next to his alma mater, Katedralskolan, is named for him. In 1898, the Swedish Academy of Sciences opened the Berzelius Museum in honor of Berzelius. The holdings of the museum included many items from his laboratory. The museum was opened on the occasion of fiftieth anniversary of Berzelius's death. Invitees at the ceremony marking the occasion included scientific dignitaries from eleven European nations and the United States, many of whom gave formal addresses in honor of Berzelius. The Berzelius Museum was later moved to the observatory that is part of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1939 his portrait appeared on a series of postage stamps commemorating the bicentenary of the founding of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In addition to Sweden, Grenada likewise honored him. The Berzelius secret society at Yale University is named in his honor. Name: HRH Charlott Biography: Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (Swedish: Hedvig Elisabet Charlotta; 22 March 1759 - 20 June 1818) Position: Queen consort of Sweden， Allegiance: Queen consort of Norway House:Holstein-Gottorp Religion:Lutheranism Hedwig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (Swedish: Hedvig Elisabet Charlotta; 22 March 1759 - 20 June 1818) was Queen of Sweden and Norway as the consort of King Charles XIII and II. She was also a famed diarist, memoirist and wit. She is known by her full pen name (above), though her official name as queen was Charlotte (Charlotta). She was born in Eutin the daughter of Duke Frederick August I of Holstein-Gottorp and Princess Ulrike Friederike Wilhelmine of Hesse-Kassel. She grew up in Eutin and married her cousin Charles, Duke of S?dermanland, in Stockholm on 7 July 1774 when she was fifteen years old. The marriage was arranged by King Gustav III to provide the throne of Sweden with an heir. The King had not consummated his marriage and had decided to give the task of providing an heir to the throne to his brother. Prince Charles saw her for the first time in Eutin in 1770 and remarked that she was pretty. The marriage was suggested in 1772, and the first ceremony took place in Wismar 21 June 1774: she arrived in Sweden 3 June. She entered Stockholm by gondola 7 June, and the wedding ceremony took place the same night, followed by a masquerade ball in Kungstr?dg?rden. She was noted for her beauty - her waist measured a mere 48 cm (19") and her shoe size 31 (girls' size 13) - and, as the marriage of the monarch had not been consummated after nine years, there were hopes that she would provide an heir for the throne. In January 1775, there were signs that she was pregnant. It was hoped that the question of succession was solved, and prayers were held in the churches. However, the signs soon proved to be false. The news of the false pregnancy also made the king decide to consummate his marriage and provide an heir to the throne personally. She made a personal success with her cheerful temperament and became a center of the royal court, where she was for some time informally called "Little Duchess" and was noticed for her beauty and vividness, wittiness and ease with words. With these qualities she fulfilled a contemporary ideal. In contrast to the shy Queen, Sophia Magdalena of Denmark, "Duchess Lotta" was lively, witty, and flirtatious, and was in many ways the female center of the court. It was said of her: "One can not imagine anything more lively and cheerful. She is joy itself. Her greatest pleasure is to make up jokes and foolishness. It would be a good thing, if she introduced that custom, as our by nature somewhat melancholic nation could need some cheering up"[1] She participated in the amateur theatre which were an important part at the royal court at the reign of Gustav III, both as an actress and as a dancer. Her dancing was seen as scandalous by some, as ballet dancers were during this age regarded as prostitutes.[2] After having been subjected to criticism that she and Princess Sophia Albertina distracted the King from the affairs of state by pursuit of pleasure, she retired from the stage in 1783.[3] Her marriage was distant and both she and her spouse had extramarital affairs. Charles paid more attention to his lovers than to her: at the time of their marriage, he was in the middle of his relationship with Augusta von Fersen. Her intimate friendship with Countess Sophie von Fersen inspired rumors of bisexuality which, true or not, were repeated throughout her time as royal Duchess, by both Francisco de Miranda in 1786 and later by Frederica of Baden. From 1783, she had a long term relationship with Count Carl Piper, whom she herself referred to as her lover in her secret correspondence to Sophie von Fersen.[4] Among her alleged lovers was Count Axel von Fersen, alleged lover of Marie Antoinette. It is not known when her affair with Axel von Fersen occurred; it is only known that she wished to resume it when Fersen returned to Sweden after the death of Marie Antoinette and that Fersen refused to do so.[1] It has been suggested that this was merely a temporary affair which occurred during the stay of the royal court at Gripsholm Castle in the summer of 1784.[5] She also had a relationship with Axel von Fersen's younger brother, Count Fabian von Fersen[6] Her affair with Fabian von Fersen is assumed to have started in the late 1780s[5] was discontinued with the marriage of von Fersen in 1797.[7] It was rumored at the time that the pregnancy, which ended in a miscarriage in 1792 (and which was referred by Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte as her first real pregnancy), was caused by Fabian von Fersen.[5] The rumors of her extramarital affairs were given a lot of attention during her second pregnancy in 1797,[8] which produced a stillborn daughter. The next year (1798) she gave birth a son who lived only six days. Ultimately, she was unable to have living children. She was indifferent to the affairs of her spouse as they gave her the opportunity to live more freely herself, and she expressed her frustration when her husband's lack of lovers made him more focused toward her, which exposed her to his suspicions and accusations: "As long as he had his mistresses, things were better, but since the last one was exiled because she allowed herself to be insolent towards the King, and he has not provided himself with a new one, his temperament has grown worse, and I have daily been subjected to outbursts because of this, which has occurred even in front of the staff. This hostility have increased so much during the winter that I have reached the end of my patience."[9] She expressed her views upon love and sexuality. Gustav III studied certain letters after his late mother in the company of others, as they contained information regarding the alleged love affair between his mother, Queen Louisa Ulrika, and Count Carl Gustaf Tessin, and the complaints from Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden over the attention Tessin gave his consort: "It is undoubtedly so, that these papers can give reason for reflection; it does lead me to consider how easily a poor woman is judged and how unfortunate it is to have a heart filled with emotion, for a tender nature is a misfortune as well as a blessing, and no human can resist the power of love, even though friendship must at times be the comfort for the wise one, yes, nothing is more true than the inscription who were once placed upon the image of God of Love: 'Eho you are, her is your true master, he has been, he is and always will be.' You have to admit, my dear friend, that woman is truly an unhappy creature: while men have their complete freedom, she is always burdened by prejudice and circumstance; you may say, that men also have that hindrance, but it is not in equal degree. I am convinced that most women would ask for nothing more than to be transformed to men to escape the unhappy bondage and enjoy their full freedom."[10] In 1782, she participated as a mediator in the reconciliation between Gustav III and his mother at her deathbed, after they had been in conflict since 1778, when the Queen Dowager supported the rumour that the Crown Prince was illegitimate and the son of Count Adolf Fredrik Munck af Fulkila.[11] During the Russo-Swedish War (1788-90), Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte entered into politics. Sweden's ally France was displeased about the war, and Gustav III gave her the task to act as the go-between in his negotiations with the French ambassador.[12] In cooperation with the daughter of the ambassador, her friend Camille du Bois de la Motte, she handled the correspondence between the monarch and the ambassador, arranged secret meetings between them and acted as witness to them upon the King's request.[12] This caused a rift between her and the King when she realized that she had in fact been used to distract the ambassador. Adolf Fredrik Munck later blackened her in the eyes of the King by claiming that France was informed about the Swedish war plans through her friendship with Camille du Bois de la Motte.[12] Knowing that her correspondence was read, she maintained a secret correspondence through her own net of couriers.[13] During the Riksdag of 1789, she was present with her sister-in-law Sophie Albertine during the sessions through a secret window which faced the assembly hall.[14] The Union and Security Act placed the King in opposition with his nobility. The female members of the nobility, led by Jeanna von Lantingshausen, issued a political demonstration in a social boycott of the monarch by refusing to participate in his court life while continuing to visit Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte and her sister-in-law Sophie Albertine, who were known to be in opposition to the Security Act, and who demonstrated themselves by refusing to participate in representation.[15] This was effective, because the Queen, Sophia Magdalena, was reclusive and Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte and Sophie Albertine had always fulfilled most of the representation at court, and the King accused her of leading: "A guard which placed themselves above all authority. They captivate the senses by their beauty and talents and rule the views and interests".[16] The demonstration was effectively put to a halt when the King had Jeanna von Lantingshausen banished from court and refused any contact with his sister and his sister-in-law. Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte had a network of influential males whom she benefited and who made her services in turn: among them Erik Ruuth, Rutger Macklier, Carl G?ran Bonde, Jacob De la Gardie, Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt and Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, with whom she maintained connections through her activity as a {Freemason}. She aided Reuterholm on his way to a position as de facto regent during the minor regency of Gustav IV Adolf.[16] During the Riksdag of 1789, she supported Adolf Ludvig Stierneld as leader of the opposition, and when he was imprisoned, she asked Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt to request his release from Gustav III.[17] The autumn of 1789, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte played a central role in a conspiracy to depose Gustav III and place her husband Duke Charles upon the throne.[12] Her ideal was the Swedish Constitution of 1772, which she saw as a good tool for an enlightened aristocracy, and the war and the Union and Security Act had made her a leading part of the opposition. She cooperated with Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden and Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm.[12] The plan was to force Charles to act as a symbol of the opposition when the time was right.[12] When the time arrived to make Charles act, however, he refused, which effectively discontinued the coup.[12] In 1792, her spouse became regent during the minority of his nephew Gustav IV Adolf. The actual power was in the hands of his favorite, Count Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, and she had no influence upon the regency.[18] In 1798-99, the spouses made a trip to Germany and Austria and visited Carlsbad, Berlin, Vienna and Hamburg.[19] In 1800, the ducal couple founded an amateur court theater, Damatiska akademien, at court, but it was closed by the monarch.[20] The 2 May 1776 at the Stockholm Palace, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte was initiated into the {{Freemason}ry} by the Grand Master of the Swedish {Freemason}s, her own consort Duke Charles.[21] She was made Grand Mistress of Le veritable et constante amitie, a female Lodge of Adoption under the regular Swedish Masonic order, which used the same localities as the male order at the Stockholm Palace. The constitution of the Lodge was confirmed by Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orleans and Bathilde d'Orleans, Grand Master and Grand Mistress of the French male and female {Freemason}s, on 8 May 1776.[21] Known members of this female lodge were Countesses Sophie and Hedvig Eleonora von Fersen, Countess Ulrica Catharina Koskull and, likely, Countess Charlotte Gyldenstolpe.[22] Not much is known about this lodge. However, Duke Charles gave Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte access to the first three grades of the regular male {Freemason}ic order.[23] According to Karl Adolf Boheman, the reason was that she asked Charles to allow the female {Freemason}s to participate in the male order. He did not agree, but he did give her access to the first three grades of the male {Freemason}s and the books of rituals, so that she could be able to explain the Masonic rituals for the female {Freemason}s better.[24] A written statement is preserved where she explains the male {Freemason}s first three grades and states that though females could not be regular members because of the warlike ideals of the orders, they are no reasons to why the remaining mysteries should be kept from females.[25] There is no date on this statement. The mystic Karl Adolf Boheman was presented to the Ducal couple by Count Magnus Stenbock in 1793. In 1802, he founded the co-{Freemason}ic adoption lodge Yellow Rose with the Ducal couple as leading members. Both male and female members were initiated in this lodge, one of them being the mother of the queen. When Boheman attempted to initiate King Gustav IV Adolf in 1803, he refused, warned by Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt that the lodge was in fact a society of the Illuminati conspiring against him.[26] This led to the Boheman Affair, which caused a lasting rift between the King and the Ducal couple. Boheman was arrested and expelled, after Duke Charles had been forced by the King to exclude Boheman from the {Freemason}s. The ducal couple were exposed to an informal investigation by the monarch, and the duchess was questioned in the presence of the royal council.[27] Life as Queen In 1809, the ducal couple was placed upon the throne after the Coup of 1809. During the coup, she was heard by Charles de Suremain exclaiming: "I do not wish to be a Queen!",[28] and she was later to say that she found it embarrassing to take the place of another.[29] When her spouse was informed that he was King, she told him that she would become his reliable adviser and confidante, but keep away from the matters of the state.[30] During his reign, she is known to have visited him in his bedroom every morning to talk to him.[31] She was crowned with the king 29 June 1809. At the coronation, she was described as gracious and dignified without losing her usual vividness and cheerfulness. Despite her personal denial, the queen was believed by her contemporaries to exercise great political influence.[32] Queen Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte held a salon, the so-called "Green table", where women discussed politics while sewing.[33] She felt sympathy for the former queen, Frederica of Baden, and visited her in her house arrest.[34] She worked for the release of the former royal family.[35] It was due to her effort that the former king was allowed to reunite with his wife and children, who had initially been placed in separate house arrest.[36] During the negotiations regarding the succession to the throne, she supported the Gustavian Party, who wished for the deposed King's son, the former Crown Prince Gustav, to be acknowledged as heir to the throne.[37] During a dinner, General Baron Georg Adlersparre told her that Jean Baptiste Bernadotte had asked him whether her spouse (Charles XIII) had any issue, and was interested when he found that he had not. When she remarked that the throne had an heir in the deposed King's son, Adlersparre stated that none of the instigators of the coup would accept this, as they feared that the boy would avenge his father when he became King, and that to prevent this they would go as far as to take up the old rumor that the deposed King was in fact the illegitimate son of Queen Sophia Magdalena and Count Adolf Fredrik Munck af Fulkila.[38] The other candidates for the post of heir to the throne were the French General Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, Prince Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, and the Danish Prince Charles August of Augustenburg. She was skeptical in all cases for the sake of Swedish independence, as she feared that Sweden would become a part of the French Empire under Bernadotte, or the Russian Empire (as Peter of Holstein was married to a Russian), or an appendage to Denmark. During a meeting in the garden with Adlersparre, she stated: "I am very happy to be Swedish and I would not wish to be either French, Russian or Danish."[39] Augustenburg was eventually chosen. He was expected to bring Norway to Sweden as a replacement for Finland. It is unknown whether she had any influence upon the constitutional reform of 1809, though she is known to have discussed it with several statesmen. She stated that she disliked party divisions but also absolute monarchy, and wished for the public to decide about the matters concerning them through "elected representatives".[40] Before the arrival of Augustenburg, the King suffered a stroke and became unable to reign, whereupon she informally presided over the council in his place.[41] The Gustavian party asked her to accept the post of regent, exclude the newly appointed Augustenburg and adopt the former Crown Prince Gustav as heir.[42] There was a fear of a coup by her and the Gustavians. Adlersparre, who arrived after having prepared the arrival of Augustenburg, met her outside the bedroom of the King. Adlersparre asked: -"Perhaps I do no longer dare to approach Your Majesty?" -"Why is that?" "I fear that Your Majesty is angry with me?" She laughed and answered: -"How can you make me such a question? Why are you here?" He replied that he came to receive the King's instructions regarding his heir and on the assignment of Augustenburg to inquire the general view upon him. She asked him to tell Augustenburg not to hold prejudice toward any one. After having received the King's permission to bring Augustenburg to Sweden, he asked her of her opinion. She remarked that he had not yet arrived, nor given any direct reply whether he wished the throne. He answered: - "Perhaps he will not come, and then Your Majesty can play the same role as that of the Empress of Russia", referring to Catherine the Great, who took the throne from her spouse. She replied: -"I have never wished for power, I have not as she murdered my consort or any Prince Ivan, nor could I do such a thing. I do not wish to be spoken to in such a tone." Adlersparre replied: -"Your Majesty is correct, it is most certainly no fortune to be a monarch."[43] She declined the offer to be regent, and the coup never took place. Statesman Carl Johan Adlercreutz stated that, if the King had died, the matter would have been different: "If King Charles XIII had died, before the peace with Denmark was made and Kristian August was still in Norway, Queen Charlotte, who eagerly supported the plans of the Gustavian Party, would have played a considerable part."[42] She viewed Augustenburg as good-hearted but rough. He claimed to be willing to adopt former Crown Prince Gustav as heir.[44] Augustenburg, who was popular among the public, died in 1810. The anti-Gustavians planted the rumour that he had been murdered by the Gustavian party. Pamphlets circulated in the capital claiming that the Crown Prince had been murdered by the Gustavians, and that the Queen deserved to be hanged.[45] The Gustavian Count Axel von Fersen the Younger was lynched, suspected to be involved in the alleged murder. The mob then sought Fersen's sister, Countess Sophie Piper, who was the intimate friend of the Queen and was said to influence her.[46] The mob was told that Piper was with the Queen at Haga Palace. The Queen and her ladies-in-waiting were left without guards at Haga, and there was a fear that she would be attacked. She was advised not to come into town, and boats were sent to evacuate them, if the lynch mob were to march to Haga. She decided to leave for town without an escort. Her lady-in-waiting Countess Wilhelmina Taube asked her not to, upon which she answered: "You are a coward, Mina! You are afraid; I will go alone! I do not fear death. I can defy it, and I will die as Marie Antoinette. Let us leave!"[47] The women persuaded her to stay, and when she asked them to leave, they asked to remain. In the end, nothing happened. Despite opposition, she supported a clearing of Sophie Piper's name, which was most unpopular.[48] The election of a new heir to the throne was held in ?rebro. She supported the former Crown Prince Gustav first and Peter of Holstein second. It was decided that the Queen should be confined to Str?msholm Palace during the election because of the general belief that she would interfere.[49] When Jean Baptiste Bernadotte was elected, the government sent her Fredrik August Adelsw?rd as their representative to inform her. He said that he realized her disappointment, as Bernadotte was a non-royal, but asked her to pretend to be happy for the health of the monarch, who was afraid that she would displeased.[50] She answered that she would be happy with any one who could bring stability: "Then it will be the right one, and he will find a loyal friend in me. If he is also gifted with talent and a good heart, then his lineage would mean nothing to me."[51] She asked for permission to go to ?rebro, and declared: "I do not meddle in politics, although everyone may say otherwise."[52] Bernadotte made a very good impression on her, and their relationship was a good one. At their first meeting, he said to her: "Madam, I understand more than well what feelings my arrival must bring you, but please remember, that the first King was a soldier, who benefited from success!" She replied: "Let us not speak of it now, you have earned your success, which is more worthy than to have been born to it."[53] He asked her for advice and discussed the matters of state with her.[54] He also assisted her in arranging a state funeral for Axel von Fersen.[55] In 1811, she was asked by the council to convince the King to appoint Bernadotte regent and convince the latter to accept the post, which she did.[56] The Queen described Desiree Clary as good-hearted, generous and pleasant when she chose to be and not one to plot, but also as immature and a "spoiled child",[57] who hated all demands and was unable to handle any form of representation.[58] She described Desiree as "a French woman in every inch", who disliked and complained about everything which was not French, and "consequently, she is not liked."[59] Bernadotte ordered the removal of everything reminding the Swedish people of the deposed royal family.[60] Her Gustavian views made the anti-Gustavians direct the suspicions of Bernadotte to her, and she was obliged to stop her correspondence with the former Queen Frederica (1813),[61] but her relationship with Bernadotte remained good. She supported his plan to conquer Norway, and became Queen of Norway in 1814. In 1816-1817, governor Baron Olof Rudolf Cederstr?m attempted to implicate her in an alleged poison attempt against the life of the Crown Prince and his son.[62] She had him questioned for slander, but this led to a break in the relationship with the Crown Prince, though it deepened her relation to Prince Oscar, who took her side in the affair.[63] Upon the death of her spouse, she reportedly said that she would not be able to survive him. After her husband's funeral, a great conflict of some sort is reported to have taken place between the Dowager Queen and the new King. After a private dinner with the King, she withdrew to her room to write, and the very same night, she collapsed and died.[64] Legacy Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte is known for her famous diary, which is a valuable historical source that describes the Swedish Royal Court between August 1775 and October 1817. The massive diary was written in French and initially (until March 1798) in the form of letters to her close friend, Countess Sophie von Fersen, sister of Axel von Fersen. The letters were never sent, but written in this form as a tribute to Sophie von Fersen. The diaries were written with the intent to be published, as stipulated by the Queen, fifty years after her death.[65] It was translated to the Swedish language and published in nine parts between 1902 and 1942: the first three parts translated by Carl Carlsson Bonde, the remaining parts by Cecilia af Klercker. The diary of Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte is sometimes used as a valuable source of reference within Swedish historical research. It describes events both nationally and internationally, treats various subjects such as gossip, plots and social events taking place within the Swedish royal court and aristocracy as well as political subjects, and provides personal character portraits of contemporaries. It describes events such as the French Revolution of 1789, the Regicide of Gustav III in 1792, the Napoleonic Wars and the deposition of Gustav IV Adolf in 1809. The collection of Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte also include her correspondence as well various other documents, some of which are quoted in the published diary. Her diary has also been considered partially unreliable in its obvious personal bias on the part of the duchess against her brother-in-law King Gustav III.[66][67] As of yet, however, her complete diary has only been published in the Swedish language. In fiction Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, alongside the fictitious Johanna and Sophie von Fersen, is one of the three main characters in the novel trilogy Barnbruden (Child Bride) from 2013, Pottungen (Chamber pot child) from 2014, and R?fvhonan (She Fox) from 2015, by Anna Laestadius Larsson. Queen Charlotte appears as a character in Annemarie Selinko's 1951 novel Desiree set up as the diary of Desiree Clary, whose husband succeeded Charlotte's husband as king. It gives the queen as a small-minded, propriety-obsessed martinet, and blames Charlotte for her decision to leave her husband and return to Paris. Children Lovisa Hedvig (Stockholm, 2 July 1797). Stillborn; buried at Riddarholmskyrkan (Riddarholm Church).[68] Carl Adolf, Duke of V?rmland (Stockholm, 4 July 1798 - Stockholm, 10 July 1798). Lived six days; buried at Riddarholmskyrkan (Riddarholm Church).[69] Name: V.Le Brun Biography: elisabeth Vigee Le Brun (also spelled Vigee-Lebrun; French pronunciation: ; 16 April 1755 - 30 March 1842) Nationality:French In October 1789, after the arrest of the royal family during the French Revolution, Vigee Le Brun fled France with her young daughter, Julie. Her husband, who remained in Paris, claimed that Vigee Le Brun went to Italy "to instruct and improve herself", but she certainly feared for her own safety. In her 12-year absence from France, she lived and worked in Italy (1789-1792), Austria (1792-1795), Russia (1795-1801), and Germany (1801). Known for : Painting Movement: Rococo, Neoclassicism elisabeth Louise Vigee Le Brun, also known as Madame Le Brun, was a prominent French portrait painter of the late 18th century. Her artistic style is generally considered part of the aftermath of Rococo with elements of an adopted Neoclassical style. Her subject matter and color palette can be classified as Rococo, but her style is aligned with the emergence of Neoclassicism. Vigee Le Brun created a name for herself in Ancien Regime society by serving as the portrait painter to Marie Antoinette. She enjoyed the patronage of European aristocrats, actors, and writers, and was elected to art academies in ten cities. Vigee Le Brun created some 660 portraits and 200 landscapes. In addition to many works in private collections, her paintings are owned by major museums, such as the Louvre, Hermitage Museum, National Gallery in London, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and many other collections in continental Europe and the United States. Early life Born in Paris on 16 April 1755, elisabeth Louise Vigee was the daughter of Jeanne (nee Maissin) (1728-1800), a hairdresser, and portraitist and fan painter Louis Vigee, from whom she received her first instruction. In 1760, at the age of five, she entered a convent, where she remained until 1766. Her father died when she was 12 years old. In 1768, her mother married a wealthy jeweller, Jacques-Fran?ois Le Sèvre, and shortly after, the family moved to the Rue Saint-Honore, close to the Palais Royal. In her memoir, Vigee Le Brun directly stated her feelings about her step-father: "I hated this man; even more so since he made use of my father's personal possessions. He wore his clothes, just as they were, without altering them to fit his figure." During this period, elisabeth benefited from the advice of Gabriel Fran?ois Doyen, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, and Joseph Vernet, whose influence is evident in her portrait of her younger brother, playwright and poet etienne Vigee (1773). By the time she was in her early teens, elisabeth was painting portraits professionally. After her studio was seized for her practicing without a license, she applied to the Academie de Saint-Luc, which unwittingly exhibited her works in their Salon. In 1774, she was made a member of the Academie. On 11 January 1776 she married Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Le Brun, a painter and art dealer. Vigee Le Brun began exhibiting her work at their home in Paris, the H?tel de Lubert, and the Salons she held here supplied her with many new and important contacts. Her husband's great-great-uncle was Charles Le Brun, the first director of the French Academy under Louis XIV. Vigee Le Brun painted portraits of many of the nobility. On 12 February 1780, Vigee-Le Brun gave birth to a daughter, Jeanne Lucie Louise, whom she called Julie and nicknamed "Brunette." In 1781 she and her husband toured Flanders and the Netherlands, where seeing the works of the Flemish masters inspired her to try new techniques. Her Self-Portrait with Straw Hat (1782) was a "free imitation" of Peter Paul Rubens' La Chapeau de Paille (ca. 1622-1625). Dutch and Flemish influences have also been noted in The Comte d'Espagnac (1786) and Madame Perregaux (1789). In 1787, she caused a minor public scandal when her Self-Portrait with Her Daughter Julie (1787) was exhibited at the Salon of 1787 showing her smiling and open-mouthed, which was in direct contravention of traditional painting conventions going back to antiquity. The court gossip-sheet Memoires secrets commented: "An affectation which artists, art-lovers and persons of taste have been united in condemning, and which finds no precedent among the Ancients, is that in smiling, shows her teeth." In light of this and her other Self-Portrait with Her Daughter Julie (1789), Simone de Beauvoir dismissed Vigee Le Brun as narcissistic in The Second Sex (1949): "Madame Vigee-Lebrun never wearied of putting her smiling maternity on her canvases." Marie Antoinette As her career blossomed, Vigee Le Brun was granted patronage by Marie Antoinette. She painted more than 30 portraits of the queen and her family, leading to the common perception that she was the official portraitist of Marie Antoinette. At the Salon of 1783, Vigee Le Brun exhibited Marie-Antoinette in a Muslin Dress (1783), sometimes called Marie-Antoinette en gaulle, in which the queen chose to be shown in a simple, informal white cotton garment. The resulting scandal was prompted by both the informality of the attire and the queen's decision to be shown in that way. Vigee Le Brun's later Marie Antoinette and Her Children (1787) was evidently an attempt to improve the queen's image by making her more relatable to the public, in the hopes of countering the bad press and negative judgments that the queen had recently received. The portrait shows the queen at home in the Palace of Versailles, engaged in her official function as the mother of the king's children, but also suggests Marie-Antoinette's uneasy identity as a foreign-born queen whose maternal role was her only true function under Salic law. The child on the right is pointing to an empty cradle, which signified her recent loss of a child, further emphasizing Marie-Antoinette's role as a mother. Academie royale de peinture et de sculpture On 31 May 1783, Vigee Le Brun was received as a member of the Academie royale de peinture et de sculpture. She was one of only 15 women to be granted full membership in the Academie between 1648 and 1793. Her rival, Adela?de Labille-Guiard, was admitted on the same day. Vigee Le Brun was initially refused on the grounds that her husband was an art dealer, but eventually the Academie was overruled by an order from Louis XVI because Marie Antoinette put considerable pressure on her husband on behalf of her portraitist. As her reception piece, Vigee Le Brun submitted an allegorical painting, Peace Bringing Back Abundance (La Paix ramenant l'Abondance), instead of a portrait. As a consequence, the Academie did not place her work within a standard category of painting—either history or portraiture. Vigee Le Brun's membership in the Academie dissolved after the French Revolution because female academicians were abolished. Exile In October 1789, after the arrest of the royal family during the French Revolution, Vigee Le Brun fled France with her young daughter, Julie. Her husband, who remained in Paris, claimed that Vigee Le Brun went to Italy "to instruct and improve herself", but she certainly feared for her own safety. In her 12-year absence from France, she lived and worked in Italy (1789-1792), Austria (1792-1795), Russia (1795-1801), and Germany (1801). Italy While in Italy, Vigee Le Brun was elected to the Academy in Parma (1789) and the Accademia di San Luca in Rome (1790). In Naples, she painted portraits of Maria Carolina of Austria (sister of Marie Antoinette) and her eldest four living children: Maria Teresa, Francesco, Luisa, and Maria Cristina. She later recalled that Luisa "was extremely ugly, and pulled such faces that I was most reluctant to finish her portrait." Vigee Le Brun also painted allegorical portraits of the notorious Emma Hamilton as Ariadne (1790) and as a Bacchante (ca. 1792). Lady Hamilton was similarly the model for Vigee Le Brun's Sibyl (1792), which was inspired by the painted sibyls of Domenichino. The painting represents the Cumaean Sibyl, as indicated by the Greek inscription on the figure's scroll, which is taken from Virgil's fourth Eclogue. The Sibyl was Vigee Le Brun's favorite painting. It is mentioned in her memoir more than any other work. She displayed it while in Venice (1792), Vienna (1792), Dresden (1794), and Saint Petersburg (1795); she also sent it to be shown at the Salon of 1798. Like her reception piece, Peace Bringing Back Abundance (1783), Vigee Le Brun regarded her Sibyl as a history painting, the most elevated category in the Academie's hierarchy. Austria While in Vienna, Vigee Le Brun was commissioned to paint Princess Maria Josefa Hermengilde von Esterhazy as Ariadne (1793) and its pendant Princess Karoline von Liechtenstein as Iris (1793). The portraits depict the Liechtenstein sisters-in-law in unornamented Roman-inspired garments that show the influence of Neoclassicism, and which may have been a reference to the virtuous republican Roman matron Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi. Russia In Russia, where she stayed from 1795 until 1801, she was received by the nobility and painted numerous aristocrats, including the former king of Poland, Stanis?aw August Poniatowski, and members of the family of Catherine the Great. Although the French aesthetic was widely admired in Russia, there remained various cultural differences as to what was deemed acceptable. Catherine was not initially happy with Vigee Le Brun's portrait of her granddaughters, Elena and Alexandra Pavlovna, due to the amount of bare skin the short-sleeved gowns revealed. In order to please the Empress, Vigee Le Brun added sleeves. This tactic seemed effective in pleasing Catherine, as she agreed to sit herself for Vigee Le Brun (although Catherine died of a stroke before this work was due to begin). While in Russia, Vigee Le Brun was made a member of the Academy of Fine Arts of Saint Petersburg. Much to Vigee Le Brun's dismay, her daughter Julie married Gaetan Bernard Nigris, secretary to the Director of the Imperial Theaters of Saint Petersburg. Return to France and later life After a sustained campaign by her ex-husband and other family members to have her name removed from the list of counter-revolutionary emigres, Vigee Le Brun was finally able to return to France in January 1802. She travelled to London in 1803, to Switzerland in 1807, and to Switzerland again in 1808. In Geneva, she was made an honorary member of the Societe pour l'Avancement des Beaux-Arts. She stayed at Coppet with Madame de Sta?l, who appears as the title character in Corinne, ou l'Italie (1807). In her later years, Vigee Le Brun purchased a house in Louveciennes, ?le-de-France, and divided her time between Louveciennes and Paris. She died in Paris on 30 March 1842, aged 86. She was buried at the Cimetière de Louveciennes near her old home. Her tombstone epitaph says "Ici, enfin, je repose..." (Here, at last, I rest...). Between 1835 and 1837, when Vigee Le Brun was in her 80s, she published her memoirs in three volumes (Souvenirs). Exhibitions During her lifetime, Vigee Le Brun's work was publicly exhibited in Paris at the Academie de Saint-Luc (1774), Salon de la Correspondance (1779, 1781, 1782, 1783), and Salon of the Academie in Paris (1783, 1785, 1787, 1789, 1791, 1798, 1802, 1817, 1824). The first retrospective exhibition of Vigee Le Brun's work was held in 1982 at the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas. The first major international retrospective exhibition of her art premiered at the Galeries nationales du Grand Palais in Paris (2015—2016) and was subsequently shown at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City (2016) and the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa (2016). Portrayal in popular culture The 2014 docudrama made for French television, Le fabuleux destin d’Elisabeth Vigee Le Brun, directed by Arnaud Xainte, is available in English as The Fabulous Life of Elisabeth Vigee Le Brun. In the episode "The Portrait" from the BBC series Let Them Eat Cake (1999), written by Peter Learmouth and starring Dawn French and Jennifer Saunders, Madame Vigee Le Brun (Maggie Steed) paints a portrait of the Comtesse de Vache (Jennifer Saunders) weeping over a dead canary. Vigee Le Brun is one of only three characters in Joel Gross's Marie Antoinette: The Color of Flesh (premiered in 2007), a fictionalized historical drama about a love triangle set against the backdrop of the French Revolution. Vigee Le Brun's portrait of Marie Antoinette is featured on the cover of the 2010 album Nobody's Daughter by Hole. Gallery Portraits painted in France etienne Vigee, 1773 Marie Antoinette with a Rose, 1783 Madame Grand, 1783 Marie-Gabrielle de Gramont, Duchesse de Caderousse , 1784 Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, 1784 Baronne de Crussol, 1785 Muhammad Dervish Khan, 1788 Comtesse de La Chatre, 1789 Self-Portrait with Her Daughter, 1789 Portraits painted in Italy Francesco di Borbone, 1790 Luisa Maria Amelia di Borbone, 1790 Maria Cristina of Bourbon, 1790 Anne Pitt as Hebe, 1792 Emma Hamilton as a Bacchante, ca. 1792 Portraits painted in Austria Portrait de la comtesse Maria Theresia Bucquoi, 1793 Theresa, Countess Kinsky, 1793 Princess Karoline of Liechtenstein, 1793 Countess Siemontkowsky-Bystry, 1793 Portrait of Pelagie Sapie?yna-Potocka, (1794) Royal Castle, Warsaw Portraits painted in Russia Princess Ekaterina Nikolaevna Menshikova, 1795 Anna Ivanovna Baryatinskaya Tolstoy, 1796 Ekaterina Feodorovna Baryatinskaya-Dolgorukova, 1796 Princess Ana Gruzinsky Galitzine, 1797 Varvara Golovina, ca. 1797-1800 Anna Beloselskaya-Belozerskaya, 1798 Julie Le Brun as Flora, 1799 Name: Charles XIII Biography: Charles XIII (Swedish: Karl XIII, 7 October 1748 - 5 February 1818) Position: Duke of S?dermanland King of Sweden King of Norway House: Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp Religion:Lutheran Grand Master of the Swedish {Freemason}ic Order Allegiance: Sweden Branch/service: Swedish Army Rank: Admiral formal chief commander As the Grand Master of the Swedish {Freemason}ic Order, The Duke was known for his interest in the supernatural and mysticism, and he was engaged in several secret societies. He was a member of the {Freemason}s. He was reportedly a client of the fortune teller Ulrica Arfvidsson, and he also favored the medium Henrik Gustaf Ulfvenklou. In 1811, he founded the Order of Charles XIII, a Swedish order of chivalry awarded only to a maximum number of 33 knights, on the condition of confessing the Lutheran Evangelic Religion and being {Freemason}s. All Princes and Kings of the Bernadotte dynasty, the royal house of Sweden are from baptism, incorporate parts of the royal order of knights and {Freemason}s. In addition are the order of merit granted to members of foreign Grand Lodges affiliated to the so-called Swedish System, such as the Grande Loge Nationale Fran?aise, if of royal rank. When the Swedish order of {Freemason}'s states that "{{Freemason}ry} in Sweden has continued to develop under leadership of their Grand Masters, all of them belonging to the Royal House since more than 200 years", the origin of which arrives in large from King Charles II of Norway, XIII of Sweden. Charles XIII, or Carl XIII, was King of Sweden from 1809 and King of Norway from 1814 to his death. He was the second son (and younger brother to King Gustaf III) of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden and Louisa Ulrika of Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great. Though known as King Charles XIII in Sweden, he was actually the seventh Swedish king by that name, as Charles IX (reigned 1604-1611) had adopted his numeral after studying a fictitious history of Sweden. In Norway he is known as Charles II. Early life Prince Charles was placed under the tutelage of Hedvig Elisabet Str?mfelt and then Ulrica Sch?nstr?m. He was appointed grand admiral when he was but few days old. He was described as a good dancer at the amateur theatre of the royal court. Reportedly he was not very close to his mother. The Queen preferred her youngest children, Sophie Albertine and Frederick Adolf. Charles was, however, his father's favorite, and similar to him in personality. He was also described as close to his brother Gustav during their childhood. Because of his position as the heir to the throne after his elder brother Gustav, he was early targeted as a useful tool for the opposition to his brother: already in the 1760s, the Caps (party) tried to use him against his brother the crown prince through his then love interest countess Brita Horn, daughter of the Cap's politician Adam Horn. Gustav, however, was always careful to prevent Charles from being used by the opposition, which came to its first test during the December Crisis (1768), when Charles, ultimately, did not let himself be used by the Caps party. In 1770, he made a journey through Germany and France alone. Reign of Gustav III After the death of his father in 1771, when his brother the crown prince was abroad, the Caps once again attempted to use him against his brother, now King Gustav III of Sweden, and his mother Louisa Ulrika used this in order to have her own rights as a dowager queen respected by the Caps. Upon the departure of his mother to Prussia, and the return of his brother, however, Gustav III managed to win him to his side. In 1772 he cooperated in the Revolution of 1772 of his elder brother, King Gustav. He was given the task of using his connections in the Caps party to neutralize it and secure the southern provinces by use of the military, tasks he performed successfully and for which the king rewarded him with the title Duke of S?dermanland. Duke Charles in early years was the object of his mother's plans to arrange political marriages for her children. On the wish of his mother, he was to be married to her niece, his cousin Philippine of Brandenburg-Schwedt, a plan to which he had agreed in 1770. The government, however, refused to issue negotiations because of the costs. After the accession of Gustav III and the coup d'etat which introduced absolute monarchy, his brother terminated these plans against their mother's will in October 1772, and began negotiations for a marriage between Charles and his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp. As King Gustav had not consummated his own marriage, he wished to place the task of providing an heir to the throne with his brother. Charles agreed to the marriage in August 1773, and the marriage took place the following year. After a false alarm of a pregnancy of Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte in 1775, the king finally consummated his own marriage. The royal couple lived separate private lives and each had extramarital affairs. During the great succession scandal of 1778, when queen dowager Louisa Ulrika questioned the paternity of the issue of Gustav III, Charles sided with his brother the king against their mother, this despite the fact that it was in fact he who had informed her of the rumors regarding the legitimacy, something he however withheld from the king. Charles was described as dependent and easily influenced. His numerous affairs gave him the reputation of being a libertine. He was reputed for his "harem" of lovers, of which the more well known were Augusta von Fersen, Charlotte Eckerman, Fran?oise-eleonore Villain, Mariana Koskull and Charlotte Slottsberg, the last one reputed to have had political influence over him. He unsuccessfully courted Magdalena Rudensch?ld, and her refusal of his advances has been pointed out as the cause of the harsh treatment he exposed her to as regent during the Armfelt conspiracy. After the late 1790s, when his health deteriorated as a result of a series of rheumatic attacks, his relationship to his consort improved and she gained more influence over him. Duke Charles was given several political tasks during his tenure as a duke. In 1777, he served as regent during Gustav III's stay in Russia. In 1780, he served as formal chief commander during the king's stay in Spa. The same year, Gustav III named him regent for his son should he succeed him while still a minor. However, he was not appointed regent during the journey of the king to Italy and France in 1783-84, and in the following years, he came under the influence of Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, who was in opposition to the monarch, and came to be less trusted by Gustav III. In 1785, he was offered the Dukedom of Courland by the nobility of the Duchy and given the support of Gustav III. This however never materialized. On the outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788 he served with distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the battles of Hogland (7 June 1788) and ?land (26 July 1789). On the latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral Liljehorn. The autumn of 1789, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte wished to depose Gustav III and place her husband Duke Charles upon the throne. Her ideal was the Swedish Constitution of 1772, which she saw as a good tool for an enlightened aristocracy, and the war and the Union and Security Act had made her a leading part of the opposition. She cooperated with Prince Frederick Adolf of Sweden and Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm. The plan was to force Charles to act as a symbol of the opposition to the Union and Security Act when the time was right. When the time arrived to make Charles act, however, he refused, which effectively foiled the coup. Charles was in close connection to the opposition against Gustav III, and it is debated whether he knew of and supported the plans to assassinate the king. Reign of Gustav IV Adolf On the assassination of Gustav III in 1792, Charles acted as regent of Sweden till 1796 on behalf of his nephew, King Gustav IV, who was a minor when his father was shot in the Stockholm opera. Gustav III had designated him regent in his earlier will. When he was dying, he altered the will, and while still appointing Charles regent of his minor son, he was no longer to rule absolute, but restricted by a government consisted of the supporters of Gustav III. After the death of the monarch, however, Charles successfully contested the will and was given unlimited power as sole regent. The Duke-regent was in practice not willing or capable to manage the state affairs, reportedly because of his lack of energy and staying power. Instead, he entrusted the power of government to his favorite and adviser Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, whose influence over him was supreme. These four years have been considered perhaps the most miserable and degrading period in Swedish history; an Age of Lead succeeding an Age of Gold, as it has been called, and may be briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and the ruthless despotism. Reuterholm ruled as the uncontested regent de facto the entire tenure of the regency, "only seldom disturbed by other influences or any personal will of charles". The unexpectedly mild sentences of the involved in the regicide of Gustav III attracted attention. In 1794 the discovery of the Armfelt Conspiracy exposed the opposition of the Gustavian Party. The marriage negotiations of the young king disturbed the relationship to Russia, and the alliance with revolutionary France was greatly disliked by other powers. On the coming of age of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden in November 1796, the duke's regency ended. His relationship to Gustav IV Adolf was cordial though never close, and he was not entrusted with much responsibility during the rule of his nephew. In 1797 and 1798, he and his consort had their first children, though in neither case the child lived. After this, the Duke and Duchess made a journey through Germany and Austria in 1798-99. In 1803, the Boheman affair caused a severe conflict between Gustav IV Adolf and the ducal couple. The mystic Karl Adolf Boheman (1764-1831) had been introduced to the couple by Count Magnus Stenbock in 1793 and gained great influence by promising to reveal scientific secrets about the occult. Boheman inducted them into a secret society Yellow Rose in 1801, where both sexes where accepted as members, and to which the Counts and Countesses Ruuth and Brahe as well as the mother of the queen were introduced. Boheman was arrested upon an attempt to recruit the monarch, who accused him of revolutionary agendas and expelled him. The ducal couple were exposed in an informal investigation by the monarch, and the duchess was questioned in the presence of the royal council. In 1808, Charles was again chief commander during Gustav IV Adolf's stay in Finland. He is presumed to have been, if not involved, aware of the plans to depose Gustav IV Adolf in 1809. He kept passive during the Coup of 1809, and accepted the post of regent from the victorious party after having assured himself that the deposed monarch was not in mortal danger. Charles was initially not willing to accept the crown, however, out of consideration for the former king's son. Reign On 13 March 1809, those who had dethroned Gustav IV Adolf appointed Charles regent, and he was finally elected king by the Riksdag of the Estates. By the time he became king, he was 60 years old and prematurely decrepit. In November 1809, he was affected by a heart attack, and was not able to participate in government. The new constitution which was introduced also made his involvement in politics difficult. A planned attempt to enlarge the royal power in 1809-10 was not put into effect because of his indecisiveness and health condition. His incapacity triggered a search for a suitable heir. The initial choice was a Danish prince, Christian August, who took the name Charles August upon being adopted by Charles. However, Charles August died only a few months after his arrival in Sweden. One of Napoleon's generals, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, was then chosen as his successor. The new crown prince took over the government as soon as he landed in Sweden in 1810. Charles' condition deteriorated every year, especially after 1812, and he eventually became but a mute witness during the government councils chaired by the crown prince, having lost his memory and no longer being able to communicate. By the Union of Sweden and Norway on 4 November 1814 Charles became king of Norway under the name Carl II of Norway. After eight years as king only by title, Charles died without a natural heir on 5 February 1818, and Bernadotte succeeded him as King Charles XIV John. Charles was the 872nd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain. Family He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (1759-1818), on 7 July 1774 in Stockholm. Both of their children died in infancy: Lovisa Hedvig (2 July 1797 in Stockholm). Stillborn; buried at Riddarholmskyrkan (Riddarholm Church). Carl Adolf, Duke of V?rmland (4 July 1798 in Stockholm - 10 July 1798 in Stockholm). Lived six days; buried at Riddarholmskyrkan (Riddarholm Church). With Augusta von Fersen, he had an extramarital son: Carl L?wenhielm 1772-1861 Adopted sons: Charles August, Crown Prince of Sweden Charles XIV John of Sweden Honours and arms Honours Sweden: Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, 7 October 1748 Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, 7 October 1748; Grand Cross, 1st Class, 27 July 1788 Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star, 7 October 1748 Commander Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa, 7 October 1748 Founder of the Order of Charles XIII, 27 May 1811 Kingdom of Prussia: Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 18 October 1770 Russian Empire: Knight of the Order of St. Andrew, 28 August 1796 Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, 28 August 1796 Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 10 February 1810 Spain: Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 23 September 1814 Arms Coat of Arms as Prince of Sweden, Duke of S?dermanland Coat of Arms as King Charles XIII of Sweden, 1809-1814 Coat of Arms as King Charles XIII of Sweden and Norway, 1814-1818 Royal Monogram of King Charles XIII of Sweden Name: Orsted Biography: Hans Christian Orsted(/???rst?d/ UR-sted, Danish: often rendered Oersted in English; 14 August 1777 - 9 March 1851) Nationality:Danish Alma mater:University of Copenhagen (PhD, 1799) Known for:Discovery of electromagnetism and Aluminium Awards:Copley Medal (1820) Fields:Physics, chemistry, aesthetics Institutions:University of Copenhagen, Technical University of Denmark (Founder and Principal) Hans Christian Orsted was a Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, which was the first connection found between electricity and magnetism. Oersted's law and the oersted (Oe) are named after him. A leader of the Danish Golden Age, Orsted was a close friend of Hans Christian Andersen and the brother of politician and jurist Anders SandOe Orsted, who served as Prime Minister of Denmark from 1853 to 1854. Early life and studies Orsted was born in RudkObing in 1777. As a young boy he developed an interest in science while working for his father, who owned the local pharmacy. He and his brother Anders received most of their early education through self-study at home, going to Copenhagen in 1793 to take entrance exams for the University of Copenhagen, where both brothers excelled academically. By 1796, Orsted had been awarded honors for his papers in both aesthetics and physics. He earned his doctorate in 1799 for a dissertation based on the works of Kant entitled The Architectonics of Natural Metaphysics. In 1800, Alessandro Volta reported his invention of the voltaic pile, which inspired Orsted to investigate the nature of electricity and to conduct his first electrical experiments. In 1801, Orsted received a travel scholarship and public grant which enabled him to spend three years traveling across Europe. He toured science headquarters throughout the continent, including in Berlin and Paris. In Germany Orsted met Johann Wilhelm Ritter, a physicist who believed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism. This idea made sense to Orsted as he subscribed to Kantian thought regarding the unity of nature. Orsted's conversations with Ritter drew him into the study of physics. He became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1806 and continued research on electric currents and acoustics. Under his guidance the university developed a comprehensive physics and chemistry program and established new laboratories. Orsted welcomed William Christopher Zeise to his family home in autumn 1806. He granted Zeise a position as his lecturing assistant and took the young chemist under his tutelage. In 1812, Orsted again visited Germany and France after publishing Videnskaben om Naturens Almindelige Love and FOrste Indledning til den Almindelige Naturl?re (1811). Orsted was the first modern thinker to explicitly describe and name the thought experiment. He used the Latin-German term Gedankenexperiment circa 1812 and the German term Gedankenversuch in 1820. Electromagnetism In 1820, Orsted published his discovery that a compass needle was deflected from magnetic north by a nearby electric current, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. The often reported story that Orsted made this discovery incidentally during a lecture is a myth. He had, in fact, been looking for a connection between electricity and magnetism since 1818, but was quite confused by the results he was obtaining. His initial interpretation was that magnetic effects radiate from all sides of a wire carrying an electric current, as do light and heat. Three months later, he began more intensive investigations and soon thereafter published his findings, showing that an electric current produces a circular magnetic field as it flows through a wire. For his discovery, the Royal Society of London awarded Orsted the Copley Medal in 1820 and the French Academy granted him 3,000 francs. Orsted's findings stirred much research into electrodynamics throughout the scientific community, influencing French physicist Andre-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical formula to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Orsted's work also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy. Later years Orsted was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1822, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1829, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849. He founded Selskabet for Naturl?rens Udbredelse (SNU), a society to disseminate knowledge of the natural sciences, in 1824. He was also the founder of predecessor organizations which eventually became the Danish Meteorological Institute and the Danish Patent and Trademark Office. In 1829, Orsted founded Den Polytekniske L?reanstalt ('College of Advanced Technology') which was later renamed the Technical University of Denmark (DTU). In 1825, Orsted made a significant contribution to chemistry by producing aluminium in a near-pure form for the first time. In 1808, Humphry Davy had predicted the existence of the metal which he gave the name of alumium. However his attempts to isolate it using electrolysis processes were unsuccessful. The closest he came was an aluminum-iron alloy. Orsted was the first to isolate the element via a reduction of aluminium chloride. Although the aluminium alloy he extracted still contained impurities, he is credited with discovery of the metal. His work was developed further by Friedrich W?hler who obtained aluminium powder on October 22, 1827, and solidified balls of molten aluminium in 1845. W?hler is credited with the first isolation of the metal in a pure form. Orsted died in Copenhagen in 1851, aged 73, and was buried in the Assistens Cemetery. Legacy The centimetre-gram-second system (CGS) unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named for his contributions to the field of electromagnetism. Toponomy The Orsted Park in Copenhagen was named after Orsted in 1879. The streets H.C. Orsteds Vej in Frederiksberg and H. C. Orsteds Alle in Galten are also named after him. The buildings that are home to the Department of Chemistry and the Institute for Mathematical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen's North Campus are named the H.C. Orsted Institute, after him. A dormitory named H. C. Orsted Kollegiet is located in Odense. The first Danish satellite, launched 1999, was named after Orsted. Monuments and memorials A statue of Hans Christian Orsted was installed in the Orsted Park in 1880. A commemorative plaque is located above the gate on the building in Studiestr?de where he lived and worked. The 100 danske kroner note issued from 1950 to 1970 carried an engraving of Orsted. Awards and lectures Two medals are awarded in Orsted's name: the Oersted Medal for notable contributions in the teaching of physics in America, awarded by American Association of Physics Teachers, along with the H. C. Orsted Medal for Danish scientists, awarded by the Danish Selskabet for Naturl?rens Udbredelse (Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science), founded by Orsted. The H.C. Orsted Lectureship is awarded to two prominent researchers annually. Here is a list of some of the previous H.C. Orsted lecturers: Dr. Jack Connerney, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, USA Professor Micha?l Gr?tzel, ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, EPFL Professor Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Collège de France, Nobel Laureate in Physics Professor Ivar Giaever, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Nobel Laureate in Physics Professor Paul F. Hoffman, Sturgis Hooper Professor of Geology, Harvard University Professor Leroy Hood, William Gates III Professor, Institute for Systems Biology Professor Sir Harold Kroto, University of Sussex, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Professor Sir Roger Penrose, University of Oxford Professor Julius Rebek, Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology at The Scripps Research Institute Professor Cees Dekker, Nanophysics, TU Delft Professor Subra Suresh, Materials Science and Biological Engineering, MIT Professor Everett Peter Greenberg, Microbiology, University of Washington Honorary Professor Sir John Meurig Thomas, University of Cambridge Professor Ahmed Zewail, California Institute of Technology, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Professor Nathan S. Lewis, Chemistry, California Institute of Technology Professor Sajeev John, University of Toronto Professor Howard A. Stone, Fluid Mechanics, Princeton University Professor of Physics and Applied Physics Lene Vestergaard Hau, Harvard University Professor Stanley N. Cohen, School of Medicine, Stanford University Professor Juan de Pablo, Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago Professor Mario Molina, University of California, San Diego, Nobel Prize Winner. Writings Orsted was a published writer and poet. His poetry series Luftskibet ("The Airship") was inspired by the balloon flights of fellow physicist and stage magician etienne-Gaspard Robert. Shortly before his death, he submitted a collection of articles for publication under the title Aanden i Naturen ("The Soul in Nature"). The book presents Orsted's life philosophy and views on a wide variety of issues. Name: Fulton Biography: Robert Fulton (November 14, 1765 - February 24, 1815) Nationality:American Occupation:Engineer, inventor, businessman5 Known for:Steamboat, Nautilus (1800 submarine) Robert Fultonwas an American engineer and inventor who is widely credited with developing the world's first commercially successful steamboat, the North River Steamboat (also known as Clermont). In 1807, that steamboat traveled on the Hudson River with passengers from New York City to Albany and back again, a round trip of 300 miles (480 km), in 62 hours. The success of his steamboat changed river traffic and trade on major American rivers. In 1800, Fulton had been commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte, leader of France, to attempt to design a submarine; he produced Nautilus, the first practical submarine in history. Fulton is also credited with inventing some of the world's earliest naval torpedoes for use by the Royal Navy. Fulton became interested in steam engines and the idea of steamboats in 1777 when he was around age 12 and visited state delegate William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, who was interested in this topic. Henry had learned about inventor James Watt and his Watt steam engine on an earlier visit to England. Early life Robert Fulton was born on a farm in Little Britain, Pennsylvania, on November 14, 1765. His father, Robert Fulton, married Mary Smith, daughter of Captain Joseph Smith and sister of Col. Lester Smith, a comparatively well off family. He had three sisters - Isabella, Elizabeth, and Mary, and a younger brother, Abraham. For six years, he lived in Philadelphia, where he painted portraits and landscapes, drew houses and machinery, and was able to send money home to help support his mother. In 1785, Fulton bought a farm at Hopewell Township in Washington County near Pittsburgh for ￡80 (equivalent to $12708 in 2018), and moved his mother and family into it. Jobs Career in Europe (1786-1806) At the age of 23, Fulton traveled to Europe, where he would live for the next twenty years. He went to England in 1786, carrying several letters of introduction to Americans abroad from prominent individuals he had met in Philadelphia. He had already corresponded with artist Benjamin West; their fathers had been close friends. West took Fulton into his home, where Fulton lived for several years and studied painting. Fulton gained many commissions painting portraits and landscapes, which allowed him to support himself. He continued to experiment with mechanical inventions. Fulton became caught up in the enthusiasm of the "Canal Mania". In 1793 he began developing his ideas for tugboat canals with inclined planes instead of locks. He obtained a patent for this idea in 1794, and also began working on ideas for the steam power of boats. He published a pamphlet about canals and patented a dredging machine and several other inventions. In 1794, he moved to Manchester to gain practical knowledge of English canal engineering. While there he became friendly with Robert Owen, a cotton manufacturer and early socialist. Owen agreed to finance the development and promotion of Fulton's designs for inclined planes and earth-digging machines; he was instrumental in introducing the American to a canal company, which awarded him a sub-contract. But Fulton was not successful at this practical effort and he gave up the contract after a short time. As early as 1793, Fulton proposed plans for steam-powered vessels to both the United States and British governments. The first steamships had appeared considerably earlier. The earliest steam-powered ship, in which the engine moved oars, was built by Claude de Jouffroy in France. Called Palmipède, it was tested on the Doubs in 1776. In 1783, de Jouffroy built Pyroscaphe, the first paddle steamer, which sailed successfully on the Sa?ne. The first successful trial run of a steamboat in America had been made by inventor John Fitch, on the Delaware River on August 22, 1787. William Symington had successfully tried steamboats in 1788, and it seems probable that Fulton was aware of these developments. In Britain, Fulton met the Duke of Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, whose canal, the first to be constructed in the country, was being used for trials of a steam tug. Fulton became very enthusiastic about the canals, and wrote a 1796 treatise on canal construction, suggesting improvements to locks and other features. Working for the Duke of Bridgewater between 1796 and 1799, Fulton had a boat constructed in the Duke's timber yard, under the supervision of Benjamin Powell. After installation of the machinery supplied by the engineers Bateman and Sherratt of Salford, the boat was duly christened Bonaparte in honour of Fulton having served under Napoleon. After expensive trials, because of the configuration of the design, the team feared the paddles might damage the clay lining of the canal and eventually abandoned the experiment. In 1801, Bridgewater instead ordered eight vessels for his canal based on Charlotte Dundas, constructed by Symington. In 1797, Fulton went to Paris, where he was well known as an inventor. He studied French and German, along with mathematics and chemistry. In Paris, Fulton met James Rumsey, an inventor from Virginia with an interest in steamboats, who in 1786, ran his own first steamboat up the Potomac River. Fulton also exhibited the first panorama painting to be shown in Paris, Pierre Prevost's Vue de Paris depuis les Tuileries (1800), on what is still called Rue des Panoramas (Panorama Street) today. While living in France, Fulton designed the first working muscle-powered submarine, Nautilus, between 1793 and 1797. He also experimented with torpedoes. When tested, his submarine operated underwater for 17 minutes in 25 feet of water. He asked the government to subsidize its construction, but he was turned down twice. Eventually, he approached the Minister of Marine and, in 1800, was granted permission to build. The shipyard Perrier in Rouen built it, and the submarine sailed first in July 1800 on the Seine River in the same city. In France, Fulton met Robert R. Livingston, who was appointed U.S. Ambassador to France in 1801. He also had a scientifically curious mind, and the two men decided to collaborate on building a steamboat and to try operating it on the Seine. Fulton experimented with the water resistance of various hull shapes, made drawings and models, and had a steamboat constructed. At the first trial the boat ran perfectly, but the hull was later rebuilt and strengthened. On August 9, 1803, when this boat was driven up the River Seine, it sank. The boat was 66 feet (20.1 m) long, with an 8-foot (2.4 m) beam, and made between 3 and 4 miles per hour (4.8 and 6.4 km/h) against the current. In 1804, Fulton switched allegiance and moved to Britain, where he was commissioned by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger to build a range of weapons for use by the Royal Navy during Napoleon's invasion scares. Among his inventions were the world's first modern naval "torpedoes" (modern "mines"). These were tested, along with several other of his inventions, during the 1804 Raid on Boulogne, but met with limited success. Although Fulton continued to develop his inventions with the British until 1806, the crushing naval victory by Admiral Horatio Nelson at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar greatly reduced the risk of French invasion. Fulton was increasingly sidelined as a result. Career in the United States (1806-1815) In 1806, Fulton returned to the United States. In 1807, he and Robert R. Livingston built the first commercially successful steamboat, North River Steamboat (later known as Clermont). Livingston's shipping company began using it to carry passengers between New York City and up the Hudson River to the state capital Albany. Clermont made the 150-mile (240 km) trip in 32 hours. Passengers on the maiden voyage included a lawyer Jones and his family from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. His infant daughter Alexandra Jones later served as a Union nurse on a steamboat hospital in the American Civil War. From 1811 until his death, Fulton was a member of the Erie Canal Commission, appointed by the Governor of New York. Fulton's final design was the floating battery Demologos. This first steam-driven warship in the world was built for the United States Navy for the War of 1812. The heavy vessel was not completed until after Fulton's death and was named in his honor. From October 1811 to January 1812, Fulton, along with Livingston and Nicholas Roosevelt (1767-1854), worked together on a joint project to build a new steamboat, New Orleans, sturdy enough to take down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans, Louisiana. It traveled from industrial Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where it was built, with stops at Wheeling, Virginia; Cincinnati, Ohio; past the "Falls of the Ohio" at Louisville, Kentucky; to near Cairo, Illinois, and the confluence with the Mississippi River; and down past Memphis, Tennessee, and Natchez, Mississippi, to New Orleans some 90 miles (140 km) by river from the Gulf of Mexico coast. This was less than a decade after the United States had acquired the Louisiana Territory from France. These rivers were not well settled, mapped, or protected. By achieving this first breakthrough voyage and also proving the ability of the steamboat to travel upstream against powerful river currents, Fulton changed the entire trade and transportation outlook for the American heartland. Fulton was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814. Personal life On January 8, 1808, Fulton married Harriet Livingston (1786-1824), the daughter of Walter Livingston and niece of Robert Livingston, prominent men in the Hudson River area, whose family dated to the colonial era. Harriet, who was nineteen years his junior, was well educated and was an accomplished amateur painter and musician. Together, they had four children: Robert Barlow Fulton (1808-1841), who died unmarried. Julia Fulton (1810-1848), who married lawyer Charles Blight of Philadelphia. Cornelia Livingston Fulton (1812-1893), who married lawyer Edward Charles Crary (1806-1848) in 1831. Mary Livingston Fulton (1813-1861), who married Robert Morris Ludlow (1812-1894), parents of Robert Fulton Ludlow. Fulton died in 1815 in New York City from tuberculosis (then known as "consumption"). He had been walking home on the frozen Hudson River when one of his friends, Addis Emmet, fell through the ice. In the attempt to rescue his friend, Fulton got soaked with icy water. He is believed to have contracted pneumonia. When he got home, his sickness worsened. He was diagnosed with consumption and died at 49 years old. After his death, his widow remarried to Charles Augustus Dale on November 26, 1816. He is buried in the Trinity Church Cemetery for Trinity Church (Episcopal) at Wall Street in New York City, near other notable Americans such as former U.S. Secretaries of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin. His descendants include Cory Lidle, a former Major League Baseball pitcher. Legacy Posthumous honors The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania donated a marble statue of Fulton to the National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol. Fulton was also honored for his development of steamship technology in New York City's Hudson-Fulton Celebration of the Centennial in 1909. A replica of his first steam-powered steam vessel, Clermont, was built for the occasion. Five ships of the United States Navy have borne the name USS Fulton in honor of Robert Fulton. Fulton Hall at the United States Merchant Marine Academy houses the Department of Marine Engineering and included laboratories for diesel and steam engineering, refrigeration, marine engineering, thermodynamics, materials testing, machine shop, mechanical engineering, welding, electrical machinery, control systems, electric circuits, engine room simulators and graphics. Bronze statues of Fulton and Christopher Columbus represent commerce on the balustrade of the galleries of the Main Reading Room in the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. They are two of 16 historical figures, each pair representing one of the 8 pillars of civilization. The Guatemalan government in 1910 erected a bust of Fulton in one of the parks of Guatemala City. In 2006, Fulton was inducted into the "National Inventors Hall of Fame" in Alexandria, Virginia. Places named for Fulton Many places in the U.S. are named for Robert Fulton, including: Counties Fulton County, Georgia Fulton County, Illinois Fulton County, Indiana Fulton County, Kentucky Fulton County, New York Fulton County, Ohio Fulton County, Pennsylvania Cities and towns Fulton, New York (disambiguation) Fulton, Arkansas Fulton, Mississippi Fulton, Illinois Fulton, Missouri Fulton, Oswego County, New York Fulton, Schoharie County, New York Fulton Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Fultonham, Ohio Fultonville, New York Fulton, Texas Other places Fulton Avenue in Sacramento, California Fulton Street in Berkeley, California Fulton Chain Lakes, New York Robert Fulton Elementary School, Chicago Fulton Elementary School, Dubuque, Iowa Fulton Elementary School, Fulton Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Fulton Hall, State Quad, University at Albany, (State University of New York at Albany) Fulton Neighborhood in Minneapolis, Minnesota Fulton Opera House, Lancaster, Pennsylvania Fulton Park, New York City Fulton Steamboat Inn, hotel in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Fulton Street in Brooklyn, New York BMT Fulton Street Line subway line IND Fulton Street Line subway line Fulton Street (IND Crosstown Line) Fulton Street in Manhattan Fulton Center in Manhattan Fulton Fish Market Fulton Street (New York City Subway) subway station Fulton Houses in Manhattan Fulton Street in Alcoa, Tennessee Fulton Street in Anaheim, California Fulton Street in Massapequa Park, New York Fulton Street in New Orleans, Louisiana Fulton Street in San Francisco, California Fulton Street and Fulton Market in Chicago Robert Fulton Drive in Columbia, Howard County, Maryland Robert Fulton Drive in Reston, Virginia Robert Fulton Fire Company, Fulton Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Robert Fulton Highway, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Robert Fulton School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania In popular culture 20th Century-Fox's 1940 film, Little Old New York, based on a 1920 play by Rida Johnson Young, is a fictionalized version of Fulton's life from his arrival in New York to the first sailing of Clermont. British actor Richard Greene starred as Fulton with Brenda Joyce as Harriet Livingston. Alice Faye and Fred MacMurray played wharf friends who help Fulton overcome problems to realize his dream. A fictionalized account of Fulton's role was produced by BBC television during the 1960s. In the first serial, Triton (1961, re-made in 1968), two British naval officers, Captain Belwether and Lieutenant Lamb, are involved in spying on Fulton while he is working for the French. In the sequel, Pegasus (1969), they are surprised to find themselves working with Fulton, played by Robert Cawdron. In the 1961 version, Fulton was played by Reed De Rouen. A Robert Fulton cartoon character appears in the 1955 Casper the Friendly Ghost short film Red, White, and Boo. Author James McGee used Fulton's experiments in early submarine warfare (against wooden warships) as a major plot element in his 2006 novel Ratcatcher Invasion (2009), the tenth novel in the "Kydd" naval warfare series by Julian Stockwin, uses Fulton and his submarine as an important plot element. Until 2016, Disney Springs at Walt Disney World had a restaurant named Fulton's Crab House with a building in the shape of a steamboat. Name: Ricardo Biography: David Ricardo (18 April 1772 - 11 September 1823) Nationality:British Political party :Whig Profession:Businessmaneconomist School or tradition :Classical economics Contributions :Ricardian equivalence, labour theory of value, comparative advantage, law of diminishing returns, Ricardian socialism, Economic rent David Ricardo was a British political economist, one of the most influential of the classical economists along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith and James Mill. He was also a politician, and a member of the Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland. Personal life Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third surviving of the 17 children of Abigail Delvalle (1753-1801) and her husband Abraham Israel Ricardo (1733?-1812). His family were Sephardic Jews of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from the Dutch Republic. His father was a successful stockbroker and Ricardo began working with him at the age of 14. At the age of 21 Ricardo eloped with a Quaker, Priscilla Anne Wilkinson, and, against his father's wishes, converted to Unitarianism. This religious difference resulted in estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position of independence. His father disowned him and his mother apparently never spoke to him again. Following this estrangement he went into business for himself with the support of Lubbocks and Forster, an eminent banking house. He made the bulk of his fortune by profitably financing Government borrowing. There is a story that he made his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo: The Sunday Times reported in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823, that during the battle Ricardo "netted upwards of a million sterling", a huge sum at the time, and this was later popularised by the economist Paul Samuelson; in reality Ricardo was already very rich and in June 1815 sold his latest government stock before the result of the battle was known in London, so missing half of the rise. He retired, and subsequently purchased Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire, and retired to the country. He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818-19. In August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlington's seat in Parliament for ￡4,000, as part of the terms of a loan of ￡25,000. His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer. He held the seat until his death five years later. Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of landowners in a society. He also was a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society. His youngest sister was author Sarah Ricardo-Porter (e.g., Conversations in Arithmetic). Parliamentary record As MP for Portarlington, he voted with the opposition in support of the liberal movements in Naples, 21 February, and Sicily, 21 June, and for inquiry into the administration of justice in Tobago, 6 June. He divided for repeal of the Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act, 8 May, inquiry into the Peterloo massacre, 16 May, and abolition of the death penalty for forgery, 25 May 4 June 1821. He adamantly supported the implementation of free trade. He voted against renewal of the sugar duties, 9 Feb, and objected to the higher duty on East as opposed to West Indian produce, 4 May 1821. He opposed the timber duties. He voted silently for parliamentary reform, 25 Apr and 3 June, and spoke in its favour at the Westminster anniversary reform dinner, 23 May 1822. He again voted for criminal law reform, 4 June. David Ricardo believed an increase in imports boosted the happiness of mankind through an increase in the number of goods available for consumption. Ricardo was said to have "possessed an extraordinary quickness in perceiving in the turns of the market any accidental difference which might arise between the relative price of different stocks" and Ricardo was able to grow his wealth dealing in securities during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. As the Napoleonic Wars waged on, David Ricardo grew a disdain for the Corn Laws imposed by the British to encourage exports. Government intervention on the grain trade can be witnessed as far back as the 1400s, and trade has been controlled, regulated, and taxed. England was a capitalist economy involving workers and landlords consuming entire incomes and capital accumulation that depended entirely on capitalists’ profits that were under perpetual pressure during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Political reform was necessary as agriculture output was struggling to keep the pace of the population growth. The Corn Laws created barriers to imports that increased the subsistence costs that created higher wages. The higher wages reduced the profits and a further effect of a reduction of capital investment and a stationary economy state. Rising rents, attributed to the Corn Laws by Ricardo came at the expense of the nations' economic profits. Free trade was the answer to the stationarity from David Ricardo, and he anticipated Britain would import agriculture products in exchange for manufactured goods. After Ricardo's death, the laws were eventually repealed, and his free-trade plan became public policy in Britain. His friend John Louis Mallett commented: " … he meets you upon every subject that he has studied with a mind made up, and opinions in the nature of mathematical truths. He spoke of parliamentary reform and ballot as a man who would bring such things about, and destroy the existing system tomorrow, if it were in his power, and without the slightest doubt on the result … It is this very quality of the man’s mind, his entire disregard of experience and practice, which makes me doubtful of his opinions on political economy." Death and legacy Ten years after retiring and four years after entering Parliament, Ricardo died from an infection of the middle ear that spread into his brain and induced septicaemia. He was 51. He and his wife Priscilla had eight children together including Osman Ricardo (1795-1881; MP for Worcester 1847-1865), David Ricardo (1803-1864, MP for Stroud 1832-1833) and Mortimer Ricardo, who served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire. Ricardo is buried in an ornate grave in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas in Hardenhuish, now a suburb of Chippenham, Wiltshire. At the time of his death his assets were estimated at ￡675,000-￡775,000. Ideas He wrote his first economics article at 37, firstly in The Morning Chronicle advocating reduction in the note-issuing of the Bank of England and then publishing The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes in 1810. He was also an abolitionist, speaking at a meeting of the Court of the East India Company in March 1823, where he said he regarded slavery as a stain on the character of the nation. Banking Adam Smith argued that free commercial banking, such as the banking system in Scotland which had no central bank when Wealth of Nations was written in 1776, was favorable to economic growth. Writing just a few decades later, Ricardo argued for a central bank, a cause that was taken up by his students, including John Stuart Mill, who was known to favor the laissez-faire policies in every place but banking. Ricardo wrote the Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank in 1824 arguing for the autonomy of the central bank as the issuer of money. Ricardo proposes that a ratio of gold and Treasury bills, and a fixed claim (asset) against the government, would secure the central bank's liquidity: "The public, or the Government on behalf of the public, is indebted to the Bank in a sum of money larger than the whole amount of Bank notes in circulation; for the Government not only owes the Bank fifteen million, its original capital, which is lent at 3 per cent. interest, but also many more millions which are advanced on Exchequer bills, on half-pau and pension annuities, and on other securities. It is evident, therefore, that if the Government itself were to be the sole issuer of paper money instead of borrowing it of the Bank, the only difference would be with respect to the interest: the Bank would no longer receive interest and the Government would no longer pay it; but all other classes in the community would be exactly in the same position in which they now stand". Ricardo was a man of many trades, economically and financially speaking. Ricardo was able to recognize and identify the problem presented through banking within regulations and debauched standards of approval at certain times. Ricardo knew that banks in rural areas as well as the Bank of England had increased note lending and overall lending in 1810. Through this, Ricardo proved subsequent changes in price level through the market was also affected and thus new regulations needed to be made available. Furthermore, Ricardo was able to understand and distinguish the socioeconomic makeup that created and established parameters around different classes within the economy. Ricardo advocated for the productive powers of labor to be held in high concern as the most influential of devices that played a role in the progression of the American Economy along with others. In addition, Ricardo made notable advancements in the concept build involving reactions in the open market when considering banking altercations, stock investments, or other considerable impacting events. Ricardo wanted to establish a firm ground between the bank and the control over monetary policy because there was power within the banking system that Ricardo believed needed to be considered carefully. In 1816, Ricardo said “In the present state of the law, they have the power, without any control whatever, of increasing or reducing the circulation in any degree they may think proper: a power which should neither be entrusted to the State itself, nor to anybody in it; as there can be no security for the uniformity in the value of the currency, when its augmentation or diminution depends solely on the will of the issuers.” Ricardo felt the circulation of money and the decision behind how much is available at any time should not be entrusted to either the State, or any individual. Ricardo argued for the most even distribution possible with the highest control readily available. David Ricardo, The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Value theory David Ricardo worked to fix the issues he felt were most concerning with Adam Smith’s Labour Theory of Value. Both men worked with the assumption that land, labour, and capital were the three basic factors of production, however, Smith narrowed in on labour as the determinant of value. Ricardo believes that with production having 3 main factors it is impossible for only one of them to determine value on its own. Ricardo illustrates his point by adapting Smith's deer beaver analogy to show that even when labour is the only factor of production the hardship and tools of the labour will drive a wedge in the relative value of the good. Due to his criticisms of the Labour Theory of Value George Stigler called his theory a "93% labor theory of value". Ricardo's most famous work is his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). He advanced a labour theory of value: The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour. Ricardo's note to Section VI: Mr. Malthus appears to think that it is a part of my doctrine, that the cost and value of a thing be the same;—it is, if he means by cost, "cost of production" including profit. Rent Main article: Law of rent Ricardo contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as "the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labour." Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land use and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, principally benefited landowners. According to Ricardo, such premium over "real social value" that is reaped due to ownership constitutes value to an individual but is at best a paper monetary return to "society". The portion of such purely individual benefit that accrues to scarce resources Ricardo labels "rent". Ricardo's theories of wages and profits In his Theory of Profit, Ricardo stated that as real wages increase, real profits decrease because the revenue from the sale of manufactured goods is split between profits and wages. He said in his Essay on Profits, "Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food." Ricardian theory of international trade Between 1500 and 1750 most economists advocated Mercantilism, which promoted the idea of international trade for the purpose of earning bullion by running a trade surplus with other countries. Ricardo challenged the idea that the purpose of trade was merely to accumulate gold or silver. With "comparative advantage" Ricardo argued in favour of industry specialisation and free trade. He suggested that industry specialization combined with free international trade always produces positive results. This theory expanded on the concept of absolute advantage. Ricardo suggested that there is mutual national benefit from trade even if one country is more competitive in every area than its trading counterpart and that a nation should concentrate resources only in industries where it has a comparative advantage, that is in those industries in which it has the greatest efficiency of production relative to its own alternative uses of resources, rather than industries where it holds a competitive edge compared to rival nations. Ricardo suggested that national industries which were, in fact, mildly profitable and marginally internationally competitive should be jettisoned in favour of the industries that made the best use of limited resources - the assumption being that subsequent economic growth due to better resource use would more than offset any short-run economic dislocation which would result from closing mildly profitable and marginally competitive national industries. Ricardo attempted to prove theoretically that international trade is always beneficial. Paul Samuelson called the numbers used in Ricardo's example dealing with trade between England and Portugal the "four magic numbers". "In spite of the fact that the Portuguese could produce both cloth and wine with less amount of labour, Ricardo suggested that both countries would benefit from trade with each other". As for recent extensions of Ricardian models, see Ricardian trade theory extensions. Comparative advantage Ricardo's theory of international trade was reformulated by John Stuart Mill. The term "comparative advantage" was started by J. S. Mill and his contemporaries. John Stuart Mill started a neoclassical turn of international trade theory, i.e. his formulation was inherited by Alfred Marshall and others and contributed to the resurrection of anti-Ricardian concept of law of supply and demand and induce the arrival neoclassical theory of value. New interpretation Ricardo's four magic numbers have long been interpreted as comparison of two ratios of labour (or other input in fixed supply) coefficients. This interpretation is now considered as overly simplistic by modern economists. The point was rediscovered by Roy J. Ruffin in 2002 and re-examined and explained in detail in Andrea Maneschi in 2004. The more flexible approach is now known as the new interpretation, despite having been previously mentioned by Piero Sraffa in 1930 and by Kenzo Yukizawa in 1974. The new interpretation affords a totally new reading of Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy and Taxation with regards to trade theory, although it does not change the mathematics of optimal resource allocation. Protectionism Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British "Corn Laws" - imposing tariffs on agricultural products - ensured that less-productive domestic land would be cultivated and rents would be driven up (Case & Fair 1999, pp. 812, 813). Thus, profits would be directed toward landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists. Ricardo believed landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than invest. He believed the Corn Laws were leading to the stagnation of the British economy. In 1846, his nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-upon-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws. Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yields mixed results. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846. Technological change Ricardo was concerned about the impact of technological change on labour in the short-term. In 1821, he wrote that he had become "convinced that the substitution of machinery for human labour, is often very injurious to the interests of the class of labourers," and that "the opinion entertained by the labouring class, that the employment of machinery is frequently detrimental to their interests, is not founded on prejudice and error, but is conformable to the correct principles of political economy." Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade Ricardo himself was the first to recognize that comparative advantage is a domain-specific theory, meaning that it applies only when certain conditions are met. Ricardo noted that the theory applies only in situations where capital is immobile. Regarding his famous example, he wrote: it would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists of England… the wine and cloth should both be made in Portugal the capital and labour of England employed in making cloth should be removed to Portugal for that purpose. Ricardo recognized that applying his theory in situations where capital was mobile would result in offshoring, and thereby economic decline and job loss. To correct for this, he argued that (i) most men of property satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seek a more advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations, and (ii) capital was functionally immobile. Ricardo's argument in favour of free trade has also been attacked by those who believe trade restriction can be necessary for the economic development of a nation. Utsa Patnaik claims that Ricardian theory of international trade contains a logical fallacy. Ricardo assumed that in both countries two goods are producible and actually are produced, but developed and underdeveloped countries often trade those goods which are not producible in their own country. In these cases, one cannot define which country has comparative advantage. Critics also argue that Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is flawed in that it assumes production is continuous and absolute. In the real world, events outside the realm of human control (e.g. natural disasters) can disrupt production. In this case, specialisation could cripple a country that depends on imports from foreign, naturally disrupted countries. For example, if an industrially based country trades its manufactured goods with an agrarian country in exchange for agricultural products, a natural disaster in the agricultural country (e.g. drought) may cause the industrially based country to starve. As Joan Robinson pointed out, following the opening of free trade with England, Portugal endured centuries of economic underdevelopment: "the imposition of free trade on Portugal killed off a promising textile industry and left her with a slow-growing export market for wine, while for England, exports of cotton cloth led to accumulation, mechanisation and the whole spiralling growth of the industrial revolution". Robinson argued that Ricardo's example required that economies be in static equilibrium positions with full employment and that there could not be a trade deficit or a trade surplus. These conditions, she wrote, were not relevant to the real world. She also argued that Ricardo's math did not take into account that some countries may be at different levels of development and that this raised the prospect of 'unequal exchange' which might hamper a country's development, as we saw in the case of Portugal. The development economist Ha-Joon Chang challenges the argument that free trade benefits every country: Ricardo’s theory is absolutely right—within its narrow confines. His theory correctly says that, accepting their current levels of technology as given, it is better for countries to specialize in things that they are relatively better at. One cannot argue with that. His theory fails when a country wants to acquire more advanced technologies—that is, when it wants to develop its economy. It takes time and experience to absorb new technologies, so technologically backward producers need a period of protection from international competition during this period of learning. Such protection is costly, because the country is giving up the chance to import better and cheaper products. However, it is a price that has to be paid if it wants to develop advanced industries. Ricardo’s theory is, thus seen, for those who accept the status quo but not for those who want to change it. Ricardian equivalence Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (i.e., whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. This is due to the fact the public saves its excess money to pay for expected future tax increases that will be used to pay off the debt. Ricardo notes that the proposition is theoretically implied in the presence of intertemporal optimisation by rational tax-payers: but that since tax-payers do not act so rationally, the proposition fails to be true in practice. Thus, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence. Influence and intellectual legacy David Ricardo's ideas had a tremendous influence on later developments in economics. US economists rank Ricardo as the second most influential economic thinker, behind Adam Smith, prior to the twentieth century. Ricardo became the theoretical father of classical political economy. However, Joseph Schumpeter coined an expression Ricardian vice, which indicates that rigorous logic does not provide a good economic theory. This criticism applies also to most neoclassical theories, which make heavy use of mathematics, but are, according to him, theoretically unsound, because the conclusion being drawn does not logically follow from the theories used to defend it. Ricardian socialists Main article: Ricardian socialism Ricardo's writings fascinated a number of early socialists in the 1820s, who thought his value theory had radical implications. They argued that, in view of labour theory of value, labour produces the entire product, and the profits capitalists get are a result of exploitations of workers. These include Thomas Hodgskin, William Thompson, John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone. Georgists Georgists believe that rent, in the sense that Ricardo used, belongs to the community as a whole. Henry George was greatly influenced by Ricardo, and often cited him, including in his most famous work, Progress and Poverty from 1879. In the preface to the fourth edition he wrote: "What I have done in this book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and Lasalle; to show that laissez faire (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of many cloud grand and elevating perceptions." Neo-Ricardians After the rise of the 'neoclassical' school, Ricardo's influence declined temporarily. It was Piero Sraffa, the editor of the Collected Works of David Ricardo and the author of seminal Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, who resurrected Ricardo as the originator of another strand of economic thought, which was effaced with the arrival of the neoclassical school. The new interpretation of Ricardo and Sraffa's criticism against the marginal theory of value gave rise to a new school, now named neo-Ricardian or Sraffian school. Major contributors to this school include Luigi Pasinetti (1930-), Pierangelo Garegnani (1930-2011), Ian Steedman (1941-), Geoffrey Harcourt (1931-), Heinz Kurz (1946-), Neri Salvadori (1951-), Pier Paolo Saviotti (-) among others. See also Neo-Ricardianism. The Neo-Ricardian school is sometimes seen to be a component of Post-Keynesian economics. Neo-Ricardian trade theory Inspired by Piero Sraffa, a new strand of trade theory emerged and was named neo-Ricardian trade theory. The main contributors include Ian Steedman and Stanley Metcalfe. They have criticised neoclassical international trade theory, namely the Heckscher-Ohlin model on the basis that the notion of capital as primary factor has no method of measuring it before the determination of profit rate (thus trapped in a logical vicious circle). This was a second round of the Cambridge capital controversy, this time in the field of international trade. Depoortère and Ravix judge that neo-Ricardian contribution failed without giving effective impact on neoclassical trade theory, because it could not offer "a genuine alternative approach from a classical point of view." Evolutionary growth theory Several distinctive groups have sprung out of the neo-Ricardian school. One is the evolutionary growth theory, developed notably by Luigi Pasinetti, J.S. Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and others. Pasinetti argued that the demand for any commodity came to stagnate and frequently decline, demand saturation occurs. Introduction of new commodities (goods and services) is necessary to avoid economic stagnation. Contemporary theories Main article: International trade theory § Ricardian trade theory extensions Ricardo's idea was even expanded to the case of continuum of goods by Dornbusch, Fischer, and Samuelson This formulation is employed for example by Matsuyama and others. Ricardian trade theory ordinarily assumes that the labour is the unique input. This is a deficiency as intermediate goods occupies now a great part of international trade. The situation changed after the appearance of Yoshinori Shiozawa's work of 2007. He has succeeded to incorporate traded input goods in his model. Yeats found that 30% of world trade in manufacturing is intermediate inputs. Bardhan and Jafee found that intermediate inputs occupy 37 to 38% in the imports to the US for the years from 1992 to 1997, whereas the percentage of intrafirm trade grew from 43% in 1992 to 52% in 1997. Unequal exchange Chris Edward includes Emmanuel's unequal exchange theory among variations of neo-Ricardian trade theory. Arghiri Emmanuel argued that the Third World is poor because of the international exploitation of labour. The unequal exchange theory of trade has been influential to the (new) dependency theory. Publications Ricardo's publications included: The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes (1810), which advocated the adoption of a metallic currency. Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock (1815), which argued that repealing the Corn Laws would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society. On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), an analysis that concluded that land rent grows as population increases. It also clearly laid out the theory of comparative advantage, which argued that all nations could benefit from free trade, even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners. His works and writings were collected in Ricardo, David (1981). The works and correspondence of David Ricardo (1st paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521285054. OCLC 10251383 Name: Fouche Biography: Joseph Fouche, Count of the Empire, Duke of Otranto(21 May 1759 - 25 December 1820) Position: President of the Executive Commission Minister of Police Deputy of the National Convention Allegiance: France Political party :Jacobin (1789-1795) Girondist (1792-1793) Montagnard (1793-1794) Thermidorian (1794-1799) Bonapartist (1799-1814) Joseph Fouche, 1st Duc d'Otrante, 1st Comte Fouchewas a French statesman, revolutionary, and Minister of Police under First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, who later became Emperor Napoleon. He was particularly known for the ferocity with which he suppressed the Lyon insurrection during the Revolution in 1793 and for being minister of police under the Directory, the Consulate, and the Empire. In English texts, his title is often translated as Duke of Otranto. Youth Fouche was born in Le Pellerin, a small village near Nantes. His mother was Marie Fran?oise Croizet (1720-1793), and his father was Julien Joseph Fouche (1719-1771). He was educated at the college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed aptitude for literary and scientific studies. Wanting to become a teacher, he was sent to an institution kept by brethren of the same order in Paris. There he made rapid progress, and was soon appointed to tutorial duties at the colleges of Niort, Saumur, Vend?me, Juilly and Arras. There he was initiated into {{Freemason}ry} at "Sophie Mademlaine" lodge in 1788. At Arras he had had some encounters with Maximilien Robespierre both before the revolution and in the early days of the French Revolution (1789). In October 1790, he was transferred by the Oratorians to their college at Nantes, in an attempt to control his advocacy of revolutionary principles - however, Fouche became even more of a democrat. His talents and anti-clericalism brought him into favour with the population of Nantes, especially after he became a leading member of the local Jacobin Club. When the college of the Oratorians was dissolved in May 1792, Fouche left the Oratorians, having never taken any major vows. A revolutionary republican After the downfall of the monarchy on 10 August 1792 (following the storming of the royal Tuileries Palace), he was elected as deputy for the departement of the Loire-Inferieure to the National Convention—which proclaimed the French Republic on 22 September. Fouche's interests brought him into contact with the Marquis de Condorcet and the Girondists, and he became a Girondist himself. However, their lack of support for the trial and execution of King Louis XVI (December 1792 - 21 January 1793) led him to join the Jacobins, the more decided partisans of revolutionary doctrine. Fouche was strongly in favor of the king's immediate execution, and denounced those who wavered. The crisis that resulted from the declaration of war by the Convention against Great Britain and the Dutch Republic (1 February 1793, see French Revolutionary Wars), and a little later against Spain, made Fouche famous as one of the Jacobin radicals holding power in Paris. While the armies of the First Coalition threatened the north-east of France, a revolt of the Royalist peasants in Brittany and La Vendee menaced the Convention on the west. That body sent Fouche with a colleague, Villers, as representatives on mission invested with almost dictatorial powers for the crushing of the revolt of "the whites" (the royalist colour). The vigour with which he carried out these duties earned him a reputation, and he soon held the post of commissioner of the republic in the departement of the Nièvre. Together with Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, he helped to initiate the dechristianization movement in the autumn of 1793. In the Nièvre department, Fouche ransacked churches, sent their valuables to the treasury, and helped establish the Cult of Reason. He ordered the words "Death is an eternal sleep" to be inscribed over the gates to cemeteries. He also fought luxury and wealth, wanting to abolish the use of currency. The new cult was inaugurated at Notre Dame de Paris by "The Festival of Reason". It was here that Fouche gave "the most famous example of its early phase". Ironically enough, it was only a year previous that Fouche had been "an advocate of the role of the clergy in education," yet he was now "abandoning the role of religion in society altogether in favour of 'the revolutionary and clearly philosophical spirit' he had first wanted for education." Overall, the dechristianization movement "reflected the wholesale transformation that Jacobin and radical leaders were beginning to see as necessary for the survival of the Republic, and the creation of a republican citizenry." Fouche went on to Lyon in November with Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois to execute the reprisals of the Convention. Lyon had revolted against the Convention. Lyon, on 23 November, was declared to be in a "state of revolutionary war" by Collot and Fouche. The two men then formed the Temporary Commission for Republican Supervision. He inaugurated his mission with a festival notable for its obscene parody of religious rites. Fouche and Collot then brought in "a contingent of almost two thousand of the Parisian Revolutionary Army" to begin their terrorizing. "On 4 December, 60 men, chained together, were blasted with grapeshot on the plain de Brotteaux outside the city, and 211 more the following day. Grotesquely ineffective, these mitraillades resulted in heaps of mutilated, screaming, half-dead victims, who were finished off with sabres and musket fire by soldiers physically sickened at the task." Events like this made Fouche infamous as "The Executioner of Lyons." The Commission was not happy with the methods used for killing the rebels so, soon after, "more normal firing squads supplemented the guillotine." These methods led to the carrying out of "over 1800 executions in the coming months." Fouche, claiming that "Terror, salutary terror, is now the order of the day here... We are causing much impure blood to flow, but it is our duty to do so, it is for humanity's sake," called for the execution of 1,905 citizens. As Napoleon's biographer Alan Schom has written: Alas, Fouche's enthusiasm had proved a little too effective, for when the blood from the mass executions in the center of Lyons gushed from severed heads and bodies into the streets, drenching the gutters of the Rue Lafont, the vile-smelling red flow nauseated the local residents, who irately complained to Fouche and demanded payment for damages. Fouche, sensitive to their outcry, obliged them by ordering the executions moved out of the city to the Brotteaux field, along the Rh?ne. From late 1793 until spring 1794, every day "batch after batch of bankers, scholars, aristocrats, priests, nuns, and wealthy merchants and their wives, mistresses, and children" were taken from the city jails to Brotteaux field, tied to stakes, and dispatched by firing squads or mobs. Outwardly, Fouche's conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return to Paris early in April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: "The blood of criminals fertilises the soil of liberty and establishes power on sure foundations". Conflict with Robespierre Robespierre was appalled by the atrocities Fouche committed while on mission. In addition, early in June 1794, at the time of the "Festival of the Supreme Being", Fouche went so far as to mock the theistic revival. Robespierre exchanged angry communications with him, then tried to expel Fouche from the Jacobin Club on 14 July 1794. Fouche, however, was working with his usual energy and plotted Robespierre's overthrow from behind the scenes while remaining in hiding in Paris. Because Robespierre was losing his influence and because Fouche was under the protection of Barras, Fouche ultimately survived Robespierre's final wave of purges. The remaining ultraleftists (Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne), and the moderates (Bourdon de l'Oise, Freron) who had won the support of the nonaligned majority of the Convention (Marais), also opposed Robespierre. Fouche engineered Robespierre's overthrow, culminating in the dramatic Coup of the 9th Thermidor on 28 July 1794. Fouche is reported to have worked furiously on the overthrow: Rising at early morn he would run round till night calling on deputies of all shades of opinion, saying to each and every one, "You perish tomorrow if he does not". Fouche describes his activities in this way in his memoirs: Being recalled to Paris, I dared to call upon from the tribune, to make good his accusation. He caused me to be expelled from the Jacobins, of whom he was the high-priest; this was for me equivalent to a decree of proscription. I did not trifle in contending for my head, nor in long and secret deliberations with such of my colleagues as were threatened with my own fate. I merely said to them... 'You are on the list, you are on the list as well as myself; I am certain of it!' Fouche, as both a ruthless suppressor of Federalist rebellion and one of the key architects of Robespierre's overthrow, embodied the merciless French politics of the era. Directory The ensuing movement in favour of more merciful methods of government threatened to sweep away the group of politicians who had been mainly instrumental in carrying through the coup d'etat. Nonetheless, largely because of Fouche's intrigues, they remained in power for a time after July. This also brought divisions in the Thermidor group, which soon became almost isolated, with Fouche spending all his energy on countering the attacks of the moderates. He was himself denounced by Fran?ois Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas on 9 August 1795, which caused his arrest, but the Royalist rebellion of 13 Vendemiaire Year IV aborted his execution, and he was released in the amnesty which followed the proclamation of the Constitution of 5 Fructidor. In the ensuing Directory government (1795-1799), Fouche remained at first in obscurity, but the relations he had with the far left, once headed by Chaumette and now by Fran?ois-No?l Babeuf, helped him to rise once more. He is said to have betrayed Babeuf's plot of 1796 to the Director Paul Barras; however, recent research has tended to throw doubt on the assertion. His rise from poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an appointment dealing with military supplies, which offered considerable opportunities for making money. After first offering his services to the Royalists, whose movement was then gathering force, he again decided to support the Jacobins and Barras. In Pierre Fran?ois Charles Augereau's anti-Royalist coup d'etat of Fructidor 1797, Fouche offered his services to Barras, who in 1798 appointed him French ambassador to the Cisalpine Republic. In Milan, he was judged so high-handed that he was removed, but he was able for a time to hold his own and to intrigue successfully against his successor. Early in 1799, he returned to Paris, and after a brief stint as ambassador at The Hague, he became minister of police at Paris on 20 July 1799. The newly elected director, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, wanted to curb the excesses of the Jacobins, who had recently reopened their club. Fouche closed the Jacobin Club in a daring manner, hunting down those pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or Royalists, who were influential critics of the government, so that at the time of the return of general Napoleon Bonaparte from the Egyptian campaign (October 1799), the ex-Jacobin was one of the most powerful men in France. In Napoleon's service Knowing the unpopularity of the Directors, Fouche joined Bonaparte and Sieyès, who were plotting the Directory's overthrow. His activity in furthering the 18 Brumaire coup (November 9-10, 1799) ensured him the favor of Bonaparte, who kept him in office. In the ensuing French Consulate (1799-1804), Fouche efficiently countered the opposition to Bonaparte. He helped increase centralization and efficiency of the police in both Paris and the provinces. Fouche was careful to temper Napoleon's more arbitrary actions, which at times won him the gratitude even of the royalists. While exposing an unrealistic intrigue in which the duchesse de Guiche Ida d'Orsay was the chief agent, Fouche took care that she should escape. Equally skilful was his action in the so-called Arena-Ceracchi plot (Conspiration des poignards), in which agents provocateurs of the police were believed to have played a sinister part. The chief "conspirators" were easily ensnared and were executed when the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to act with rigour. This far more serious attempt (in which conspirators exploded a bomb near the First Consul's carriage with results disastrous to the bystanders) was soon seen by Fouche as the work of Royalists. When Napoleon showed himself eager to blame the still powerful Jacobins, Fouche firmly declared that he would not only assert but would prove that the outrage was the work of Royalists. However, his efforts failed to avert the Bonaparte-led repression of the leading Jacobins. In other matters (especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the spring of 1802), Fouche was thought to have saved the Jacobins from the vengeance of the Consulate, and Bonaparte decided to rid himself of a man who had too much power to be desirable as a subordinate. On the proclamation of Bonaparte as First Consul for life (1 August 1802) Fouche was deprived of his office, a blow softened by the suppression of the ministry of police and by the assignment of most of its duties to an extended Ministry of Justice. Napoleon was, in fact, so intimidated by his minister of police that he did not dismiss the man personally, sending instead a servant with the information that - in addition to getting 35,000 yearly francs income as a senator and a piece of land worth 30,000 francs a year - he would also receive over a million francs from the reserve funds of the police. After 1802, he went back to {{Freemason}ry}, attending "Les Citoyens reunis" lodge in Melun. Cambacerès who was Deputy Grand Master of Grand Orient de France, helped him becoming Conservator of the "Grande Loge symbolique Generale" attached to the Supreme Council of France, where he would be in charge of Masonic Justice. There he could find a valuable source of information on {Freemason}s throughout the empire. Fouche did become a senator and took half of the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated during his tenure of office. He continued, however, to intrigue through his spies, who tended to have more information than that of the new minister of police, and competed successfully for the favor of Napoleon at the time of the Georges Cadoudal-Charles Pichegru conspiracy (February-March 1804), becoming instrumental in the arrest of the Duc d'Enghien. Fouche would later say of Enghien's subsequent execution, "It was worse than a crime; it was a mistake" (a remark also frequently attributed to Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord). After the proclamation of the First French Empire, Fouche again became head of the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804), and later of Internal Affairs, with activities as important as those carried out under the Consulate. His police agents were omnipresent, and the terror which Napoleon and Fouche inspired partly accounts for the absence of conspiracies after 1804. After the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), Fouche uttered the famous words: "Sire, Austerlitz has shattered the old aristocracy; the Faubourg Saint-Germain no longer conspires". Nevertheless, Napoleon did retain feelings of distrust, or even of fear, towards Fouche, as was proven by his conduct in the early days of 1808. While engaged in the campaign of Spain, the emperor heard rumours that Fouche and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, once bitter enemies, were having meetings in Paris during which Joachim Murat, King of Naples, had been approached. At once he hurried to Paris, but found nothing to incriminate Fouche. In that year Fouche received the title of Duke of Otranto, which Bonaparte created—under the French name Otrante—a duche grand-fief (a rare, hereditary, but nominal honor) in the satellite Kingdom of Naples. When, during the absence of Napoleon in the Austrian campaign of 1809, the British Walcheren expedition threatened the safety of Antwerp, Fouche issued an order to the prefet of the northern departements of the Empire for the mobilization of 60,000 National Guards, adding to the order this statement: "Let us prove to Europe that although the genius of Napoleon can throw lustre on France, his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse the enemy". The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked than his disapproval of Fouche's words. The next months brought further friction between emperor and minister. The latter, knowing Napoleon's desire for peace at the close of 1809, undertook to make secret overtures to the British cabinet of Spencer Perceval. Napoleon opened negotiations only to find that Fouche had forestalled him. His rage against his minister was extreme, and on 3 June 1810 he dismissed him from his office. However, Napoleon never completely disgraced a man who might again be useful, and Fouche received the governorship of the Rome departement. At the moment of his departure, Fouche took the risk of not surrendering to Napoleon all of certain important documents of his former ministry (falsely declaring that the some had been destroyed); the emperor's anger was renewed, and Fouche, on learning of this after his arrival to Florence, prepared to sail to the United States. Compelled by the weather and intense sea-sickness to put back into port, he found a mediator in Elisa Bonaparte, Grand Duchess of Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed to settle in Aix-en-Provence. He eventually returned to his domain of Point Carre. In 1812 he attempted in vain to turn Napoleon from the projected invasion of Russia, and on the return of the emperor in haste from Smarhoń to Paris at the close of that year, the ex-minister of police was suspected of involvement in the conspiracy of Claude Fran?ois de Malet, which had been unexpectedly successful. Fouche cleared his name and gave the emperor useful advice concerning internal affairs and the diplomatic situation. Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful, ordered him to undertake the government of the Illyrian provinces. On the break-up of the Napoleonic system in Germany (October 1813), Fouche was ordered on missions to Rome and thence to Naples, in order to watch the movements of Joachim Murat. Before Fouche arrived in Naples, Murat invaded the Roman territory, whereupon Fouche received orders to return to France. He arrived in Paris on 10 April 1814 at the time when Napoleon was being constrained by his marshals to abdicate. Fouche's conduct in this crisis was characteristic. As senator he advised the Senate to send a deputation to Charles, comte d'Artois, brother of Louis XVIII, with a view to a reconciliation between the monarchy and the nation. A little later he addressed to Napoleon, then banished to Elba, a letter begging him in the interests of peace and of France to withdraw to the United States. To the new sovereign Louis XVIII he sent an appeal in favour of liberty, and recommending the adoption of measures which would conciliate all interests. The response was unsatisfactory, and when he found that there were no hopes of advancement, he entered into relations with conspirators who sought the overthrow of the Bourbons. The Marquis de Lafayette and Louis Nicolas Davout were involved in the issue, but their refusal to take the course desired by Fouche and others led to nothing being done. Hundred Days and Bourbon restoration Soon Napoleon escaped from Elba and made his way in triumph to Paris. Shortly before his arrival in Paris (19 March 1815), Louis XVIII sent Fouche an offer of the ministry of police, which he declined: "It is too late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat". He then foiled an attempt by Royalists to arrest him, and on the arrival of Napoleon he received for the third time the portfolio of police. That, however, did not prevent him from entering into secret relations with the Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich in Vienna, his aim being to prepare for all eventualities. Meanwhile, he used all his powers to induce the emperor to democratize his rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words: "the sovereignty resides in the people—it is the source of power" in the declaration of the Conseil d'etat. But the autocratic tendencies of Napoleon could not be overridden, and Fouche, seeing the fall of the emperor to be imminent, took measures to expedite it and secure his own interests. In 1814, Fouche had joined the invading allies and conspired against Napoleon. However, he joined Napoleon again during his return and was police minister during the latter's short-lived reign, the Hundred Days. After Napoleon's ultimate defeat in the Battle of Waterloo, Fouche again started plotting against Napoleon and joined the opposition of the parliament. He headed the provisional government and tried to negotiate with the allies. He probably also aimed at establishing a republic with himself as head of state, with the help of some Republican {Freemason}s. These plans were never realised, and the Bourbons regained power in July 1815. And again, Fouche's services were necessary: as Talleyrand, another notorious intrigant, became the prime minister of the Kingdom of France, Fouche was named his minister of police: so he was a minister of King Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI. Ironically, Fouche had voted for the death sentence after the trial of Louis XVI. Thus, he belonged to the regicides, and ultra-royalists both within the cabinet and without could hardly tolerate him as a member of the government. Fouche, once a revolutionary using extreme terror against the Bourbon supporters, now initiated a campaign of White Terror against real and imagined enemies of the Royalist restoration (officially directed against those who had plotted and supported Napoleon's return to power). Even Prime Minister Talleyrand disapproved of such practices, including the execution of Michel Ney and compiling proscription lists of other military men and former republican politicians. Famous, or rather infamous, is the conversation between Fouche and Lazare Carnot, who had been interior minister during the Hundred Days: Carnot: "Where should I go then, traitor?" Fouche: "Go where you want, imbecile!" Fouche was soon relegated to the post of French ambassador in Saxony; Talleyrand himself lost his portfolio soon after, having been Prime Minister from 9 July to 26 September 1815. In 1816, the royalist authorities found Fouche's further services useless, and he was proscribed. He died in exile in Trieste in 1820. Works Fouche wrote some political pamphlets and reports, the chief of which are: Reflexions sur le jugement de Louis Capet ("Thoughts on the trial of Louis Capet", 1793) Reflexions sur l'education publique ("Thoughts on public education", 1793) Rapport et projet de loi relatif aux colleges ("Report and law project regarding colleges", 1793) Rapport sur la situation de Commune Affranchie Lyons ("Report on the situation of the breakaway commune of Lyon", 1794) Lettre aux prefets concernant les pretres, etc. ("Letter to the prefets regarding priests etc.", 1801) The letters of 1815 noted above, and a Lettre au duc de Wellington ("Letter to the Duke of Wellington", 1817) Family Main article: Duke of Otranto Joseph Fouche, 1st Duc d'Otrante, was a son of Julien Joseph Fouche (1719 - 1771) and wife Marie Fran?oise Croizet (1720 - 1793). By his first marriage to Bonne Jeanne Coiquaud (1 April 1763 - 8 October 1812), he had seven children: Nièvre Fouche d'Otrante (10 August 1793 - August 1794). Joseph Liberte Fouche d'Otrante, 2nd Duc d'Otrante (22 July 1796 - 31 December 1862), married to Fortunee Collin de Sussy in 1824; they separated shortly after without issue. Stillborn child (1798). Stillborn child (1799). Armand Fran?ois Cyriac Fouche d'Otrante, 3rd Duc d'Otrante (25 March 1800 - 26 November 1878). Unmarried and without issue. Paul Athanase Fouche d'Otrante, 4th Duc d'Otrante (25 June 1801 - 10 February 1886). He later moved to Sweden, where he married twice and left issue, which remained in Sweden. Josephine Ludmille Fouche d'Otrante (29 June 1803 - 30 December 1893), married to Adolphe Comte de La Barthe de Thermes (1789-1869), and had issue (a son, Paul and a daughter, Isabelle). By his second marriage to Ernestine de Castellane-Majastres (5 July 1788 - 4 May 1850), he had no children. In literature and on screen The Austrian novelist Stefan Zweig wrote a biography entitled Joseph Fouche. Zweig takes a psychological approach to understanding the complicated minister of police. Zweig asks himself in the beginning of the book about how Fouche could "survive" in power from the revolution to the monarchy. Fouche also appears as one of the main characters in For the King, a novel by Catherine Delors (Dutton, 2010), where his role in the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise is discussed. Fouche was featured as one of the two main (and only) characters in the play by Jean-Claude Brisville Supping with the Devil in which he is depicted dining with Talleyrand while deciding how to preserve their respective powers under the coming regime. The drama was hugely successful and turned into a film The Supper in 1992 directed by edouard Molinaro, starring Claude Rich and Claude Brasseur. Joseph Conrad portrayed Fouche briefly in his short story The Duel (1924), which was filmed in 1977 as The Duellists, written by Gerald Vaughan-Hughes and directed by Ridley Scott. Fouche is portrayed by Albert Finney. Fouche appears as a recurring character in the Roger Brook series of historical novels by Dennis Wheatley. Fouche is referenced on the first page of the novel Perfume: The Story of a Murderer by Patrick Süskind as a 'gifted abomination'. Fouche is an important character in the novel The Hastening Wind by British novelist Edward Grierson, which concerns the Cadoudal conspiracy to assassinate Napoleon in 1804. In Mountolive (1958), the third novel of Lawrence Durrell's Alexandria Quartet, a French diplomat is said to have (ironically) complimented the cruel and venal Egyptian Minister of the Interior, Memlik Pasha, by telling him that he is "... regarded as the best Minister of Interior in modern history--indeed, since Fouche there has been no-one to equal you." Memlik is so taken with the comparison that he orders a bust of Fouche from France, which then sits in his reception room gathering dust. In Bernard Cornwell's novel Sharpe's Enemy, Fouche is mentioned as an early mentor of the French spymaster Pierre Ducos, who becomes a bitter enemy of Richard Sharpe in later novels. Fouche makes an appearance in the Doctor Who novel World Game by Terrance Dicks. Fouche appears in the novel The Twisted Sword, by Winston Graham. The novel Captain Cut-Throat by John Dickson Carr, set in Napoleonic France in 1805, when the invasion of England was planned, portrays Fouche scheming and counter-scheming various complicated plots. Fouche is a significant character in The Carton Chronicles: The Curious Tale of Flashman's true father (2010) by Keith Laidler. Fouche was portrayed by French actor Gerard Depardieu in the mini-series Napoleon. Fouche was portrayed by actor Stephen Jenn in the 1987 mini-series Napoleon and Josephine: A Love Story. In the Hollywood historical drama Reign of Terror (1949), Fouche is played by Arnold Moss. He is a character in Treason's Tide by Robert Wilton, set during the summer of 1805. Originally published as The Emperor's Gold in June 2011, it was re-issued under the new title in February 2013 by Corvus, an imprint of Atlantic Books. Fouche is portrayed by Morris Perry in the BBC's War and Peace (1972 TV series) episode 11, Men of Destiny. Fouche is mentioned in Diary of a Man in Despair by Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen. Reck relates a meeting with Heinrich Himmler in 1934 at which Himmler asks Reck for information. Surprised at Himmler's request, Reck asks Himmler why the Fouche of the Third Reich needed information from him. Reck relates that Himmler clearly had no idea who Fouche was. The 48 Laws of Power cites him as an example of following Rule #35: Master The Art Of Timing. He is a character in The Paris Affair by Teresa Grant Name: Boves Biography: Jose Tomás Boves Nationality:Spanish Occupation:Caudillo Known for:His use of brutality and atrocities against those who supported Venezuelan independence Jose Tomás Boves (Oviedo, Asturias, September 18, 1782 - Urica, Venezuela, December 5, 1814), was a royalist caudillo of the Llanos during the Venezuelan War of Independence, particularly remembered for his use of brutality and atrocities against those who supported Venezuelan independence. Though nominally pro-Spanish, Boves showed little deference to any superior authority and independently carried out his own military campaign and political agenda. Early life Having lost his father at age 4, he was raised by his single mother, who worked as a seamstress and maid. At the age of 16 Boves was licensed to be a pilot in the merchant marine, later joining the Pla y Portal company, which traded between Spain and the Americas. He was convicted of smuggling in Venezuela and sentenced to prison, but because of the intercession of fellow Asturian residents in Venezuela, who also worked for Pla y Portal, his sentence was commuted to internal exile in Calabozo. There he became a merchant, and once his sentence was finished, he dealt in livestock, a business which allowed him to become very familiar with the vast Venezuelan grasslands and its people. Military campaigns As with most residents of Venezuela at the time, Boves was supportive of the juntas established in Venezuela in 1810, which were created after news arrived that the reigning Supreme Central Junta in Spain had dissolved itself due to French advances in southern Spain. His activities against the Republic began only after Domingo de Monteverde's incursions into central Venezuela. He joined Monteverde's forces when they took over Calabozo in May 1812 and was named commander of Calabozo in January 1813. He participated in the unsuccessful attempts to stop Santiago Mari?o's invasion of eastern Venezuela, and after the royalist government collapsed, he was granted temporary permission to act at his own discretion by his superior, Field Marshal Juan Manuel Cajigal. From this point on, he never recognized any superior authority. Making use of his knowledge of the llanos he amassed a large army of llaneros, most of whom were pardo (mixed-race), and dominated the south of the country for the next two years until his death. He lived among his soldiers, and exposed himself to the same risks in battle as them, thereby gaining their extreme loyalty. Although nominally royalist, Boves turned the old colonial order on its head. He ignored Cajigal, who by 1814 was captain general, even when they were campaigning together, and appointed political and military commanders of his own choosing. Further still from his mind was the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which should have been in effect in Venezuela during this time. Most striking to his contemporaries, however, was that he allowed his llanero soldiers to engage in a class and race war against the landed and urban classes of Venezuela, fulfilling the latters' fear, since 1810, that the revolution could devolve into another Haitian Revolution. (Compare Hidalgo's assault on Guanajuato.) Boves's army became feared for its liberal use of pillage and summary executions, which became notorious even in this period when such actions were common on both sides of the conflict. (See Simón Bolívar's "Decree of War to the Death".) Throughout the second half of 1813, Boves and his army assailed the Second Republic in a series of battles, but without any clear gains until the Battle of La Puerta on June 15, 1814. He captured Valencia and Caracas the following month. He died at the age of 32 on December 5, 1814 at the Battle of Urica, which his troops nevertheless won. Command of his troops passed on to Francisco Tomás Morales. His actions laid the groundwork for Pablo Morillo's expeditionary force to easily occupy Venezuela and to spend its massive resources in neighboring New Granada. Royalists would continue to control Venezuela until 1821. Boves in fiction One of the more well-known biographical portraits of Boves's life is the historical novel Boves el Urogallo ("Boves, the Capercaillie") (1972) by Venezuelan novelist Francisco Herrera Luque. In it Herrera Luque describes Boves as: That fabulous Asturian warrior, who between 1813 and 1814 was champion of the anti-republic, feverish destroyer of the colonial order and the first caudillo of democracy in Venezuela. The novel was adapted into film in 2010 by Venezuelan director Luis Alberto Lamata. (2007). Name: Brissot Biography: Jacques Pierre Brissot(15 January 1754 - 31 October 1793) Political party :Girondin Nationality:French Position:Member of the National Convention for Eure-et-Loir Member of the Legislative Assembly for Seine Constituency :Chartres Paris Cause of death:Guillotine Resting place :Chapelle Expiatoire, Paris After the revolution broke out and captured the Bastille, different from the Feuillants, who advocated constitutional possession, the Girondists' policy pushed France to step into the wars against neighbor nations,.And finnally Break with the Jacobin Mountain faction inside for reasons. Jacques Brissot was the figurehead and de facto leader of the Girondinist bloc which dominated France’s government in 1792-93. Jacques Pierre Brissot, who assumed the name of de Warville (an English version of "d'Ouarville", a hamlet in the village of Lèves where his father owned property), was a leading member of the Girondins during the French Revolution and founder of the abolitionist Society of the Friends of the Blacks. Some sources give his name as Jean Pierre Brissot. Biography Brissot was born at Chartres, the 13th child of a tavern keeper. He received an education and worked as a law clerk; first in Chartres then in Paris. He later moved to London because he wanted to pursue a literary career. He published many literary articles throughout his time in the British capital. While there, Brissot founded two periodicals that later did not do well and failed. He married Felicite Dupont (1759-1818), who translated English works, including Oliver Goldsmith and Robert Dodsley. They lived in London and had three children. His first works, Theorie des lois criminelles (1781) and Bibliothèque philosophique du legislateur (1782), dealt with philosophy of law topics, and showed the deep influence of ethical precepts espoused by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the preface of Theorie des lois criminelles, Brissot explains that he submitted an outline of the book to Voltaire and quotes his answer from 13 April 1778. Theorie des lois criminelles was a plea for penal reform. The pamphlet was considered extremely provocative as it was perceived as opposing the government and the queen. Brissot was imprisoned in the Bastille but was later released in September 1784. Brissot became known as a writer and was engaged on the Mercure de France, the Courrier de l'Europe and other papers. Devoted to the cause of humanity, he proposed a plan for the collaboration of all European intellectuals. His newspaper Journal du Lycee de Londres, was to be the organ of their views. The plan was unsuccessful. Soon after his return to Paris, Brissot was placed in the Bastille in 1784 on the charge of having published a pornographic pamphlet Passe-temps de Toinette against the queen. Brissot had a falling out with Catholicism, and wrote about his disagreements with the church's hierarchical system. After gaining release in four months, Brissot returned to pamphleteering, most notably his 1785 open letter to emperor Joseph II of Austria, Seconde lettre d'un defenseur du peuple a l'Empereur Joseph II, sur son règlement concernant, et principalement sur la revolte des Valaques, which supported the right of subjects to revolt against the misrule of a monarch. Because of the controversy this generated, he went to London for a time. On this second visit, he became acquainted with some of the leading abolitionists. After returning to Paris in 1788, he founded an anti-slavery group known as Society of the Friends of the Blacks, of which he was president during 1790 and 1791. In 1791, Brissot along with Marquis de Condorcet, Thomas Paine, and Etienne Dumont created a newspaper promoting republicanism titled Le Republicain. As an agent of the newly formed society, Brissot traveled to the United States in 1788 to visit with abolitionists there. The country had gained independence several years before, but was still creating its final form of government. He also met with members of the constitutional convention in Philadelphia. In 1791 he published his Nouveau Voyage dans les etats-Unis de l'Amerique septentrionale (3 vols.). Brissot believed that American ideals could help improve French government. In 1789 he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. At one point, he was interested in emigrating to America with his family. Thomas Jefferson, American ambassador in Paris when he returned, was familiar enough with him to note, "Warville is returned charmed with our country. He is going to carry his wife and children to settle there." However, such an emigration never happened. The rising ferment of revolution engaged Brissot in schemes for progress through political journalism that would make him a household name. From the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Brissot became one of its most vocal supporters. He edited the Patriote fran?ais from 1789 to 1793 and took a prominent part in politics. Famous for his speeches at the Jacobin Club, he was elected a member of the municipality of Paris, then of the Legislative Assembly, and later of the National Convention. At the National Convention, Brissot represented Eure-et-Loir. Shortly thereafter, Brissot began to align himself with the more moderate Girondins, who were often viewed as the 'war party.' The Girondins, or Brissotins as they were often called, were a group of loosely affiliated individuals, many of whom came from Girondin, rather than an organized party with a clear ideology. This group was first led by Brissot. Robespierre loathed the Girondins. Following the arrest of King Louis XVI on charges of "high treason" and "crimes against the State", there was widespread disagreement on what the fate of the king should be. While many, believing that leaving the King alive increased the chances of a return to monarchy, argued to execute the king by guillotine, Brissot and other Girondins suggested several alternatives in hopes of sparing his life. Brissot and the Girondins championed the idea of keeping him under arrest both as a hostage and as a bargaining chip. Brissot believed that once Louis XVI was executed all of France's foreign negotiating power would be lost, and he also feared a massive royalist rebellion. At one point, many Girondin leaders, including Brissot, called for a national referendum which would enable the citizens to vote on the king's fate. However, the Convention eventually voted for the king's immediate execution, and King Louis XVI was beheaded on January 21, 1793. Foreign policy At the time of the Declaration of Pillnitz (27 August 1791), Brissot headed the Legislative Assembly. The declaration was from Austria and Prussia, warning the people of France not to harm Louis XVI or these nations would "militarily intervene" in the politics of France. Threatened by the declaration, Brissot rallied the support of the Legislative Assembly, which subsequently declared war on Austria on 20 April 1792. They wanted to fortify and secure the revolution. This decision was initially disastrous as the French armies were crushed during the first engagements, leading to a major increase in political tensions within the country. During the Legislative Assembly, Brissot's knowledge of foreign affairs enabled him as member of the diplomatic committee to control much of France's foreign policy during this time. Brissot was a key figure in the declaration of war against Leopold II, the Habsburg Monarchy, the Dutch Republic, and the Kingdom of Great Britain on 1 February 1793. It was also Brissot who characterized these wars as part of revolutionary propaganda. Arrest and execution Even before the overthrow of King Louis XVI and the founding of the French Republic in August 1792, two principal factions developed among the revolutionaries: Brissot's more moderate Girondins, and the more radical Montagnards ('the Mountain'). The divisions between the two factions had less to do with ideology than with tactics and personalities. Preceding the King's fall, and then during the first year of the Republic (August 1792-May 1793), affiliates and allies of the Girondins held many positions of power in the new Republic, none more than Brissot. But as the military suffered defeat on the battlefield, and starvation and chaos threatened the countryside, the Girondins were blamed for many of these crises - sometimes for good reason. After the execution of King Louis XVI and the subsequent widening of the war, the Montagnards were able to stir up intense distrust and opposition to the Girondin regime, ultimately inciting their overthrow. The Encyclop?dia Britannica 11th edition, remarked: "Brissot was quick, eager, impetuous, and a man of wide knowledge. However, he was indecisive, and not qualified to struggle against the fierce energies roused by the events of the Revolution." Brissot's stance on the King's execution, the war with Austria and his moderate views on the Revolution intensified the friction between the Girondins and Montagnards, who allied themselves with disaffected Sans-culottes. Brissot ultimately attempted to rein in the violence and excesses of the Revolution by calling for the reinstatement of the constitutional monarchy that had been established by the Constitution of 1791, a ploy which landed on deaf ears. In late May 1793, the Montagnards in the Convention, meeting in the Tuileries Palace, called for the removal of the Commission of Twelve. The Convention was further radicalized by the call for the removal and arrest of Brissot and the entire Girondin group made by the Sans-culottes in the Parisian National Guard, which had armed with cannons and surrounded the Convention. When the refusal of the Convention to make such a hasty decision was delivered to the National Guard, Fran?ois Hanriot, its leader, replied: "Tell your stupid president that he and his Assembly are doomed, and that if within one hour he doesn't deliver to me the twenty-two, I'm going to blast it!" Under this threat of violence, the Convention capitulated and on 2 June 1793, Brissot and the other Girondins were arrested. Brissot was one of the first Girondins to escape but was also one of the first captured. Passing through his hometown of Chartres on his way to the city of Caen, the center of anti-revolutionary forces in Normandy, he was caught traveling with false papers on 10 June and taken back to Paris. On 3 October, the trial of Brissot and the Girondins began. They were charged with being "agents of the counter-revolution and of the foreign powers, especially Britain." Brissot, who conducted his own defense, attacked point by point the absurdities of the charges against him and his fellow Girondins. He was unsuccessful and on 30 October, the death sentence was delivered to Brissot and the 28 other Girondins. The next day, the convicted men were taken by tumbrel to the guillotine, singing La Marseillaise as they traveled, and embracing the role of martyred patriots. Brissot was killed via guillotine at age 39, and his corpse was buried in the Madeleine Cemetery alongside his guillotined associates. Spying allegations Robespierre and Marat were among those who accused Brissot of various kinds of counterrevolutionary activity, such as, Orleanism, "federalism", being in the pay of Great Britain, having failed to vote for the immediate death of the former king, and having been a collaborator of General Dumouriez, a traitor of the revolution. Brissot's activities after the siege of the Bastille have been closely studied. While enthusiasts and apologists consider Brissot to be an idealist, and unblemished, philosophe revolutionary, his detractors have challenged his credibility and moral character. They have repeated contemporary allegations that during the mid-1780s, he defrauded his business partner, was involved in the production and dissemination of libelles - pornographic and otherwise - and spied for the police. The accusations were led by Jean-Paul Marat, Camille Desmoulins, Maximilian Robespierre, and above all the notorious scandal-monger, extortioner, and perjurer Charles Theveneau de Morande, whose hatred, Brissot asserted, 'was the torment of my life'. In 1968 historian Robert Darnton affirmed some of these accounts, and reaffirmed them in the 1980s, holding Brissot up as a case-study in the understanding of the difficult circumstances many philosophes encountered attempting to support themselves by their writing. Brissot’s life and thinking are so well documented, from his early age through to his execution, many historians have examined him as a representative figure displaying the Enlightenment attitudes that drove many of the leading French revolutionaries. Thus, he undoubtedly exemplified the beliefs of many supporters of the Revolution. Darnton sees him in this way, but also argued that he was intimately tangled in the business of “Grub Street,” the scrappy world of publishing for profit in the eighteenth century, which was essential to the spread of Enlightenment ideas. Thus, Darnton explores his relationship to his business partners, to the libellistes who wrote scandalous accusations against the crown and other leading figures, and to the police, arguing that based on suggestive evidence it is probable that when Brissot fell on hard financial times in the mid-1780s he agreed to operate as a police spy. Historian Frederick Luna has argued that the letters and memoires from which Darnton drew his information were written fifteen years after the his supposed employment and that the timeline does not work out because Brissot was documented as having left Paris as soon as he was released from the Bastille (where he was held on suspicion of writing libelles), and therefore could not have talked with the police as alleged. More convincing still is the work of historian Simon Burrows who, drawing on the Brissot papers (deposited in the Archives Nationales in 1982), comprehensively engages each of Darnton’s speculations demonstrating that Brissot’s finanancial problems were not evidence of fraud, that while - like many others - he traded in books and may have transported libelles, there is no evidence that he wrote them, and that while like many others he collected and collated general information on contemporary opinion in France for royal officials, there is no evidence that he operated as a paid police spy. As Burrows further notes, Darnton has progressively retreated from his earlier speculations, and he argues Brissot’s behavior in the 1780s and after, while it demonstrates his willingness to compromise with authority to advance his career, also demonstrates him to be “a committed ''philosophe’’ and reformer, keen to avoid unnecessary entanglements in illegal activities, who despite his political radicalism, aspired to advise the regime and serve like-minded patrons.”. Legacy Through his writings Brissot made important contributions to "pre-revolutionary and revolutionary ideology in France". His early works on legislation, his many pamphlets, speeches in the Legislative Assembly and the Convention, demonstrated dedication to the principles of the French Revolution. Brissot's own idea of a fair, democratic society, with universal suffrage, living in moral as well as political freedom, foreshadowed many modern liberationist ideologies. Brissot was also very interested in science. He was a strong disciple of Sextus Empiricus and applied those theories to modern science at the time in order to make knowledge well known about the enlightenment of Ethos. The varying actions of Brissot in the 1780s also helped create a key understanding of how the Enlightenment Republic of letters was transformed into a revolutionary Republic of Letters. Brissot was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789. Name: Louverture Biography: Toussaint Louverture(1743 - 7 April 1803),Father of Haiti Nickname(s):Napoleon Noir Black Spartacus Position: Governor-General of Saint-Domingue Allegiance: France,Haiti Branch/service: French Army French Revolutionary Army Armee Indigène Rank: General Battles/wars:Haitian Revolution Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint-Domingue. Worried about the economy, which had stalled, he restored the plantation system using paid labour; negotiated trade agreements with the United Kingdom and the United States; and maintained a large and well-trained army. Although Louverture did not sever ties with France in 1800 after defeating leaders among the Haitian mulatto population, he promulgated an autonomous constitution for the colony in 1801, which named him as Governor-General for Life, even against Napoleon Bonaparte's wishes. On 29 August 1793 he made his famous declaration of Camp Turel to the blacks of St. Domingue:Brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture; perhaps my name has made itself known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St. Domingue. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers and fight with us for the same cause. Fran?ois-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (French: ; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Breda) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture first fought against the French, then for them, and then finally against France again for the cause of Haitian independence. As a revolutionary leader, Louverture displayed military and political acumen that helped transform the fledgling slave rebellion into a revolutionary movement. Louverture is now known as the "Father of Haiti." Louverture was born a slave on the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now known as Haiti. He became a free man and a Jacobin, and began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Louverture switched his allegiance to the French when the new Republican government abolished slavery. Louverture gradually established control over the whole island and used his political and military influence to gain dominance over his rivals. In 1802, he was invited to a parley by French Divisional General Jean-Baptiste Brunet, but was arrested upon his arrival. He was deported to France and jailed at the Fort de Joux. He died in 1803. Although Louverture died before the final and most violent stage of the Haitian Revolution, his achievements set the grounds for the Haitian army's final victory. Suffering massive losses in multiple historic battles at the hands of the Haitian army and losing thousands of men to yellow fever, the French capitulated and withdrew permanently from Saint-Domingue the very same year. The Haitian Revolution continued under Louverture's lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence on 1 January 1804, thereby establishing the sovereign state of Haiti. Louverture is thought to have been born into slavery on the plantation of Breda at Haut de Cap in Saint-Domingue in the early 1740s. As records were not kept for slaves, little is known about his early life. An alternative explanation of Louverture's origins is that he was brought to Breda by the new overseer Bayon de Libertate, who took up his duties in 1772. Though his birth date is uncertain - with various sources placing the date between 1739 and 1746 - his name suggests that he was born on All Saints' Day: 1 November. Accordingly, he was probably about 50 at the start of the revolution in 1791. Still, because of the lack of written records, Louverture may not have known his exact birth date.Although he would later become known for his stamina and riding prowess, in childhood, Louverture earned the nickname Fatras-Baton ('clumsy stick'), suggesting he was small and weak.:26-27 Louverture's family traditions name his grandfather as Gaou Guinou, a son of the King of Allada. While Louverture's parents are not known, he was the eldest of their several children,:23-24 while Pierre Baptiste Simon is usually considered to have been his godfather.Louverture was educated by his godfather Pierre Baptiste, a free man who lived and worked on the Breda plantation. Historians have speculated about Louverture's intellectual background. His extant letters demonstrate a command of French and Creole, and he reveals familiarity with Epictetus, the Stoic philosopher who had lived as a slave. His public speeches and life's work show a familiarity with Machiavelli. Some cite Enlightenment thinker Abbe Raynal, a critic of slavery, as a possible influence.:30-36Louverture may have received education from Jesuit missionaries. His medical knowledge is attributed to familiarity with African or Creole herbal-medical techniques, as well as techniques commonly found in Jesuit-administered hospitals. Legal documents signed on Louverture's behalf between 1778 and 1781 suggest that he could not write at that time.:61-67 Throughout his military and political career, he used secretaries to prepare most of his correspondence. A few surviving documents in his own hand confirm that he could write, although his spelling in the French language was "strictly phonetic." In 1782, Louverture married Suzanne Simone Baptiste, who is thought to have been his cousin or the daughter of his godfather.:263 Toward the end of his life, he told General Caffarelli that he had fathered sixteen children with multiple women, of whom eleven had predeceased him.:264-67 Not all of his children can be identified for certain, but his three legitimate sons are well known. The eldest, Placide, was probably adopted by Louverture and is generally thought to have been Suzanne's first child, fathered by Seraphim Le Clerc, a mulatto. The two sons born of his marriage with Suzanne were Isaac and Saint-Jean.:264-67 Until 1938, historians believed that Louverture had been a slave until the start of the revolution. In the later twentieth century, discovery of a marriage certificate dated 1777 documents that he was freed in 1776 at the age of 33. This find retrospectively clarified a letter of 1797, in which he said he had been free for twenty years.:62 He appeared to have an important role on the Breda plantation until the outbreak of the revolution, presumably as a salaried employee who contributed to the daily functions of the plantation. He had initially been responsible for the livestock. By 1791, his responsibilities most likely included acting as coachman to the overseer, de Libertat, and as a slave-driver, charged with organising the workforce.As a free man, Louverture began to accumulate wealth and property. Surviving legal documents show him renting a small coffee plantation that was worked by a dozen of his own slaves. He later said that by the start of the revolution, he had acquired a reasonable fortune and was the owner of a number of properties and slaves at Ennery. Louverture's actions evoked a collective sense of worry among other European powers and the United States, who feared that the growing slave revolt would cause unrest among their own slaves in the Caribbean and America. Beginning in 1789, freed slaves of Saint-Domingue were inspired by the French Revolution to seek an expansion of their rights, while perpetuating the denial of freedom and rights to the slaves, who made up the majority of population on the island. Initially, the slave population did not become involved in the conflict. In August 1791, a Vodou ceremony at Bois Ca?man marked the start of a major slave rebellion in the north, which had the largest plantations and enslaved population. Louverture did not take part in the earliest stages of the rebellion, but after a few weeks he sent his family to safety in Santo Domingo and helped the overseers of the Breda plantation to leave the island. He joined Georges Biassou's forces as doctor to the troops, commanding a small detachment. Surviving documents show him participating in the leadership of the rebellion, discussing strategy, and negotiating with the Spanish supporters of the rebellion for supplies. In 1791, Louverture was involved in negotiations between rebel leaders and the French Governor, Blanchelande, for the release of their white prisoners and a return to work, in exchange for a ban on the use of whips, an extra non-working day per week, and the freedom of imprisoned leaders. When the offer was rejected, he was instrumental in preventing the massacre of Biassou's white prisoners. The prisoners were released after further negotiations and escorted to Le Cap by Louverture. He hoped to use the occasion to present the rebellion's demands to the colonial assembly, but they refused to meet. Throughout 1792, as a leader in an increasingly formal alliance between the black rebellion and the Spanish, Louverture ran the fortified post of La Tannerie and maintained the Cordon de l'Ouest, a line of posts between rebel and colonial territory. He gained a reputation for his discipline, training his men in guerrilla tactics and "the European style of war". After hard fighting, he lost La Tannerie in January 1793 to the French General etienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Laveaux, but it was in these battles that the French first recognised him as a significant military leader. Some time in 1792-93, he adopted the surname Louverture, from the French word for "opening" or "the one who opened the way". Although some modern writers spell his adopted surname with an apostrophe, as in "L'Ouverture", he did not. The most common explanation is that it refers to his ability to create openings in battle. The name is sometimes attributed to French commissioner Polverel's exclamation: "That man makes an opening everywhere". Some writers think the name referred to a gap between his front teeth. Despite adhering to royalist views, Louverture began to use the language of freedom and equality associated with the French Revolution. From being willing to bargain for better conditions of slavery late in 1791, he had become committed to its complete abolition. After an offer of land, privileges, and recognising the freedom of slave soldiers and their families, Jean-Francois and Biassou formally allied with the Spanish in May 1793; Louverture likely did so in early June. He had made covert overtures to General Laveaux prior but was rebuffed as Louverture's conditions for alliance were deemed unacceptable. At this time the republicans were yet to make any formal offer to the slaves in arms and conditions for the blacks under the Spanish looked better than that of the French. In response to the civil commissioners' radical 20 June proclamation (not a general emancipation, but an offer of freedom to male slaves who agreed to fight for them) Louverture stated that "the blacks wanted to serve under a king and the Spanish king offered his protection." On the same day, the beleaguered French commissioner, Leger-Felicite Sonthonax, proclaimed emancipation for all slaves in French Saint-Domingue, hoping to bring the black troops over to his side. Initially, this failed, perhaps because Louverture and the other leaders knew that Sonthonax was exceeding his authority. However, on 4 February 1794, the French revolutionary government in France proclaimed the abolition of slavery. For months, Louverture had been in diplomatic contact with the French general etienne Maynaud de Bizefranc de Laveaux. During this time, his competition with the other rebel leaders was growing, and the Spanish had started to look with disfavour on his near-autonomous control of a large and strategically important region. Louverture's auxiliary force was employed to great success, with his army responsible for half of all Spanish gains north of the Artibonite in the West in addition to capturing the port town of Gona?ves in December 1793. However, tensions had emerged between Louverture and the Spanish higher-ups. His superior with whom he enjoyed good relations, Matías de Armona, was replaced with Juan de Lleonart - who was disliked by the black auxiliaries. Lleonart failed to support Louverture in March 1794 during his feud with Biassou, who had been stealing supplies for Louverture's men and selling their families as slaves. Unlike Jean-Francois and Bissaou, Louverture refused to round up enslaved women and children to sell to the Spanish. This feud also emphasised Louverture's inferior position in the trio of black generals in the minds of the Spanish - a check upon any ambitions for further promotion. On 29 April 1794 the Spanish garrison at Gona?ves was suddenly attacked by black troops fighting in the name of "the King of the French", who demanded that the garrison surrender. Approximately 150 men were killed and much of the populace forced to flee. White guardsmen in the surrounding area had been murdered, and Spanish patrols sent into the area never returned. Louverture is suspected to have been behind this attack, although was not present. He wrote to the Spanish 5 May protesting his innocence - supported by the Spanish commander of the Gona?ves garrison, who noted that his signature was absent from the rebels' ultimatum. It was not until 18 May that Louverture would claim responsibility for the attack, when he was fighting under the banner of the French. The events at Gona?ves made Lleonart increasingly suspicious of Louverture. When they had met at his camp 23 April, the black general had shown up with 150 armed and mounted men, as opposed to the usual 25, choosing not to announce his arrival or waiting for permission to enter. Lleonart found him lacking his usual modesty or submission, and after accepting an invitation to dinner 29 April, Louverture afterward failed to show. The limp that had confined him to his bed during the Gona?ves attack was thought to be feigned and Lleonart suspected him of treachery. Remaining distrustful of the black commander, Lleonart housed his wife and children whilst Louverture led an attack on Dondon in early May, an act which Lleonart later believed confirmed Louverture's decision to turn against the Spanish. Alliance with the French: 1794-1796 The timing of and motivation behind Louverture’s volte-face against Spain remains debated amongst historians. James claimed that upon learning of the emancipation decree in May 1794, Louverture decided to join the French in June. It is argued by Ardouin that Toussaint was indifferent toward black freedom, concerned primarily for his own safety and resentful over his treatment by the Spanish - leading him to officially join the French 4 May 1794 when he raised the republican flag over Gona?ves. Ott sees Louverture as "both a power-seeker and sincere abolitionist" who was working with Laveaux since January 1794 and switched sides 6 May.Afterward, Louverture claimed to have switched sides after emancipation was proclaimed and the commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel had returned to France in June 1794. However, a letter from Toussaint to General Laveaux confirms that he was already fighting officially on the behalf of the French by 18 May 1794.In the first weeks, Louverture eradicated all Spanish supporters from the Cordon de l'Ouest, which he had held on their behalf. He faced attack from multiple sides. His former colleagues in the slave rebellion were now fighting against him for the Spanish. As a French commander, he was faced with British troops who had landed on Saint-Domingue in September, as the British hoped to take advantage of the ongoing instability to capture the prosperous island. On the other hand, he was able to pool his 4,000 men with Laveaux's troops in joint actions. By now his officers included men who were to remain important throughout the revolution: his brother Paul, his nephew Mo?se, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe.Before long, Louverture had put an end to the Spanish threat to French Saint-Domingue. Third Commission: 1796-97 Treaties with Britain and the United States: 1798 For months, Louverture was in sole command of French Saint-Domingue, except for a semi-autonomous state in the south, where general Andre Rigaud had rejected the authority of the third commission.[90] Both generals continued harassing the British, whose position on Saint-Domingue was increasingly weak .The United States had suspended trade with France in 1798 because of increasing tensions between the American and French governments over the issue of privateering. The two countries entered into the so-called "Quasi"-War, but trade between Saint-Domingue and the United States was desirable to both Louverture and the United States. With Hedouville gone, Louverture sent Joseph Bunel to negotiate with the administration of John Adams. The terms of the treaty were similar to those already established with the British, but Louverture continually rebuffed suggestions from either power that he should declare independence. Expansion of territory: 1799-1801- Further information: War of Knives Constitution of 1801 Napoleon had informed the inhabitants of Saint-Domingue that France would draw up a new constitution for its colonies, in which they would be subjected to special laws. Despite his protestations to the contrary, the former slaves feared that he might restore slavery. In March 1801, Louverture appointed a constitutional assembly, composed chiefly of white planters, to draft a constitution for Saint-Domingue. He promulgated the Constitution on 7 July 1801, officially establishing his authority over the entire island of Hispaniola. It made him governor-general for life with near absolute powers and the possibility of choosing his successor. However, Louverture was not to explicitly declare Saint-Domingue's independence, acknowledging in Article 1 that it was a single colony of the French Empire. Article 3 of the constitution states: "There cannot exist slaves , servitude is therein forever abolished. All men are born, live and die free and French." The constitution guaranteed equal opportunity and equal treatment under the law for all races, but confirmed Louverture's policies of forced labour and the importation of workers through the slave trade. Louverture was not willing to compromise Catholicism for Vodou, the dominant faith among former slaves. Article 6 states that "the Catholic, Apostolic, Roman faith shall be the only publicly professed faith." Louverture charged Colonel Charles Humbert Marie Vincent, who personally opposed the drafted constitution, with the task of delivering it to Napoleon. Several aspects of the constitution were damaging to France: the absence of provision for French government officials, the lack of trade advantages, and Louverture's breach of protocol in publishing the constitution before submitting it to the French government. Despite his disapproval, Vincent attempted to submit the constitution to Napoleon but was briefly exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba for his pains. Louverture identified as a Frenchman and strove to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty. He wrote to Napoleon, but received no reply. Napoleon eventually decided to send an expedition of 20,000 men to Saint-Domingue to restore French authority, and possibly, to restore slavery as well. Given the fact that France had signed a temporary truce with Great Britain in the Treaty of Amiens, Napoleon was able to plan this operation without the risk of his ships being intercepted by the Royal Navy. Leclerc's campaign Napoleon's troops, under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Emmanuel Leclerc, were directed to seize control of the island by diplomatic means, proclaiming peaceful intentions, and keep secret his orders to deport all black officers. Meanwhile, Louverture was preparing for defense and ensuring discipline. This may have contributed to a rebellion against forced labor led by his nephew and top general, Mo?se, in October 1801. Because the activism was violently repressed, when the French ships arrived, not all of Saint-Domingue supported Louverture. In late January 1802, while Leclerc sought permission to land at Cap-Fran?ais and Christophe held him off, the Vicomte de Rochambeau suddenly attacked Fort-Liberte, effectively quashing the diplomatic option. Christophe had written to Leclerc: "you will only enter the city of Cap, after having watched it reduced to ashes. And even upon these ashes, I will fight you." Louverture's plan in case of war was to burn the coastal cities and as much of the plains as possible, retreat with his troops into the inaccessible mountains, and wait for yellow fever to decimate the French. The biggest impediment to this plan proved to be difficulty in internal communications. Christophe burned Cap-Fran?ais and retreated, but Paul Louverture was tricked by a false letter into allowing the French to occupy Santo Domingo. Other officers believed Napoleon's diplomatic proclamation, while some attempted resistance instead of burning and retreating. With both sides shocked by the violence of the initial fighting, Leclerc tried belatedly to revert to the diplomatic solution. Louverture's sons and their tutor had been sent from France to accompany the expedition with this end in mind and were now sent to present Napoleon's proclamation to Louverture. When these talks broke down, months of inconclusive fighting followed. This ended when Christophe, ostensibly convinced that Leclerc would not reinstitute slavery, switched sides in return for retaining his generalship in the French military. General Jean-Jacques Dessalines did the same shortly later. On 6 May 1802, Louverture rode into Cap-Fran?ais and negotiated an acknowledgement of Leclerc's authority in return for amnesty for him and his remaining generals. He thus ended hostilities and retired to his plantation in Ennery. Arrest, imprisonment, and death Jean-Jacques Dessalines was at least partially responsible for Louverture's arrest, as asserted by several authors, including Louverture's son, Isaac. On 22 May 1802, after Dessalines learned that Louverture had failed to instruct a local rebel leader to lay down his arms per the recent ceasefire agreement, he immediately wrote to Leclerc to denounce Louverture's conduct as "extraordinary". For this action, Dessalines and his spouse received gifts from Jean Baptiste Brunet. Leclerc originally asked Dessalines to arrest Louverture, but he declined. Jean Baptiste Brunet was ordered to do so, but accounts differ as to how he accomplished this. One version said that Brunet pretended that he planned to settle in Saint-Domingue and was asking Louverture's advice about plantation management. Louverture's memoirs, however, suggest that Brunet's troops had been provocative, leading Louverture to seek a discussion with him. Either way, Louverture had a letter, in which Brunet described himself as a "sincere friend", to take with him to France. Embarrassed about his trickery, Brunet absented himself during the arrest. Brunet deported Louverture and his aides to France on the frigate Creole and the 74-gun Heros, claiming that he suspected the former leader of plotting an uprising. Boarding Creole, Toussaint Louverture warned his captors that the rebels would not repeat his mistake,, "In overthrowing me you have cut down in Saint Domingue only the trunk of the tree of liberty; it will spring up again from the roots, for they are numerous and they are deep." The ships reached France on 2 July 1802 and, on 25 August, Louverture was imprisoned at Fort-de-Joux in Doubs. During this time, Louverture wrote a memoir. He died in prison on 7 April 1803. Suggested causes of death include exhaustion, malnutrition, apoplexy, pneumonia, and possibly tuberculosis. Throughout his life, Louverture was known as a devout Roman Catholic. After defeating forces led by Andre Rigaud in the War of the Knives, Louverture consolidated his power by decreeing a new constitution for the colony in 1801. It established Catholicism as the official religion. Although Vodou was generally practiced on Saint-Domingue in combination with Catholicism, little is known for certain if Louverture had any connection with it. Officially as ruler of Saint-Domingue, he discouraged it. Historians have suggested that he was a member of high degree of the Masonic Lodge of Saint-Domingue, mostly based on a Masonic symbol he used in his signature. The membership of several free blacks and white men close to him has been confirmed. His membership is, considering his status as a devout Catholic, nonetheless unlikely due to the papal ban on Catholics holding membership in Masonic organizations introduced by Pope Clement XII having gone into effect in 1738. Legacy&Influence In his absence, Jean-Jacques Dessalines led the Haitian rebellion until its completion, finally defeating the French forces in 1803, after they were seriously weakened by yellow fever; two-thirds of the men had died when Napoleon withdrew his forces. John Brown claimed influence by Louverture in his plans to invade Harpers Ferry. Brown and his band captured citizens, and for a small time the federal armory and arsenal there. Brown's goal was that the local slave population would join the raid, but they did not. Brown was eventually captured and put on trial, and he was hanged on 2 December 1859. Brown and his band showed devotion to the violent tactics of the Haitian Revolution. During the nineteenth century African Americans referred to Louverture as an example of how to reach freedom. Memorials On 29 August 1954, the Haitian ambassador to France, Leon Thebaud, inaugurated a stone cross memorial for Toussaint Louverture at the foot of Fort-de-Joux. Years afterward, the French government ceremoniously presented a shovelful of soil from the grounds of Fort-de-Joux to the Haitian government as a symbolic transfer of Louverture's remains. An inscription in his memory, was installed in 1998 on the wall of the Pantheon in Paris. It reads: Combattant de la liberte, artisan de l'abolition de l'esclavage, heros ha?tien mort deporte au Fort-de-Joux en 1803. (Combatant for liberty, craftsman of the abolition of slavery, Haitian hero died in deportation at Fort-de-Joux in 1803.) The inscription is opposite a wall inscription, also installed in 1998, honoring Louis Delgrès, a mulatto military leader in Guadeloupe who died leading the resistance against Napoleonic reoccupation and re-institution of slavery on that island. The location of Delgrès' body is also a mystery. Both inscriptions are located near the tombs of Jean Jaurès, Felix eboue, Marc Sch?lcher, and Victor Sch?lcher. Cultural references English poet William Wordsworth published his sonnet "To Toussaint L'Ouverture" in January 1803. African-American novelist Frank J. Webb refers to Louverture in his 1857 novel The Garies and Their Friends, about free African Americans. Louverture's portrait is said to inspire real estate tycoon Mr. Walters. In 1934, Trinidadian historian C. L. R. James wrote a play, Toussaint Louverture - The story of the only successful slave revolt in history. It was performed at the Westminster Theatre in London in 1936 and starred actors Paul Robeson (in the title role), Robert Adams, and Orlando Martins. The play was revised and produced in 1967 as The Black Jacobins (after James's classic 1938 history of that name) and this was performed by the Talawa Theatre Company in 1986 in a play directed by Yvonne Brewster and starring Norman Beaton in the title role. In 1938, American artist Jacob Lawrence created a series of paintings about the life of Louverture, which he later adapted into a series of prints. His painting, titled Toussaint L'Ouverture, hangs in the Butler Institute of American Art in Youngstown, Ohio. In 1944, African-American writer Ralph Ellison wrote the story "Mister Toussan", in which two African-American youths exaggerate the story of Louverture. He is seen as a symbol of Blacks asserting their identities and liberty over White dominance. Kenneth Roberts's best-selling novel, Lydia Bailey (1947), is set during the Haitian Revolution and features Louverture, Dessalines, and Cristophe as the principal historical characters. The 1952 American film based on the novel was directed by Jean Negulesco; Louverture is portrayed by actor Ken Renard. In 1971 the band Santana released on their Album Santana III a song called Toussaint L'Overture. It was also released on their Album Moonflower in 1977. The song's title is not in the lyrics, which are all in Spanish. In 1977 the opera Toussaint by David Blake was produced by English National Opera at the Coliseum Theatre in London, starring Neil Howlett in the title role. In 1983, Jean-Michel Basquiat, the Brooklyn-born New York painter of the 1980s, whose father was from Haiti, painted the monumental work, Toussaint L'Ouverture vs Savonarola, with a portrait of Louverture. The calypso "Haiti I Am Sorry", by David Rudder, first recorded in 1988 for the album Haiti by David Rudder and Charlie's Roots, begins with the words: "Toussaint was a mighty man/ and to make matters worse he was black...". Haitian actor Jimmy Jean-Louis starred as the title role in the 2012 French miniseries Toussaint Louverture. The song "Bring the Sun / Toussaint L’Ouverture" by the band Swans appears on their 2014 album To Be Kind. Name: Godoy Biography: Manuel Godoy(May 12, 1767 - October 4, 1851), His Highness,The Most Excellent and Most Serene,The Prince of the Peace,GE OM Position: First Secretary of State In 1784, at the age of 17, Godoy moved to Madrid where he entered the royal bodyguard. When he went to Madrid, his singing and guitar playing set him apart (although he denied this in his Memoirs) and led him to the Palace, where by his intelligence and audacity (and according to some, the favors of Queen María Luisa) he obtained Charles IV's trust. In 1788, he met the heir to the Spanish throne, who later that year acceded as King Charles IV. Godoy quickly became a favourite of Charles IV and of his wife, Queen Maria Luisa. On 30 December 1788, he was given the office of "Cadete supernumerario" in the royal palace and in May 1789, he was promoted to the rank of colonel. In November 1789, he was named a knight of the Order of Santiago and in August 1790, he advanced to the rank of commander in the same order. In 1791, he was Adjutant-General (Ajudante-General) of the Bodyguard, in February he was named Field-Marshal (Mariscal de Campo), in March Gentleman of the Chamber (Gentilhombre de la Cámara), and in July Lieutenant-General (Teniente-General) and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III in 1791. Manuel Godoy y álvarez de Faria, Prince of the Peace, 1st Duke of Alcudia, 1st Duke of Sueca, 1st Baron of Mascalbówas First Secretary of State of Spain from 1792 to 1797 and from 1801 to 1808. He received many titles, including príncipe de la Paz ('Prince of the Peace'), by which he is widely known. He is best known for his diplomacy with Napoleon. In 1804, Godoy was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He came to power at a young age as the favourite of Charles IV and Queen Maria Luisa. Despite multiple disasters, he maintained power. Many Spanish leaders blamed Godoy for the disastrous war with Britain that cut off Spain's Empire and ruined its finances. Crown Prince Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias led an attempt to oust Godoy in 1807. His unpopularity culminated in the Tumult of Aranjuez which forced him into exile. Birth and family background Godoy was born in Badajoz, the youngest child of noble but poor parents. His father was Jose de Godoy y Sánchez de los Ríos, de Cáceres y Mendez or Jose de Godoy y Sánchez de los Ríos Cáceres Morillo y Rodríguez. His brothers and sisters were: Jose de Godoy y álvarez de Faria, born in Badajoz, Canon of Badajoz and of Toledo; Luis de Godoy y álvarez de Faria (Badajoz - Rome, 1761 - Madrid 1797), Knight of Santiago (since 1787), married (1792) to Juana de Armendáriz, daughter of the Marqueses de Castelfuerte; Lieutenant-General (Teniente General) of the Royal Armies Diego de Godoy y álvarez de Faria de los Ríos Sánchez Zarzosa, 1st Duque de Almodóvar del Campo, Knight of Calatrava since 1794, twice married to Pascuala Paes and to Josefa Olazábal, without issue; Josefa Joaquina de Olazábal y Murguía (Santa María del Juncal, Irún, baptized July 18, 1761 - Irún, October 12, 1799) was 25th Noble Dame of the Royal Order of Queen María Luisa María Antonia de Godoy y álvarez de Faria (Badajoz - Genoa, July 25, 1836), 21st Noble Dame of the Royal Order of Queen María Luisa, married in Madrid, August 15, 1790 to Miguel de la Grúa Talamanca, 1st Marquis of Branciforte, Knight of Santiago and Charles III and Viceroy of New Spain Ramona de las Mercedes de Godoy y álvarez de Faria, 87th Noble Dame of the Royal Order of Queen María Luisa, married to Manuel Jose Cándido de Moreno Cidoncha, 1st Conde de Fuente Blanca, born in 1753 at Calera de León; it is given a note of his ascendance and descendance in the work of Antonio del Solar The nobility of his four surnames was emphasized by the entry of his brother Luis in the Order of Santiago and his brother Diego in the Order of Calatrava. His father Jose entered, with proofs, in the Order of Charles III in 1794, and two of his mother's brothers, Jose and Juan Manuel álvarez de Faria y Sánchez, Pimienta y Zarzosa, adopted the habit of the Order of Santiago in 1792, and the first at the Cross of Charles III in 1801. This noble family always had Knights, Commanders, and even Masters in the Order of Santiago. The House of Godoy came from the House of the same name in Galicia, to which belonged Pedro Ruíz de Godoy, son of Rodrigo Alfonso. This Knight married Teresa, daughter of Juan Mu?iz, and through her their descendants surnamed themselves Mu?iz de Godoy. Don Pedro Mu?iz de Godoy was a Knight and distinguished himself in the reign of King Henry II of Castile, of whom he was an intimate. He held the titles of Adelantado-Mayor and Capitán-General of the Frontier of Portugal; he died in 1387 at the Battle of Valverde, having been Master of the Order of Calatrava, and also of the Order of Santiago. Many of his descendants, connected to the Extreme?as families, were senior officials. Prime Minister of Spain Godoy's frequent promotions were signs of his increasing influence over the King and Queen. In 1791, Prime Minister Floridablanca accused Godoy of an adulterous relationship with the Queen. In January 1792, Floridablanca fell from office on account of Spain's relationship with the emerging French Republic. His successor Aranda fell from office the following November, and Queen Maria Luisa arranged for Godoy to be Prime Minister. Godoy's appointment seems to have been accomplished with the full acceptance of King Charles IV who, lacking talent for governing, was happy to employ a competent and trustworthy stand-in. In 1792, Godoy was made Duke of la Alcudia with grandeeship and a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece the following year. Another year later, he was made Captain General and Duke of Sueca, Marquis of Alvarez, and Lord of Soto de Roma. He was also made the 15th Minister for Foreign Affairs of Spain on 15 November 1792. Wars Godoy continued Spain's neutral policy towards the French Republic. In 1793, he failed to save King Louis XVI from the guillotine. Spain's protest against Louis' execution and its joining the alliance against the French Republic unleashed the War of the Pyrenees. The French armies managed to advance into the Basque districts in Spain by the west, and by the east (Catalonia). In July 1795, Godoy negotiated the Peace of Basel with France, by which Spain's frontier was restored, but its portion of the island of Hispaniola was ceded to the French. Although Godoy was widely criticized for the treaty, he received after its conclusion the title of "Prince of the Peace" (Príncipe de la Paz) and the grandeeship of Spain. In August 1796, Godoy negotiated and signed the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso with France, which required that Spain declare war on Great Britain. This placed its ally Portugal in a difficult position, as Portugal was allied to Great Britain. Honours In 1797, Godoy had Charles IV grant the titles of 1st Condesa de Castillo Fiel with a coat of arms of de Tudó and 1st Vizcondesa de Rocafuerte (Letters of July 14, 1807) to Godoy's mistress, Josefa Petra Francisca de Paula (Pepita) de Tudó y Cathalán, Alemany y Luecia, born in Cádiz on May 19, 1779, Dame of Her Royal Majesty the Queen and 385th Noble Dame of the Royal Order of Queen María Luisa. She was the daughter of Antonio de Tudó y Alemany, Brigadier of the Royal Spanish Armies, Governor of the Royal Place of Buen Retiro, and his wife Catalina Cathalán y Luecia. Some sources mention a secret marriage between Godoy and Pepita, supposedly celebrated 22 June 1797 in the Prado. Pepita had lived in Godoy's household for several years with her mother and two sisters. In 1797, Queen Maria Luisa arranged a marriage for Godoy, which she hoped would draw him from his mistress and at the same time obscure her own relationship with Godoy. Do?a María Teresa Carolina de Borbón y Vallabriga, Farnesio y Rozas, born at Velada on March 6, 1779 (some say January 26, 1780), Charles IV's cousin and the daughter of his exiled and disgraced uncle Luis de Borbón y Farnesio, 13th Count of Chinchón, was chosen to be Godoy's wife. Although she had not met Godoy, Maria Teresa acquiesced in the marriage, which ensured the restoration of her family's fortunes. They married on 11 September or 2 October in the Escorial, Madrid. Godoy received a financial settlement as part of the marriage agreement, but his mistress continued to live in the same house as his wife. Godoy was removed from the office of prime minister in 1797 and elevated to the position of Captain-General (Capitán-General). His position had been compromised by ongoing relationship struggles both with the French Republic and with Queen Maria Luisa, and he ceased to be Minister for Foreign Affairs on March 30, 1798. In October 1800, Godoy's wife Maria Teresa, previously made 1st Marquesa de Boadilla del Monte (Letter of August 4, 1799), bore a daughter Carlota Luisa Manuela, an only daughter who later inherited her mother's titles and/or representations and all of her father's Spanish and Portuguese titles and/or representations. She was baptised at the Escorial with Charles IV and Maria Louisa standing as godparents. The same day, along with her daughter and sister, she was made the 96th Noble Dame of the Royal Order of Queen María Luisa, on October 10, 1800. Return to power (1801-1808) Godoy's cousin, Pedro Cevallos became prime minister on 13 December 1799, allowing Godoy to assume de facto control of Spain as generalissimo of her armed forces. With support from France, he declared war on Portugal. Using his post of Captain-General, he led the army in the 1801 invasion of Portugal in the successful campaign that the Spanish authors call War of the Oranges (Guerra de las Naranjas or Guerra das Laranjas). His army left Badajoz on May 20. A writ of rendition he made to Elvas was energetically repealed by the Governor, Dom Francisco Jose Xavier de Noronha e Meneses of the Marqueses de Marialva Condes de Cantanhede, who maintained the fortified place until the end of the campaign. Even without a siege, Oliven?a and Juromenha surrendered without resistance, as did Arronches, Portalegre, Castelo de Vide, Barbacena and Ouguela. Campo Maior capitulated, after a siege of seventeen days, on the night of 6 June, when the Peace of Badajoz (June 6, 1801) had already been signed. Portugal went without Oliven?a. In 1802, he negotiated the Treaty of Amiens with Great Britain; Spain ceded the island of Trinidad to Britain but recovered Menorca. The same year. Napoleon wrote to King Charles IV telling him that Godoy was the de facto King of Spain and that he was also Maria Luisa's lover. The letter was intercepted by Godoy's staff, but he still allowed the letter to be delivered. Elevated to the position of Generalissimo of the Army of Land and Sea of Spain (1804), he was granted a private bodyguard. Meanwhile, his wife became heiress to her brother's House with his entry to the clergy, and thus became 15th Condesa de Chinchón and Grandee of Spain First Class with a Coat of Arms of Bourbon in 1803 (Letter of March 7, 1804) and 1st Duquesa de Sueca and Grandee of Spain First Class (Letter of March 7, 1804). In 1804, a British squadron engaged and defeated a Spanish force sailing from Peru to Spain, causing Godoy to again declare war on Britain. On October 21, 1805, the French and Spanish fleets suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending Spain's last bid to be a world power. In 1805, his mistress bore him a son, Manuel, and in 1807, another son, Luis. Some genealogies hold that they had an only son, who inherited his mother's titles/representations and his father's Italian title, which could only be acquired through the male line, named Manuel Luis. 1807: Treaty of Fontainebleau Main article: Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807) In 1807, he received the title of Most Serene Highness. Later that year, Godoy negotiated the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon, which eliminated Portugal from the list of nations and divided the country. Godoy was awarded the "Principality of the Algarves", with Alentejo and Algarve, under the protectorate of the Spanish King. This treaty preceded the first French invasion of Portugal. Article 2 of the treaty promised the southern half of Portugal to Godoy as "Prince of the Algarves"; this would have ensured Godoy's future. That future was already uncertain in Spain, because he was hated by the heir to the throne, the future Ferdinand VII. But the promises of the Treaty of Fontainebleau were not fulfilled, as Napoleon had already begun to consider making Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain. In December, Godoy allowed French troops in Spain as allies to assist in the partition of Portugal. The revolt against the French spread through Spain and Portugal. In March 1808, Godoy, Charles IV, Maria Luisa, and the rest of the court abandoned the Escorial and fled to Aranjuez with the intention of escaping to New Spain. Instead, they had to flee to Rome, while in Spain Godoy's riches were confiscated. Supporters of Ferdinand (who had for some time been considering a coup d'etat against his father) spread the story that Godoy had sold Spain to Napoleon. On March 18, a popular uprising known as the Tumult of Aranjuez took place. A mob stormed Godoy's residence, where at first they only found his mistress Pepita. Two days later, Godoy was found; Charles had Godoy's property confiscated and then imprisoned him in the Castle of Villaviciosa de Odón, a property owned by his wife Maria Teresa. To end the uprising and to save Godoy's life, Charles IV abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Inspired by elements from outside its ranks, the royal guard had sought to impose its views upon the body politic by 'pronouncing' against the regime. Challenged by this call of arms, Godoy and his royal patrons found that they had few defenders. The officer corps as a whole was disgruntled by the failure of reforms to make any difference in its situation, and his orders to resist the French were already widely disobeyed; much of the upper nobility and the Church was hostile; reformist circles had long since lost all faith in Godoy's political credentials; and the common people were in a state of open revolt. As for Fernando, he was seen as a saviour, the reception that he received when he rode into Madrid on 24 March. The new king was popular, but his security was not certain. Murat had occupied the city only the day before, and, despite increasingly abject attempts to win France's favour, refused to recognise Fernando. Carlos IV protested his abdication and appealed to Napoleon for assistance. With the two rivals openly craving his mediation, the emperor was placed in an ideal position to control events. He summoned Carlos, María Luisa and Fernando to meet him for a conference at Bayonne (Godoy was rescued from captivity and transported to France). With all the contestants united in his presence, Napoleon demanded that the rival kings renounce the throne and hand it to the emperor. Carlos assented, and on 5 May, Fernando's defiance was overcome and the throne was formally signed over to Napoleon in exchange for generous pensions for the royal family and guarantees of territorial and religious integrity for Spain. With the whole of the Peninsula subjugated, Napoleon appeared to have achieved his every objective. However, even as the Bourbons departed into exile - Carlos, María Luisa and Godoy to Italy, and Fernando, his brother, Carlos, and uncle, Antonio, to Talleyrand's chateau at Valen?ay - the Peninsula remained restive. Setting this aside, however, opportunism was the key. Napoleon had been motivated neither by an altruistic desire to spread the benifts of freedom and enlightenment, nor by a gigantic strategic combination, nor by an overwhelming clan loyalty that made the creation of family courts the centrepiece of French foreign policy. Strategic, ideological and historical factors were present in his thinking, certainly, but in the last resort what mattered was, first, the emperor's character, and, second, the force of circumstance. Forever eager to demonstrate his prowess, impose his stamp upon affairs, and demonstrate his contempt for diplomacy, the emperor was confronted with a situation in which nothing seemed to stand between him and the stroke that was more audacious than anything that he had yet attempted. Never had he been more wrong. Exile Godoy spent the next few years living in exile with Charles, Maria Luisa, his daughter Carlota Luisa, his mistress Pepita, and their sons (Maria Teresa had divorced him in 1808). They lived for several months at Fontainebleau, then at Compiègne, and then at Aix-en-Provence. In October 1808, they arrived in Marseille, where they spent four years. In July 1812, they moved to Rome, where they lived in the Palazzo Barberini. In April 1814, Ferdinand VII was restored as King of Spain (he had lived for six years in France). He refused to allow his parents or Godoy to return to Spain and had Pope Pius VII exile Godoy and his mistress to Pesaro. During the Hundred Days, Charles IV and Maria Luisa fled from France to Verona, where they were joined by Godoy and Pepita. Godoy petitioned the Emperor Franz I of Austria for asylum in Vienna, but Ferdinand forbade it. After Napoleon's final defeat, Charles IV, Maria Luisa and Pepita returned to Rome, but the Pope required Godoy to stay at Pesaro. In September 1815, Charles and Maria Luisa asked the pope to annul the marriage between Godoy and Maria Teresa. Godoy was allowed to return to Rome, but to preserve appearances, Pepita and her sons moved to Genoa. Ferdinand then bribed the police to expel Pepita and her family from Genoa; and again from Livorno. Finally, she found a home in Pisa. In March 1818, Godoy's younger son Luis died. In October, Godoy became ill with malaria; he received the last rites, but recovered. At the end of the year, Maria Luisa caught pneumonia; Charles IV was absent in Naples at the time, but Godoy stayed by her bedside until she died, on January 2, 1819. Five days later, Charles IV wrote to Godoy asking him to vacate the Palazzo Barberini in Rome, only weeks before Charles himself died in Naples. Ferdinand VII continued to forbid Godoy to return to Spain and ensured that he did not receive any state pension. He also did not allow Godoy's daughter Carlota to marry into a sovereign house, but did agree to her marriage in 1821 to Don Camillo Ruspoli, the younger son of a Roman princely family. On November 24, 1828, Maria Teresa died at Paris. The following year or still in December of that year, Godoy married Pepita. The Pope made him 1st Principe di Paserano, but Godoy went to live in Paris in 1832, where they lived in somewhat straitened circumstances. Louis Philippe later gave him a pension. In 1836 and 1839, Godoy published Memórias del Príncipe de la Paz, his memoirs. Charles IV had asked that he not do this until after the death of his son Ferdinand VII (who had died in 1833). Pepita returned to Spain in hopes of reclaiming the family properties. She died in Madrid on September 20, 1869. In 1844, he was authorized to return to Spain. In 1847, the Spanish government returned to Godoy part of his confiscated property and restored his titles. He died at Paris in 1851. His body was buried first in the Church of Saint-Roch, but the following year was transferred to the Père Lachaise Cemetery, where it rests today. The painting La maja desnuda by Francisco de Goya, which depicts a fully nude reclining woman, was once in Godoy's personal collection. It is variously claimed to portray Josefa, Countess of Castillo Fiel or Cayetana, Duchess of Alba, who were Godoy's mistresses. Offices and titles Besides receiving many decorations, in Spain he carried many titles and offices: ?th Marques de Alcúdia with the previous title of ?th Vizconde de Alto Castillo (titles dated 1722) (Royal Cedule of June 10, 1792). 1st Duque de la Alcudia and Grandee of Spain First Class with a Coat of Arms of Godoy (Letter of July 4, 1792) Prince of the Peace (Letter of September 27, 1795), 1st Duke of Sueca and Grandee of Spain First Class (Letter of March 7, 1804) 1st Barón de Mascalbó, in Catalonia, with a Coat of Arms of Godoy (Letter of June 23, 1806) for being the Perpetual Decane Regedor (Rector) of Reus Most Serene Highness (1807) Se?or de los Estados de la Campana de Albalat y la Serena, de Lago de Albufera (Valencia), and of the villages of Huetor de Santillan y Veas Se?or de los Sotos de Roma y Aldovea Perpetual Regedor (Rector) of the Villages of Madrid, Nava del Rey and Reus, and the Cities of Burgos, Segovia, Valencia, Murcia, Ronda, Manresa, Guadalajara, Gerona, Barcelona, Pe?íscola, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Lerida, Toledo, Toro, Zamora, Asunción de Paraguay, Buenos Aires and Mexico; Preeminent Veinte y Quatro (Twenty-Four) of Jerez de la Frontera, Sevilla and Jerez de los Caballeros Almerante-Mayor (Admiral-Major) of Spain and the Indies Captain-General of the Royal Armies Captain of the Body Guards Hermano Mayor (Greater Brother) and Perpetual Alcalde of the Holy and Royal Old Brotherhood of Toledo, with voice, vote and Presidency; President of the Royal Colegial Body of the Hidalgos of the Nobility of Madrid (1804) Gentleman of the Chamber of His Catholic Majesty, with exercise Counsilor of State Prime-Minister of King Don Carlos IV Commander of Valencia del Ventoso, Rivera and Acheucal in the Order of Santiago Knight of the Order of Santiago (1790) Knight of the Renowned Order of the Golden Fleece Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III Bailiff of the Knights of Malta 1st Conde de evora Monte (Village of the Province of Alentejo, former Council of Vimieiro Administrative District of evora) in Portugal, with Honours of Relative and the Prerogative, unique in that country, of the title being de Juro e Herdade, with a perpetual dispensation from the Mental Law (Letter of Queen Maria I of Portugal through John, Prince Regent of October 2, 1797), and Grand Cross of the Real Ordem dos Cavaleiros de Nosso Senhor Jesus Cristo. 1st Principe de Godoy di Bassano and Grand Cross of the Order of St. January and St. Fernando of Naples (Italy) Grand Sash (Grand Cordon) of the Legion of Honour (France) Legacy Lord Byron mentions Godoy in his Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (Canto the First, XLVIII), where a Spanish lusty muleteer... chants "Viva el Rey" / And check his song to execrate Godoy, / The royal wittol Charles... etc. and in the note to these lines he explains that it is to this man that the Spaniards universally impute the ruin of their country. Name: AlemdarPasha Biography: Alemdar Mustafa Pasha(1750-15 November 1808) Position: Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire，Commander of Janissaries Nationality:Ottoman His measures would eventually lay the ground for further reforms in the Ottoman Empire. But meanwhile, the ruling elites were resentful of him. On 15 November 1808, about a thousand Janissaries raided Alemdar Mustafa Pasha's house. Realizing he could not survive the assault, he ignited the gunpowder reserves in the cellar of his house, killing himself and approximately 400 Janissaries in the ensuing explosion. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha was buried in the courtyard of the Zeynep Sultan Mosque in Istanbul. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (also called Bayraktar Mustafa Pasha; died 15 November 1808) was an Ottoman military commander and a Grand Vizier born in Khotyn in then Ottoman territory Ukraine in 1765. He was of Tosk Albanian origin, from the village of Goskov? near Kor??. Both alemdar and bayraktar mean "the standard bearer" and were the names given to the same rank in the Janissary corps. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha is often regarded as one of the pioneering public figures, who recognized the need of a modern army, as he was instrumental in setting up the French military mission in 1796. Early career He was originally the ayan (provincial notable) of Rus?uk, and one of the strongest ayans of his time. The deposition of the reformer Sultan Selim III in 1807, and his replacement with the reactionary Mustafa IV by the Janissaries and other opponents of reform, provoked Alemdar Mustafa Pasha to lead his army of Albanians and Bosnians to Constantinople in an attempt to reinstate Selim III and restore his reforms. After he arrived, Mustafa IV ordered Selim III and Mahmud II killed, succeeding in the former case. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, seeing Selim III dead, gave fealty to Mahmud II (Selim's cousin), and he was instated the sultan, with Alemdar as his Grand Vizier. As vizier, Bayraktar purged the soldiers who had rebelled against Selim, removed conservatives from government positions and replaced them with men sympathetic to reform. Bayraktar modernized the army and navy and attempted to reform the Janissaries, but Mahmud, fearing a political backlash of the elite corps, halted such change. Bayraktar's power and influence and his arrogance wielding it caused a rebellion against his position. In November 1808, the Janissaries attacked the Porte and laid siege to the stone powder magazine where he and his personal guard had taken refuge. As the Janissaries were about to break in the powder barrels exploded, killing Bayraktar, his guard, and several hundred Janissaries. He rose through the Janissary corps. After having been promoted to commandership, he took part in the wars against Austria and Russian Empire. In 1808, when the Sultan Mustafa IV ascended the throne with the help of the reactionaries who opposed the reform efforts undertook by Selim III, and the deposed Selim III was imprisoned, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha was the governor of the city of Rus?uk (today "Rousse") in Bulgaria. The assault on Constantinople and fight against the reactionaries Main article: Ottoman coups of 1807-08 Alemdar Mustafa Pasha had always been a keen supporter of Sultan Selim III. With Mustafa IV on the throne rule and the reactionary rebels commanded by Kabak?? Mustafa in command of the Ottoman capital, Mustafa Pasha gathered a council in Rus?uk and the council decided to take action. On 21 June 1808, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha and his army of about 15,000 men arrived in Constantinople. They easily took control, and Alemdar Mustafa Pasha ordered the rebels killed or exiled. When Mustafa IV learned of these events, he decided to have his uncle, Selim III, and his younger brother, Prince Mahmut, killed in order to remain the only member of the imperial family. The executioners arrived first in the room of Selim III in the palace. Selim III, who was playing reed flute and had no weapons, resisted with his flute, but his efforts proved futile and he was strangled. His dead body was brought in front of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, who began weeping, thinking he had failed in all his objectives. His men warned him that Mustafa IV's men planned to kill Prince Mahmud as well. The executioners had raided the prince's room, but the servants hid the prince on the roof. Alemdar Mustafa and his men arrived and broke down the palace doors. They killed the rebels and eventually saved the prince. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha declared prince Mahmud the new sultan with the name Mahmud II, and became his grand vizier. In the service of Sultan Mahmud II But differences of opinion soon emerged between the two. First of all, he made an agreement with the rebel representative from Anatolian lands, which was named "Charter of Alliance" (Sened-i Ittifak). Sultan Mahmud thought that his authority was limited by that agreement, and he withdrew his support for the Pasha. Secondly, he re-established the army of Nizam-? Cedid under a different name: Sekban-I Cedid Army. the Nizam-? Cedid Army was a rival of the corps of Janissaries; therefore the Janissaries hated this army. The new name can be explained as an effort not to anger Janissaries. Furthermore, Bayraktar conducted an investigation among the Janissary corps and he fired the men who were not in fact Janissaries but receiving Janissary salaries all the same. Death His measures would eventually lay the ground for further reforms in the Ottoman Empire. But meanwhile, the ruling elites were resentful of him. On 15 November 1808, about a thousand Janissaries raided Alemdar Mustafa Pasha's house. Realizing he could not survive the assault, he ignited the gunpowder reserves in the cellar of his house, killing himself and approximately 400 Janissaries in the ensuing explosion. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha was buried in the courtyard of the Zeynep Sultan Mosque in Istanbul. A street in Istanbul near the Sublime Porte is named after Alemdar Mustafa Pasha. A plaque there states that his father was a Janissary from Ruscuk. Name: Ewald Biography: Johann von Ewald(20 March 1744 - 25 June 1813) Position: Hessian Mercenary Commander Allegiance: Hesse-Kassel Kingdom of Denmark-Norway Branch/service: Britain Army, Hesse-Kassel Army, Army of Kingdom of Denmark-Norway Rank: Lieutenant General Commands held: Schleswig J?ger Corps Schleswig-Holstein Battalion of Light Infantry Military command of Hamburg Military command of the Duchy of Holstein Johann von Ewald was a German military officer from Hesse-Kassel. After first serving in the Seven Years' War, he was the commander of the J?ger corps of the Hessian Leib Infantry Regiment attached to British forces in the American Revolutionary War. He arrived with his troops, first serving in the Battle of White Plains in October 1776. He saw regular action until his capture at Yorktown in 1781. In 1788, he joined the Danish Army, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant general; he also served as governor general of Holstein during the Napoleonic Wars. Following his American war experiences, he wrote an Essay on Partisan Warfare (German: Abhandlung über den kleinen Krieg), a widely read treatise on guerrilla warfare. He also kept a journal during most of his time in North America that has since become a valuable resource for historians of the war. Seven Years' War Johann Ewald was born in Kassel, the capital city of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel, on 30 March 1744. His father Georg Heinrich Ewald was a bookkeeper, and his mother, Katharina Elisabeth, was the daughter of a Kassel merchant. Both parents died while he was relatively young, and he was raised after their deaths by his grandmother. In an effort to dissuade the 14-year-old Ewald from a military career, he was taken to see the battlefield after the 23 July 1758 Battle of Sandershausen. Ewald's response to the scene was "Oh, how happy are they who died for their country in such a way!" In 1760 Ewald enlisted in the Regiment Gilsa, and was immediately involved in combat. Serving first in the army of Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, the regiment saw action at Corbach and Warburg before besieging Kassel in 1761, then held by the French. Ewald was wounded during this siege in March 1761, and was promoted to ensign for his bravery. Returning to action in June, his regiment saw further action in 1761 and 1762, notably at Wilhelmstal and the second Siege of Cassel in 1762. Peace After the Seven Years' War ended, Ewald remained with the regiment, now reduced. He was transferred to the guards, where he was promoted to second lieutenant in 1766. In 1769 he was transferred to the Leib Regiment after the Landgrave, Frederick II, decreed that only nobles could serve in the guards. On 20 February 1770, after an evening of drinking, Ewald got into an argument with a friend. In the ensuing duel, Ewald was struck in the left eye, and very nearly died. According to Ewald, the landgrave refused to punish him for this (even though it took more than a year to recover from the injury), saying "When a horse has run out of the stable, one closes the door". Ewald from then on wore a glass eye that caused him some discomfort. Ewald enrolled in the Collegium Carolinum, where he studied military theory and economics. As a result of these studies, Ewald published his first treatise in 1774, dedicated to Frederick II: Gedanken eines hessischen Officiers über das, was man bey Führung eines Detaschements im Felde zu thun hat (Thoughts of a Hessian officer about what he has to do when leading a detachment in the field). Ewald was also promoted to captain in 1774, the last promotion he would receive in the Kassel service. War in America 1776-1778: New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia In late 1775 Frederick II signed an agreement with King George III of Great Britain to supply him with troops for use in North America in suppressing the rebellion that had broken out in the Thirteen Colonies. The troops supplied by Frederick included the Leib Regiment, and Ewald arrived in New York City in October 1776. Sent forward to New Rochelle, his j?ger company was given a lead position in the army of General William Howe, and was first engaged in the 28 October Battle of White Plains. His position in the advance became quite normal for his company, which was consequently often engaged in skirmishes and the leading edges of battles. Ewald served with some distinction in the New Jersey and Philadelphia campaigns, where he was involved in (among others) battles at Mount Holly, Brandywine, and Germantown. On the direction of General Charles Cornwallis, Ewald developed a plan of attack against a Continental Army position at Bound Brook, New Jersey in March 1777. In the April battle, the Continentals were surprised, and their commander, Benjamin Lincoln, narrowly avoided capture. During the Philadelphia campaign, Ewald's j?gers were also involved in the Battle of Red Bank. They covered the retreat after the Hessian Brigadier General Carl von Donop's disastrous attempt to take the fort by assault was repulsed, killing Donop and a number of his officers, including some that Ewald considered friends. Ewald analyzed the debacle in his journal, pointing out that the garrison should not have been summoned to surrender (removing the element of surprise), and that the main thrust of the attack was misplaced. Ewald's unit was involved in many of the minor engagements during the occupation of Philadelphia, and was almost constantly engaging the Americans during the British march across New Jersey. Ewald noted of that march, "One can truly state that this march cost two thousand men." 1779-1781: New York, Charleston, and Virginia In 1779 Ewald's company was involved in British operations to capture key American defenses at Stony Point, New York. It was not involved in the American response, a raid by Brigadier General Anthony Wayne that captured more than half the British garrison. Most of 1779 was spent on guard duty, until December, when his unit, specifically requested by Generals Clinton and Cornwallis, was selected for the expedition to take Charleston, South Carolina. His company was again in the vanguard on the march from the landing place to the city. At one point he used a ruse to reconnoiter an enemy position on the Stono River. After waving his handkerchief, he approached an enemy outpost, and inquired whether the unit, which he ascertained to be Pulaski's Legion, had a supposed acquaintance of his serving in it. During the conversation he carefully noted the surrounding features, before returning to his unit. This action drew praise from General Clinton. After the successful siege, Ewald's company returned to New York with General Clinton, leaving Cornwallis the task of taking control of South Carolina. He spent the remainder of 1780 on guard duty around New York, until he learned in December that his company had been chosen to be part of Benedict Arnold's expedition to Virginia. Landing in Virginia on 31 December 1780, the expedition moved up the James River, Ewald's company and the Queen's Rangers of John Graves Simcoe in the lead, and raided Richmond on 5 January 1781. The force then made its way to Portsmouth, destroying military and economic targets along the way. Ewald's company reached Portsmouth on 19 January, and began the task of fortifying the town. The arrival of a small French fleet in the area was accompanied by a flurry of defensive activity, but the French left without taking any action. Rumors of French and American forces (both land and naval) to attack the position led Arnold to order additional work to fortify the Portsmouth area against possible attacks. When French ships were again sighted (probably consequent to the 16 March Battle of Cape Henry), tensions rose again in the town, and Ewald was wounded in the knee during a patrol on 19 March. At the time, a small detachment of Ewald's j?gers was apparently the only force providing defense against a large detachment of American militia on the far side of a creek. Arnold's failure to mention the j?gers' valor in holding off this force rankled Ewald, and he complained of it to the commander. Arnold ensured that recognition of their work was given that evening. The French flag sighted turned out to have been a false flag; the ships had in fact been British, and were followed on 31 March by the arrival of more than 2,000 men under the command of William Phillips. While Ewald recuperated from his injury at Norfolk, Phillips led the combined forces on further raids into Virginia. His forces were eventually taken over by General Cornwallis, who joined his southern army with then at Petersburg in May. On 29 May, General Alexander Leslie arrived in Portsmouth to take command of the establishment. Feeling recovered from his injury, Ewald requested and received permission to rejoin his unit with Cornwallis's army. He was with that force through its movements in Virginia. During the later stages of these movements, Ewald's unit was often detached along with Simcoe's on foraging and raiding expeditions. On the morning of 26 June, Simcoe's force was resting before rejoining Cornwallis in Williamsburg, when it was surprised by an advance company of Americans. These were from a larger detachment of the Marquis de Lafayette's army led by General Wayne that was chasing after Simcoe, hoping to bring him to an engagement. The resulting battle was somewhat confused, and both sides broke off the battle, fearing the supporting force of the other was near. Ewald, as soon as the alarm was raised, coolly organized his j?gers in a position to attack the American flank. The British eventually withdrew, only to meet Cornwallis and his advance units a few miles down the road. Although Ewald was not involved in the Battle of Green Spring that attended the British army's crossing of the James River on 6 July, he was with the army when it arrived at Yorktown. As the American and French forces began to concentrate around them, Ewald and his j?gers continued to be on the edges, making forage raids and skirmishing with the enemy; however, sickness took its toll on his unit. He reported on 18 September that his unit had shrunk to 29 men, half of whom were sick. As the siege neared its end, Cornwallis released all of the former slaves that had accompanied his army, intending to force them to become a burden on the Americans. However, Ewald recounts making a patrol into the no mans land between the two forces, and having to force groups of those unfortunates to move further toward the American lines. Following the British surrender, Ewald returned to New York on parole. His depression over the circumstances was lifted by a letter from Frederick II, specifically citing Ewald for "fine conduct" and rewarded him with "my extraordinary satisfaction and the assurance of my entirely special favore and grace." Ewald spent 1782 and 1783 with the rest of the j?ger corps on Long Island. Sickness acquired in the south recurred, and he was eventually released from his parole as part of a prisoner exchange. However, the war was effectively at an end, with peace concluded in September 1783. In October of that year, Ewald left New York with a friend to visit West Point, due to its reputation as the most important American stronghold of the war. General Henry Knox graciously allowed them access, and had his adjutant show them around. On 21 November, the j?ger corps was among the last units to leave New York. On 22 April 1784, Ewald returned to Kassel. Service with Denmark On his return, Ewald was reassigned to the Regiment von Dittfurth. Over the next year, he worked on another military treatise, Abhandlung über den kleinen Krieg (Essay on partisan warfare), that was published in 1785. Upon the death of Frederick II, William IX ordered Ewald to reform the Hesse-Hanau j?ger force. In 1787 Ewald, still a captain, was passed over for promotion. The officers promoted ahead of him were nobles, and the indignity led him to request a release from service so that he might pursue opportunities for advancement elsewhere. William's brother Charles recommended Ewald for service in Denmark, where he had been raised. In August 1788, Ewald departed for Denmark with his new bride, Susanne. Ewald was hopeful for action, as there were rumors that Denmark would be drawn into the war just begun between Russia and Sweden. Ewald was commissioned a lieutenant colonel in the Danish army, and authorized to raise a corps of j?gers in the Duchy of Schleswig, then a Danish territory. He was given command of a light infantry battalion in 1790, and also raised to the Danish nobility. In 1795 he was promoted to colonel, with a promotion to major general following in 1802. In 1801 he commanded the Danish occupying forces in Hamburg and Lübeck, where he was so well liked by the citizenry that they invited him to become their civil governor; he declined. By 1803, the Napoleonic Wars began to threaten Denmark, which had remained neutral. Ewald was again in the vanguard of the military forces, responsible for the defense of the Duchy of Holstein, which represented Denmark's southern frontier. In 1806, after the Prussian loss to French forces in the Battle of Lübeck, Prussian forces attempted to cross the border to escape the French. The French, believing they had done so, demanded the right to cross the border in pursuit. Ewald, in a bold bid to speak directly with the French commander, Joachim Murat, jumped a horse over a ditch and convinced a French officer to bring him to Murat. Murat refused to believe Ewald's assertion that Prussians had not crossed the border, and threatened to kill him. Murat also refused to give Ewald an escort back to his own lines; Ewald had some difficult returning due to the unsettled conditions in the area. The incident resulted in the removal of French forces from Danish territory. Napoleon also insured that Danish neutrality was respected. Danish neutrality did not last much longer. In 1807 the British launched a preemptive strike against Copenhagen, driving Crown Prince Frederick into alliance with the French. Danish plans to attack Sweden during the winter of 1808-1809 were not realized due to bad weather; Ewald was to have been in the vanguard. Frederick, who ascended to the throne in 1809, awarded Ewald with the Grand Cross of the Order of Dannebrog. In May 1809 Ewald and a Danish corps were sent to assist in putting down a revolt in Swedish Pomerania. Combined with Dutch forces, the revolt was put down in the decisive Battle of Stralsund; the rebel leader, Ferdinand von Schill, was killed by a Danish soldier. Ewald's performance in the battle was lauded: Frederick promoted him to lieutenant general, and he was awarded the Dutch Order of the Union and the French Legion of Honor. Ewald continued to serve in command of Danish forces stationed in Schleswig-Holstein, but saw no further action. In 1812 King Frederick awarded him the Order of Dannebrog. Ewald retired in May 1813, suffering from dropsy. He died in Kiel on 25 June, surrounded by his wife, son, and five daughters. He was buried four days later. The cemetery in Kiel where he was interred was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II. Legacy Ewald's son Carl also served in the Danish military, rising to the rank of major general. In addition to numerous treatises on military tactics, Ewald kept a journal during his service in North America. The diary was a four volume bound edition prepared by Ewald for his heirs in 1798. Joseph Tustin acquired three of the four volumes in the aftermath of World War II, and spent many years searching for the missing third volume. Although he believes it to have been destroyed, he did acquire a copy of the third volume's text, made from a copy of the original in the possession of the heirs of the Schleswig-Holstein nobility. Tustin describes the diary as "the most important and comprehensive diary kept by a Hessian mercenary." Name: Robespierre Biography: Maximilien Robespierre(6 May 1758 - 28 July 1794), The Incorruptible Position: President of the Jacobin Club,Member of the Committee of Public Safety，24th President of the National Convention，Deputy of the National Convention，Deputy of the National Constituent Assembly，Deputy of the National Assembly，Deputy to the Estates General for the Third Estate Political party :The Mountain (1792-1794) Other political affiliations:Jacobin Club (1789-1794) Alma mater: Collège Louis-le-Grand University of Paris Allegiance: French First Republic Commands: THE REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNALS,Sans-culottes Robespierre praised the revolutionary government and argued that terror and virtue were necessary: If virtue is the spring of a popular government in times of peace, the spring of that government during a revolution is virtue combined with terror: virtue, without which terror is destructive; terror, without which virtue is impotent. Terror is only justice prompt, severe, and inflexible; it is then an emanation of virtue; it is less a distinct principle than a natural consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing wants of the country ... The government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny Maximilien Fran?ois Marie Isidore de Robespierre (French: ; 6 May 1758 - 28 July 1794) was a French lawyer and statesman who was one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. As a member of the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club, he campaigned for universal manhood suffrage and the abolition both of celibacy for the clergy, and slavery. In 1791, Robespierre was elected as "public accuser" and became an outspoken advocate for male citizens without a political voice, for their unrestricted admission to the National Guard, to public offices, for the right to petition and the right to bear arms in self defence. Robespierre played an important part in the agitation which brought about the fall of the French monarchy on 10 August 1792 and the summoning of a National Convention. His goal was to create a one and indivisible France, equality before the law, to abolish prerogatives and to defend the principles of direct democracy. As one of the leading members of the Paris Commune, Robespierre was elected as a deputy to the French Convention in early September 1792 but was soon criticised for trying to establish either a triumvirate or a dictatorship. In April 1793, Robespierre urged the creation of a sans-culotte army to enforce revolutionary laws and sweep away any counter-revolutionary conspirator, leading to the armed Insurrection of 31 May - 2 June 1793. Because of his health Robespierre announced he was to resign but in July he was appointed as a member of the powerful Committee of Public Safety, and reorganized the Revolutionary Tribunal. In October, after Robespierre proposed in vain to close the convention, the Committees declared themself a revolutionary government, the joint domination of the Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security. Those who were not actively defending France (moderantisme) became his enemy. He exerted his influence to suppress the republican Girondins to the right, the radical Hebertists to the left and then the indulgent Dantonists in the centre. Robespierre is best known for his role as a member of the Committee of Public Safety as he personally signed 542 arrests, especially in spring and summer 1794. The question of just how personally responsible Robespierre was for the law of 22 Prairial remains controversial, but it is clear he did not accept any changes. Coming into effect at the height of the la Grande Terreur, the law removed the few procedural guarantees still afforded to the accused, vastly expanded the power of the tribunal, and ultimately resulted in the number of executions in France rising dramatically. Although Robespierre always had like-minded allies, the politically motivated bloodshed that he incited disillusioned many. Moreover, the deist Cult of the Supreme Being that he had founded and zealously promoted generated suspicion in the eyes of both anticlericals and other political factions, who felt he was developing grandiose delusions about his place in French society. Robespierre was eventually undone by his obsession with the vision of an ideal republic and his indifference to the human costs of installing it, turning both members of the Convention and the French public against him. The Terror ended when he and his allies were arrested in the Paris town hall on 9 Thermidor. Robespierre was wounded in his jaw, but it is not known if it was self-inflicted or the outcome of the skirmish. About 90 people, including Robespierre, were executed in the days after, events that initiated a period known as the Thermidorian Reaction. A divisive figure during his lifetime, Robespierre remains controversial to this day. His legacy and reputation continue to be subject to ongoing academic and popular debate. To some, Robespierre was the Revolution's principal ideologist and embodied the country's first democratic experience, marked by the often revised and never implemented French Constitution of 1793. To others, he was the incarnation of the Terror itself, and provided in his speeches a justification of civilian armament. British historian George Rude estimates that Robespierre made some 900 speeches, in which he often expressed his political and philosophical views forcefully. Robespierre studied law for three years at the Sorbonne. Upon his graduation on 31 July 1780, he received a special prize of 600 livres for exemplary academic success and personal good conduct. On 15 May 1781, Robespierre gained admission to the bar. The bishop of Arras, Hilaire de Conzie, appointed him as one of the five judges in the criminal court in March 1782. Robespierre soon resigned, owing to discomfort in ruling on capital cases arising from his early opposition to the death penalty. His most famous case took place in May 1783 and involved a lightning rod in St. Omer. His defense was printed and he sent Benjamin Franklin a copy.On 15 November 1783, he was elected a member of the literary Academy of Arras. In 1784 the Academy of Metz awarded him a medal for his essay on the question of whether the relatives of a condemned criminal should share his disgrace, which made him a man of letters. He and Pierre Louis de Lacretelle, an advocate and journalist in Paris, divided the prize. Robespierre attacked inequality before the law: the indignity of illegitimate or natural children (1786), three years later the lettres de cachet (imprisonment without a trial) and the sidelining of women in academic life. (Robespierre had particularly Louise-Felicite de Keralio in mind). He became acquainted with Martial Herman, a lawyer, the young officer and engineer Lazare Carnot and with the teacher Joseph Fouche, all of whom would play a role in his later life. Robespierre also claimed to have seen Rousseau, shortly before he died. In August 1788, King Louis XVI announced new elections for all provinces and a gathering of the Estates-General for 1 May 1789 to solve France's serious financial and taxation problems. Robespierre participated in a discussion regarding how the French provincial government should be elected, arguing in his Address to the Nation of Artois that if the former mode of election by the members of the provincial estates was again adopted, the new Estates-General would not represent the people of France. In late February 1789, France saw a pressing crisis due to its desire for a new constitution, according to Gouverneur Morris. In his electoral district, Robespierre began to make his mark in politics with his Notice to the Residents of the Countryside of 1789 in which he attacked the local authorities. With this, he secured the support of the country electors. On 26 April 1789, Robespierre was elected as one of 16 deputies for Pas-de-Calais to the Estates-General; others were Charles de Lameth and Albert de Beaumetz. When the deputies arrived at Versailles they were presented to the king and listened to Jacques Necker's three-hour-long speech about institutional and political reforms. They were informed that all voting in the Estates General of 1789 would still be "by order" not "by head", so their double representation as promised on 27 November 1788 was to be meaningless. It resulted in Abbe Sieyès opposing the veto of the King, suggesting that the Third Estate meet separately and change its name. On 6 June Robespierre made his first speech of note, attacking the church hierarchy. On 13 June, Robespierre joined the deputies, who would call themselves the National Assembly representing 96% of the nation. On 9 July, the Assembly moved to Paris. It transformed itself into the National Constituent Assembly to discuss a new constitution and taxation system. On Monday 13 July, the National Assembly proposed to reestablish the "bourgeois militia" in Paris to control the riots. On 14 July, the people demanded arms and stormed the H?tel des Invalides and the Bastille. Without going into detail the town militia changed into National Guard, keeping the very poorest citizens at arm's length. Marquis de La Fayette was acclaimed their commander-in-chief. On 20 July, the Assembly decided to establish National Guards in every commune in the country. The Gardes Fran?aises were admitted and supported to elect "new chefs". Discussing the matter and attacking Lally-Tollendal who called for law and order Robespierre reminded to the citizens who had defended liberty a few days before, but were not allowed to have access to it. In October he and Louvet supported Maillard after the Women's March on Versailles. The original group of nascent all-female protesters had a relatively conciliatory message, and they were augmented by more militarized and experienced male groups by the time they reached Versailles. While the Constituent Assembly occupied itself with male census suffrage, Robespierre and a few more deputies opposed the property requirements for voting and holding office. In December and January Robespierre succeeded in attracting the attention of the excluded classes, particularly Protestants in France, Jews, blacks, servants and actors. As a frequent speaker in the Assembly, Robespierre voiced many ideas in support of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) and constitutional provisions for the Constitution of 1791 but rarely attracted a majority among fellow deputies, according to Malcolm Crook. Robespierre, who never gave up wearing a culotte and always 'poudre, frise, et parfume', seems to have been nervous, timid and suspicious. Madame de Sta?l described Robespierre as 'very exaggerated in his democratic principles'. He supported the most absurd propositions with a coolness that had the air of conviction. Jacobin Club From October 1789, Robespierre lived at 30 Rue de Saintonge in Le Marais, a district with relatively wealthy inhabitants. Pierre Villiers claimed he was his secretary for several months, and they shared the apartment on the third floor. Robespierre associated with the new Society of the Friends of the Constitution, commonly known as the Jacobin Club. Originally, this organization (the Club Breton) comprised only deputies from Brittany, but after the National Assembly had moved to Paris into a former and empty monastery, the Friends of civic participation admitted non-deputies, supporting the changes in France. Among these 1,200 men, Robespierre found a sympathetic audience. Equality before the law was the keystone of the Jacobin ideology. In January he held several speeches in response to the decision-making the exercise of civil rights dependent on a certain sum in the tax. During the debate on the suffrage, Robespierre ended his speech of 25 January 1790 with a blunt assertion that 'all Frenchmen must be admissible to all public positions without any other distinction than that of virtues and talents'. He began to acquire a reputation, and on 31 March 1790 Robespierre was elected as their president. On 28 April Robespierre proposed to allow an equal number of officers and soldiers in the court martial, based on his democratic principles. Unlike Niccolò Machiavelli who promoted the creation of either town or regional citizen militia, a system which after three centuries had become a "fossil institution", Robespierre supported the cooperation of all the National Guards in a general federation on 11 May. On 19 June he was elected secretary of the National Assembly.On 24 March 1790, the Assembly decided that the judicial apparatus should be completely restructured. The departments of France were reorganized; the Paris Commune was divided up into 48 sections and allowed to discuss the election of a new mayor on 21 May. In July Robespierre demanded "fraternal equality" in salaries. On 2 August Jean Sylvain Bailly became Paris' first elected mayor with 12.500 votes; Georges Danton had 49, Marat and Louis XVI only one. Discussing the future of Avignon Robespierre and his supporters on the galleries succeeded in silencing Mirabeau. Before the end of the year, he was seen as one of the leaders of the small body of the extreme left. Robespierre was one of "the thirty voices", as Mirabeau commented to Barnave with contempt: "That man will go far—he believes everything he says." On 5 December Robespierre delivered a speech on the urgent topic of the National Guard. "To be armed for personal defence is the right of every man, to be armed to defend freedom and the existence of the common fatherland is the right of every citizen". Robespierre coined the famous motto "Liberte, egalite, fraternite" by adding the word fraternity on the flags of the National Guard. On 18 December it was decreed to supply the National Guard with 50,000 fusils. Robespierre stood on the Opposition to war with Austria in 1791. The insurrectionary Commune of Paris When the Legislative Assembly declared war against Austria on 20 April 1792, Robespierre stated that the French people must rise and arm themselves completely, whether to fight abroad or to keep a lookout for despotism at home. Robespierre responded by working to reduce the political influence of the officer class and the king. On 23 April Robespierre demanded Marquis de Lafayette, the head of the Army of the Centre, to step down. While arguing for the welfare of common soldiers, Robespierre urged new promotions to mitigate the domination of the officer class by the aristocratic and royalist ecole Militaire and the conservative National Guard. Along with other Jacobins, he urged in the fifth issue of his magazine the creation of an "armee revolutionnaire" in Paris, consisting of at least 20 or 23,000 men, to defend the city, "liberty" (the revolution), maintain order in the sections and educate the members in democratic principles; an idea he borrowed from Jean-Jacques Rousseau. According to Jean Jaures, he considered this even more important than the right to strike. Because French forces suffered disastrous defeats and a series of defections at the onset of the war, Robespierre and Marat feared the possibility of a military coup d'etat. One was led by the Lafayette, head of the National Guard, who at the end of June advocated the suppression of the Jacobin Club. Robespierre publicly attacked him in scathing terms: " General, while from the midst of your camp you declared war upon me, which you had thus far spared for the enemies of our state, while you denounced me as an enemy of liberty to the army, National Guard and Nation in letters published by your purchased papers, I had thought myself only disputing with a general... but not yet the dictator of France, arbitrator of the state."On 2 July, the Assembly authorized the National Guard to go to the Festival of Federation on 14 July, thus circumventing a royal veto. On 11 July, the Jacobins won an emergency vote in the wavering Assembly, declaring the nation in danger and drafting all Parisians with pikes into the National Guard. (Meanwhile, 20,000 Federes entered the city for the celebration of 14 July; Petion was reinstalled.) On 15 July, Billaud-Varenne in the Jacobin club outlined the program for the next insurrection; the deportation of all the Bourbons, the cleansing of the National Guard, the election of a Convention, the "transfer of the Royal veto to the people", the deportation of all "enemies of the people" and exemption of the poorest from taxation. This sentiment reflected the perspective of more radical Jacobins including those of the Marseille Club, who wrote to the mayor and the people of Paris, "Here and at Toulon, we have debated the possibility of forming a column of 100,000 men to sweep away our enemies... Paris may have need help. Call on us!" A few days later the news of the Brunswick Manifesto began sweeping through Paris. It was frequently described as unlawful and offensive to national sovereignty.On 2 September 1792 French National Convention election began. At the same time, Paris was organizing its defence, but it was confronted with a lack of arms for the thousands of volunteers. Danton delivered a speech in the assembly and possibly referring to the (Swiss) inmates: "We ask that anyone who refuses to serve in person, or to surrender their weapons, is punished with death." Not long after the September Massacres began. Charlotte Corday held Marat responsible, Madame Roland Danton. Robespierre and Manuel, the public prosecutor, responsible for the police administration, visited the Temple prison to check on the security of the royal family. The next day on a proposal of Collot d'Herbois the Assembly decided to exclude royalist deputies from re-election to the Convention. Robespierre made sure Brissot (and his fellow Brissotins Petion and Condorcet) could not be elected in Paris. According to Charlotte Robespierre, her brother stopped talking to his former friend, mayor Petion de Villeneuve, ("Roi Petion") accused of conspicuous consumption by Desmoulins, and finally rallied to Brissot. On 5 September, Robespierre was elected deputy to the National Convention but Danton and Collot d'Herbois received more votes than Robespierre. Madame Roland wrote to a friend: "We are under the knife of Robespierre and Marat, those who would agitate the people."On 21 September Petion was elected as president of the convention; nearly all members were lawyers. The Jacobins and Cordeliers took the high benches at the back of the former Salle du Manège, giving them the label the Montagnards, or "the Mountaineers"; below them were the "Manège" of the Girondists, the moderate Republicans. The majority the Plain was formed by independents (as Barère, Cambon and Carnot) but dominated by the radical Mountain. On 25 and 26 September, Barbaroux and the Girondist Lasource accused Robespierre of wanting to form a dictatorship. Danton was asked to resign as minister as he was also a deputy. Rumours spread that Robespierre, Marat, and Danton were plotting to establish a triumvirate to save the First French Republic. (From October 1791 until September 1792 the French Legislative Assembly saw an unprecedented turnover of four ministers of Justice, four ministers of Navy, six ministers of the interior, seven ministers of foreign affairs, and eight ministers of war.) On 30 September Robespierre advocated for better laws; the registration of marriages, births, and burials was withdrawn from the church. On 29 October, Louvet de Couvrai attacked Robespierre. He accused him of star allures, of governing the Paris "Conseil General" and have done nothing to stop the September massacre; instead, he had used it to have more Montagnards elected. Robespierre, who seems to have been sick was given a week to respond. On 5 November, Robespierre defended himself, the Jacobin Club, and his supporters in and beyond Paris: Upon the Jacobins, I exercise, if we are to believe my accusers, a despotism of opinion, which can be regarded as nothing other than the forerunner of dictatorship. Firstly, I do not know what a dictatorship of opinion is, above all in a society of free men... unless this describes nothing more than the natural compulsion of principles. This compulsion hardly belongs to the man who enunciates them; it belongs to universal reason and to all men who wish to listen to its voice. It belongs to my colleagues of the Constituent Assembly, to the patriots of the Legislative Assembly, to all citizens who will invariably defend the cause of liberty. Experience has proven, despite Louis XVI and his allies, that the opinion of the Jacobins and the popular clubs were those of the French Nation; no citizen has made them, and I did nothing other than share in them. Turning the accusations upon his accusers, Robespierre delivered one of the most famous lines of the French Revolution to the Assembly: I will not remind you that the sole object of contention dividing us is that you have instinctively defended all acts of new ministers, and we, of principles; that you seemed to prefer power, and we equality... Why don't you prosecute the Commune, the Legislative Assembly, the Sections of Paris, the Assemblies of the Cantons and all who imitated us? For all these things have been illegal, as illegal as the Revolution, as the fall of the Monarchy and of the Bastille, as illegal as liberty itself... Citizens, do you want a revolution without a revolution? What is this spirit of persecution which has directed itself against those who freed us from chains? Louvet de Couvrai accused Robespierre of governing the Paris departement, paying the "septembriseurs" in order to gain more votes in the election. After publishing his speech "A Maximilien Robespierre et à ses royalistes (accusation)" Louvet was no longer admitted to the Jacobin Club. Condorcet considered the French Revolution as a religion and Robespierre had all the characteristics of a leader of a sect, or a cult. As his opponents knew well, Robespierre had a strong base of support among the women of Paris called tricoteuses (knitters). John Moore (Scottish physician) was sitting in the galleries, and noted that the audience was 'almost entirely ?lled with women'. He is a priest who has his devotees but it is evident that all of his power lies in the "distaff'. Robespierre tried to appeal to women because, in the early days of the Revolution when he had tried to appeal to men, he had failed. The Girondins called on the local authorities to oppose the concentration and centralization of power. Execution of Louis XVI Robespierre worked fervently to ensure the king's execution. The Jacobins successfully defeated the Girondins' final appeal for clemency. On 20 January half of the deputies voted for immediate death. The next day Louis XVI was guillotined. Destruction of the Girondists After the execution of the king, the influence of Robespierre, Danton, and the pragmatic politicians increased at the expense of the Girondins who were largely seen as responsible for the inadequate response to the Flanders Campaign they had themselves initiated. At the end of February, more than a thousand shops were plundered in Paris. Protesters claimed that the Girondins were responsible for the high prices. On 24 February the Convention decreed the first, but unsuccessful Levee en Masse as the attempt to draft new troops set off an uprising in rural France. The Montagnards lost influence in Marseille, Toulon and Lyon. March On 10 March 1793, a provisional Revolutionary Tribunal was established; five days later the Convention appointed Fouquier-Tinville as the "fr:accusateur public" and Fleuriot-Lescot as his assistant. On 12 March Dumouriez criticized the interference of officials of the War Ministry which employed many Jacobins. Reign of Terror Main article: Reign of Terror February In his Report on the Principles of Political Morality of 5 February 1794, Robespierre praised the revolutionary government and argued that terror and virtue were necessary: If virtue is the spring of a popular government in times of peace, the spring of that government during a revolution is virtue combined with terror: virtue, without which terror is destructive; terror, without which virtue is impotent. Terror is only justice prompt, severe, and inflexible; it is then an emanation of virtue; it is less a distinct principle than a natural consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing wants of the country ... The government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny. Aulard sums up the Jacobin train of thought, "All politics, according to Robespierre, must tend to establish the reign of virtue and confound vice. He reasoned thus: those who are virtuous are right; error is a corruption of the heart; error cannot be sincere; error is always deliberate." From 13 February to 13 March 1794, Robespierre had withdrawn from active business on the Committee due to illness. On 19 February, Maximilien decided, therefore, to return to the Duplays. Saint-Just was elected president of the Convention for the next two weeks. Early March in a speech at the Cordeliers Club, Hebert attacked Robespierre on the violation of human rights and Danton on being too soft. Hebert, the voice of the Sans-culottes, used the latest issue of Le Père Duchesne to criticize Robespierre. He managed to acquire a small army of secret agents, which reported to him. (There were queues and near-riots at the shops and in the markets; there were strikes and threatening public demonstrations.) Some of the Hebertistes and their friends were calling for a new insurrection. On the night of 13-14 March, Hebert and 18 of his followers were arrested as the agents of foreign powers. On 15 March, Robespierre reappeared in the convention. Subsequently, he joined Saint-Just in his attacks on Hebert. They were guillotined on 24 March and their death was a sort of carnival, a pleasant spectacle according to Michelet's witnesses. The leaders of the "armees revolutionnaires" were denounced by the Revolutionary Tribunal as accomplices of Hebert. On 25 March Condorcet was arrested as he was seen as an enemy of the Revolution; he committed suicide two days later. On 29 March Danton met again with Robespierre privately; afterward, Marat's sister urged him to take the offensive. On 30 March the two committees decided to arrest Danton and Desmoulins after Saint-Just became uncharacteristically angry. On 31 March Saint-Just publicly attacked both. In the Convention, criticism was voiced against the arrests, which Robespierre silenced with "...whoever trembles at this moment is guilty." Legendre suggested that "before you listen to any report, you send for the prisoners, and hear them." Robespierre replied "It would be violating the laws of impartiality to grant to Danton what was refused to others, who had an equal right to make the same demand. This answer silenced at once all solicitations in his favour." From 21 March - 5 April Tallien was president of the Convention, but could not prevent the final triumph of Robespierre. No friend of the Dantonists dared speak up in case he too should be accused of putting friendship before virtue.On 5 June Fran?ois Hanriot ordered the detention of every baker in Paris who sold his bread to people without (distribution) card or from another section. On 10 June Georges Couthon - a man of merciless fanaticism - introduced the drastic Law of 22 Prairial. The legal defense was sacrificed by banning any assistance for defendants brought before the revolutionary tribunal. "If this law passes," cried a deputy, "all we have to do is to blow our brains out." According to Fouquier-Tinville after Amar, Vadier proposed to change a few articles: The despotism of Robespierre made this project impossible to be carried out, for he wrested all the decrees he wanted. Fouquier, who feared to be incapable to deal with the number of trials sent him a letter, but Robespierre didn't reply. Not long after the committee decided to organize batches of 50 people. The Tribunal became a simple court of condemnation refusing suspects the right of counsel and allowing only one of two verdicts - complete acquittal or death and that based not on evidence but on the moral conviction of the jurors. The courtroom was renovated to allow sixty people to be sentenced simultaneously. Within three days, 156 people were sent in batches to the guillotine; all the members of Parliament of Toulouse were executed. The guillotine was moved to the Faubourg Saint-Antoine in order to stand out less. According to Fran?ois Furet, the prisons were overpopulated; they housed over 8,000 "suspects" at the beginning of Thermidor year II. The amount of death sentences doubled. The commune had to solve serious problems in the cemeteries because of the smell. Mid-July two new mass graves were dug at Picpus Cemetery in the impermeable ground. Name: Talleyrand Biography: Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord Position: Ambassador of France to the United Kingdom, 1st Prime Minister of France, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Member of the National Constituent Assembly, Deputy to the Estates-General for the First Estate Political party :Independent (1789-1799),Bonapartist (1799-1813),Royalist (1814-1815), Doctrinaires (1815-1830) Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord (/?t?l?r?nd ?p?r?ɡ??r/, French: ; 2 February 1754 - 17 May 1838), 1st Prince of Benevento, then Prince of Talleyrand, was a French clergyman and leading diplomat. After studying theology, he became Agent-General of the Clergy in 1780. In 1789, just before the French Revolution, he became Bishop of Autun. He worked at the highest levels of successive French governments, most commonly as foreign minister or in some other diplomatic capacity. His career spanned the regimes of Louis XVI, the years of the French Revolution, Napoleon, Louis XVIII, and Louis-Philippe. Those Talleyrand served often distrusted him but, like Napoleon, found him extremely useful. The name "Talleyrand" has become a byword for crafty, cynical diplomacy. Today, when speaking of the art of diplomacy, the phrase "he is a Talleyrand" is used to describe a statesman of great resourcefulness and craft. Education:Seminary of Saint-Sulpice Alma mater:University of Paris Profession:Clergyman, diplomat Church:Roman Catholic Church Ordained:19 December 1779 (priest),4 January 1789 (bishop) Laicized:29 June 1802 Offices held:Agent-General of the Clergy (1780-1788),Bishop of Autun (1788-1791) He was Napoleon's chief diplomat during the years when French military victories brought one European state after another under French hegemony. However, most of the time, Talleyrand worked for peace so as to consolidate France's gains. He succeeded in obtaining peace with Austria through the 1801 Treaty of Luneville and with Britain in the 1802 Treaty of Amiens. He could not prevent the renewal of war in 1803 but by 1805, he opposed his emperor's renewed wars against Austria, Prussia, and Russia. He resigned as foreign minister in August 1807, but retained the trust of Napoleon and conspired to undermine the emperor's plans through secret dealings with Tsar Alexander of Russia and Austrian minister Metternich. Talleyrand sought a negotiated secure peace so as to perpetuate the gains of the French revolution. Napoleon rejected peace and, when he fell in 1814, Talleyrand supported the Bourbon Restoration decided by the Allies. He played a major role at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, where he negotiated a favourable settlement for France and played a role in unwinding the conquests of Napoleon. Talleyrand polarizes scholarly opinion. Some regard him as one of the most versatile, skilled and influential diplomats in European history, and some believe that he was a traitor, betraying in turn the Ancien Regime, the French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Restoration. Early life Talleyrand was born in Paris into an aristocratic family which, though ancient and illustrious, was not particularly prosperous. His father, Count Charles Daniel de Talleyrand-Perigord, was 20 years of age when Charles was born. His mother was Alexandrine de Damas d'Antigny. Both his parents held positions at court, but as the youngest children of their respective families, had no important income. Talleyrand's father had a long career in the Army, reaching the rank of lieutenant general, as did his uncle, Gabriel Marie de Perigord, despite having the same infirmity. From childhood, Talleyrand walked with a limp, which caused him to later be called le diable boiteux (French for "the lame devil") among other nicknames. In his Memoirs, he linked this infirmity to an accident at age four, but recent research has shown that his limp was in fact congenital. In any case, his handicap made him unable to follow his father into a military career, leaving the obvious career of the Church. The latter held out the hope for Charles-Maurice of succeeding his uncle, Alexandre Angelique de Talleyrand-Perigord, then Archbishop of Reims, one of the most prestigious and richest dioceses in France. At eight years old, Talleyrand attended the Collège d'Harcourt, the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, while studying theology at the Sorbonne until the age of 21. In his free time he read the works of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and other writers who were beginning to undermine the authority of the Ancien Regime, both in church and state. As subdeacon he witnessed the coronation of Louis XVI at Reims in 1775. He was not ordained a priest until four years later, on 19 December 1779, at the age of 25. Very soon, in 1780, he attained the influential position of Agent-General of the Clergy, and was instrumental in promoting the drawing up of a general inventory of Church properties in France as of 1785, along with a defence of "inalienable rights of the Church", this latter being a stance he was later to deny. In 1788, the influence of Talleyrand's father and family overcame the King's dislike and obtained his appointment as Bishop of Autun, with a stipend of 22,000 livres. He was consecrated a bishop on 4 January 1789 by Louis-Andre de Grimaldi. The undoubtedly able Talleyrand, though hardly devout and even free-thinking in the Enlightenment mould, was outwardly respectful of religious observance. In the course of the Revolution, however, he was to manifest his cynicism and abandon all orthodox Catholic practice. He resigned his bishopric on 13 April 1791. On 29 June 1802, Pope Pius VII laicized Talleyrand, an event most uncommon at the time in the history of the Church. French Revolution Shortly after he was consecrated as Bishop of Autun, Talleyrand attended the Estates-General of 1789, representing the clergy, the First Estate. During the French Revolution, Talleyrand strongly supported the anti-clericalism of the revolutionaries. Along with Mirabeau, he promoted the appropriation of Church properties. He participated in the writing of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and proposed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy that nationalised the Church in preference to allegiance to the Pope, and swore in the first four constitutional bishops, even though he had himself resigned as Bishop following his excommunication by Pope Pius VI in 1791. During the Fête de la Federation on 14 July 1790, Talleyrand celebrated Mass. Notably, he promoted public education in full spirit of the Enlightenment by preparing a 216-page Report on Public Instruction. It proposed pyramidical structure rising through local, district, and departmental schools, and parts were later adopted. During his 5 month tenure in the Estates-General, Talleyrand was also involved in drawing up the police regulations of Paris, proposed the suffrage of Jews, supported a ban on the tithes and invented a method to ensure loans. Few bishops followed him in obedience to the new decree, and much of the French clergy came to view him as schismatic. Just before his resignation from the bishopric, Talleyrand had been elected, with Mirabeau and the Abbe Sieyès, a member of the department of Paris. In that capacity he did useful work for some eighteen months in seeking to support the cause of order in the turbulent capital. Though he was often on strained terms with Mirabeau, his views generally coincided with those of that statesman, who before he died is said to have advised Talleyrand to develop a close understanding with England. In 1792, he was sent twice, unofficially, to London to avert war, and he was cordially received by Pitt and Grenville. After his first visit, he persuaded the then foreign minister, Charles Fran?ois Dumouriez, of the importance of having a fully accredited ambassador in London, and the marquis de Chauvelin was duly appointed, with Talleyrand as his deputy. Still, after an initial British declaration of neutrality during the first campaigns of 1792, his mission ultimately failed. In September 1792, he left Paris for England just at the beginning of the September massacres. The National Convention issued a warrant for his arrest in December 1792. In March 1794, with the two countries at the brink of war, he was forced to leave Britain by Pitt's expulsion order. He then went to the neutral country of the United States where he stayed until his return to France in 1796. During his stay, he supported himself by working as a bank agent, involved in commodity trading and real estate speculation. He was a house guest of Aaron Burr of New York and collaborated with Theophile Cazenove in Philadelphia. Burr would later seek similar refuge in Talleyrand's home during his self-imposed European exile (1808-12); however, Talleyrand would refuse to return the favor, Burr having killed Talleyrand's friend Alexander Hamilton in an 1804 duel. After 9 Thermidor, he mobilised his friends (most notably the abbe Martial Borye Desrenaudes and Germaine de Sta?l) to lobby in the National Convention and the newly established Directoire for his return. His name was suppressed from the emigre list and he returned to France on 25 September 1796. After gaining attention by giving addresses on the value of commercial relations with England, and of colonization as a way of renewing the nation, he became Foreign Minister in July 1797. He was behind the demand for bribes in the XYZ Affair which escalated into the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war with the United States, 1798-1800. Talleyrand saw a possible political career for Napoleon during the Italian campaigns of 1796 to 1797. He wrote many letters to Napoleon, and the two became close allies. Talleyrand was against the destruction of the Republic of Venice, but he complimented Napoleon when the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria was concluded (Venice was given to Austria), probably because he wanted to reinforce his alliance with Napoleon. Later in 1797, Talleyrand was instrumental in assisting with the Coup of 18 Fructidor, which ousted two moderate members of the Directory in favour of the Jacobins headed by Paul Barras. Under Napoleon Talleyrand, along with Napoleon's younger brother, Lucien Bonaparte, was instrumental in the 1799 coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, establishing the French Consulate government, although he also made preparations for flight if necessary. He also persuaded Barras to resign as Director. Talleyrand was soon made Foreign Minister by Napoleon, although he rarely agreed with Napoleon's foreign policy. Domestically, Talleyrand used his influence to help in the repeal of the strict laws against emigres, refractory clergy, and the royalists of the west. The Pope released him from the ban of excommunication in the Concordat of 1801, which also revoked the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Talleyrand was instrumental in the completion of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. He wanted Napoleon to keep peace afterwards, as he thought France had reached its maximum expansion. Talleyrand was an integral player in the German mediatization. While the Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797 had, on paper, stripped German princes of their lands beyond the left bank of the Rhine, it was not enforced until the Treaty of Luneville in 1801. As the French annexed these lands, leaders believed that rulers of states such as Baden, Bavaria, Württemberg, Prussia, Hesse and Nassau, who lost territories on the Left Bank, should receive new territories on the Right Bank through the secularization of ecclesiastical principalities. Many of these rulers gave out bribes in order to secure new lands, and Talleyrand and some of his associates amassed about 10 million francs in the process. This was the first blow in the destruction of the Holy Roman Empire. While helping to establish French supremacy in neighbouring states and assisting Bonaparte in securing the title of Premier Consul for life, Talleyrand sought all means of securing the permanent welfare of France. He worked hard to prevent the rupture of the peace of Amiens which occurred in May 1803, and he did what he could to prevent the Louisiana Purchase earlier in the year. These events, as he saw, told against the best interests of France and endangered the gains which she had secured by war and diplomacy. Thereafter he strove to moderate Napoleon's ambition and to preserve the European system as far as possible. Napoleon forced Talleyrand into marriage in September 1802 to longtime mistress Catherine Grand (nee Worlee). Talleyrand purchased the Chateau de Valen?ay in May 1803, upon the urging of Napoleon. This later was used as the site of imprisonment of the Spanish Royalty in 1808-1813, after Napoleon's invasion of Spain. In May 1804, Napoleon bestowed upon Talleyrand the title of Grand Chamberlain of the Empire, with almost 500,000 francs a year. In 1806, he was made Sovereign Prince of Benevento (or Benevent), a former papal fief in southern Italy. Talleyrand held the title until 1815 and administered the principality concurrently with his other tasks. Talleyrand was opposed to the harsh treatment of Austria in the 1805 Treaty of Pressburg and of Prussia in the Peace of Tilsit in 1807. In 1806, after Pressburg, he profited greatly from the reorganization of the German lands, this time into the Confederation of the Rhine. But Talleyrand was shut out completely from the negotiations at Tilsit. After Queen Louise of Prussia failed in her appeal to Napoleon to spare her nation, she wept and was consoled by Talleyrand. This gave him a good name among the elites of European nations outside France. Changing sides Having wearied of serving a master in whom he no longer had much confidence, Talleyrand resigned as minister of foreign affairs in 1807, although the Emperor retained him in the Council of State as Vice-Grand Elector of the Empire. He disapproved of Napoleon's Spanish initiative, which resulted in the Peninsular War beginning in 1808. At the Congress of Erfurt in September-October 1808, Talleyrand secretly counseled Tsar Alexander. The Tsar's attitude towards Napoleon was one of apprehensive opposition. Talleyrand repaired the confidence of the Russian monarch, who rebuked Napoleon's attempts to form a direct anti-Austrian military alliance. Napoleon had expected Talleyrand to help convince the Tsar to accept his proposals and never discovered that Talleyrand was working at cross-purposes. Talleyrand believed Napoleon would eventually destroy the empire he had worked to build across multiple rulers. After his resignation in 1807 from the ministry, Talleyrand began to accept bribes from hostile powers (mainly Austria, but also Russia), to betray Napoleon's secrets. Talleyrand and Joseph Fouche, who were typically enemies in both politics and the salons, had a rapprochement in late 1808 and entered into discussions over the imperial line of succession. Napoleon had yet to address this matter and the two men knew that without a legitimate heir a struggle for power would erupt in the wake of Napoleon's death. Even Talleyrand, who believed that Napoleon's policies were leading France to ruin, understood the necessity of peaceful transitions of power. Napoleon received word of their actions and deemed them treasonous. This perception caused the famous dressing down of Talleyrand in front of Napoleon's marshals, during which Napoleon famously claimed that he could "break him like a glass, but it's not worth the trouble" and added with a scatological tone that Talleyrand was "shit in a silk stocking", to which the minister coldly retorted, once Napoleon had left, "Pity that so great a man should have been so badly brought up!" Talleyrand opposed the further harsh treatment of Austria in 1809 after the War of the Fifth Coalition. He was also a critic of the French invasion of Russia in 1812. He was invited to resume his former office in late 1813, but Talleyrand could see that power was slipping from Napoleon's hands. He offered to resign from the council in early 1814, but Napoleon refused the move. Talleyrand then hosted the tsar at the end of March after the fall of Paris, persuaded him that the best chance of stability lay with the House of Bourbon, and gained his support. On 1 April 1814 he led the French Senate in establishing a provisional government in Paris, of which he was elected president. On 2 April the Senate officially deposed Napoleon with the Acte de decheance de l'Empereur; by 11 April it had approved the Treaty of Fontainebleau and adopted a new constitution to re-establish the Bourbon monarchy. Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy When Napoleon was succeeded by Louis XVIII in April 1814, Talleyrand was one of the key agents of the restoration of the House of Bourbon, although he opposed the new legislation of Louis' rule. Talleyrand was the chief French negotiator at the Congress of Vienna, and earlier that same year he signed the Treaty of Paris. It was due in part to his skills that the terms of the treaty were remarkably lenient towards France. As the Congress opened, the right to make decisions was restricted to four countries: Austria, the United Kingdom, Prussia, and Russia. France and other European countries were invited to attend, but were not allowed to influence the process. Talleyrand promptly became the champion of the small countries and demanded admission into the ranks of the decision-making process. The four powers admitted France and Spain to the decision-making backrooms of the conference after a good deal of diplomatic maneuvering by Talleyrand, who had the support of the Spanish representative, Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador. Spain was excluded after a while (a result of both the Marquis of Labrador's incompetence as well as the quixotic nature of Spain's agenda), but France (Talleyrand) was allowed to participate until the end. Russia and Prussia sought to enlarge their territory at the Congress. Russia demanded annexation of Poland (already occupied by Russian troops), and this demand was finally satisfied, despite protests by France, Austria and the United Kingdom. Austria was afraid of future conflicts with Russia or Prussia and the United Kingdom was opposed to their expansion as well—and Talleyrand managed to take advantage of these contradictions within the former anti-French coalition. On 3 January 1815, a secret treaty was signed by France's Talleyrand, Austria's Metternich and Britain's Castlereagh. By this tract, officially a secret treaty of defensive alliance, the three powers agreed to use force if necessary to "repulse aggression" (of Russia and Prussia) and to protect the "state of security and independence." Talleyrand, having managed to establish a middle position, received some favours from the other countries in exchange for his support: France returned to its 1792 boundaries without reparations, with French control over papal Avignon, Montbeliard (Mompelgard) and Salm, which had been independent at the start of the French Revolution in 1789. It would later be debated which outcome would have been better for France: allowing Prussia to annex all of Saxony (Talleyrand ensured that only part of the kingdom would be annexed) or the Rhine provinces. The first option would have kept Prussia farther away from France, but would have needed much more opposition as well. Some historians have argued that Talleyrand's diplomacy wound up establishing the faultlines of World War I, especially as it allowed Prussia to engulf small German states west of the Rhine. This simultaneously placed Prussian armed forces at the French-German frontier, for the first time; made Prussia the largest German power in terms of territory, population and the industry of the Ruhr and Rhineland; and eventually helped pave the way to German unification under the Prussian throne. However, at the time Talleyrand's diplomacy was regarded as successful, as it removed the threat of France being partitioned by the victors. Talleyrand also managed to strengthen his own position in France (ultraroyalists had disapproved of the presence of a former "revolutionary" and "murderer of the Duke d'Enghien" in the royal cabinet). Napoleon's return to France in 1815 and his subsequent defeat, the Hundred Days, was a reverse for the diplomatic victories of Talleyrand (who remained in Vienna the whole time). The second peace settlement was markedly less lenient and it was fortunate for France that the business of the Congress had been concluded. Having been appointed foreign minister and president of the council on 9 July 1815, Talleyrand resigned in September of that year, over his objections to the second treaty. Louis XVIII appointed him as the Grand Chamberlain of France, a mostly ceremonial role which provided Talleyrand with a steady income. For the next fifteen years he restricted himself to the role of "elder statesman", criticising and intriguing against Minister of Police elie, duc Decazes, Prime Minister Duc de Richelieu and other political opponents from the sidelines. In celebration of the birth of Duc de Bordeaux, Louis XVIII made Talleyrand a knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit. In December 1829, Talleyrand funded the foundation of the National newspaper. The newspaper was run by his personal friend Adolphe Thiers, alongside Armand Carrel, Fran?ois Mignet and Stendhal, its first issue appeared on 3 January 1830. It quickly became the mouthpiece of the Orleanist cause, gaining popularity among the French liberal bourgeoisie. Following the ascension of King Louis-Philippe to the throne in the aftermath of the July Revolution of 1830, Talleyrand reluctantly agreed to become ambassador to the United Kingdom, a post he held from 1830 to 1834. In this role, he strove to reinforce the legitimacy of Louis-Philippe's regime. He played a vital role in London Conference of 1830, rebuking a partition plan developed by his son Charles de Flahaut and helping bring Leopold Saxe-Coburg to the throne of the newly independent Kingdom of Belgium. In April 1834 he crowned his diplomatic career by signing the treaty which brought together as allies France, Great Britain, Spain and Portugal. After resigning from his position as ambassador in London in November 1834, Talleyrand stopped playing an active role in French politics. He split his time between Chateau de Valen?ay and Saint-Florentin, where he hosted frequent banquets and played whist with his visitors. His physical health began to steadily deteriorate and he began using an armchair on wheels provided to him by Louis Philippe I. He spent most of his time in the company of the Duchess Dino and concerned himself with the education of her daughter Pauline. Talleyrand suffered from bouts of recurring depression which were caused by his concern over his legacy and the development of the Napoleonic myth. To that end he ordered that his autobiography, the Memoirs, to be published 30 years after his death. He also sought to gain the friendship of people he believed would shape public opinion in the future, including Honore de Balzac, Lady Granville and Alphonse de Lamartine. During the last years of his life Talleyrand began planning his reconciliation with the Catholic Church. On 16 May 1838, he signed a retraction of his errors towards the church and a letter of submission to Pope Gregory XVI. He died the following day at 3:55 p.m., at Saint-Florentin. By a codicil added to his will on 17 March 1838 Talleyrand left his memoirs and papers to the duchess of Dino and to Adolphe de Bacourt. The latter revised them with care, and added to them other pieces emanating from Talleyrand. They fell into some question: first that Talleyrand is known to have destroyed many of his most important papers, and secondly that de Bacourt almost certainly drew up the connected narrative which we now possess from notes which were in more or less of confusion. The memoires were later edited by the duc de Broglie and published in 1891. Private life Talleyrand had a reputation as a voluptuary and a womaniser. He left no legitimate children, though he possibly fathered over two dozen illegitimate ones. Four possible children of his have been identified: Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut, generally accepted to be an illegitimate son of Talleyrand; the painter Eugène Delacroix, once rumoured to be Talleyrand's son, though this is doubted by historians who have examined the issue (for example, Leon No?l, French ambassador); the "Mysterious Charlotte", possibly his daughter by his future wife, Catherine Worlee Grand; and Pauline, ostensibly the daughter of the Duke and Duchess Dino. Of these four, only the first is given credence by historians. However, the French historian Emmanuel de Waresquiel has lately given much credibility to father-daughter link between Talleyrand and Pauline whom he referred to as "my dear Minette". Thaddeus Stevens "suffered too from the rumor that he was actually the bastard son of Count Talleyrand, who was said to have visited New England in the year before Stevens' birth.... Actually Talleyrand did not visit New England till 1794, when Stevens was already two years old." Aristocratic women were a key component of Talleyrand's political tactics, both for their influence and their ability to cross borders unhindered. His presumed lover Germaine de Sta?l was a major influence on him, and he on her. Though their personal philosophies were most different (she a romantic, he very much unsentimental), she assisted him greatly, most notably by lobbying Barras to permit Talleyrand to return to France from his American exile, and then to have him made foreign minister. He lived with Catherine Worlee, born in India and married there to Charles Grand. She had traveled about before settling in Paris in the 1780s, where she lived as a notorious courtesan for several years before divorcing Grand to marry Talleyrand. Talleyrand was in no hurry to marry, and it was after repeated postponements that Napoleon obliged him in 1802 to formalize the relationship or risk his political career. While serving as a high level negotiator at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), Talleyrand entered into an arrangement with Dorothea von Biron, the wife of his nephew, the Duke of Dino. Shortly after, he separated from Catherine. Talleyrand's venality was notorious; in the tradition of the ancien regime, he expected to be paid for the state duties he performed—whether these can properly be called "bribes" is open to debate. For example, during the German Mediatisation, the consolidation of the small German states, a number of German rulers and elites paid him to save their possessions or enlarge their territories. Less successfully, he solicited payments from the United States government to open negotiations, precipitating a diplomatic disaster (the "XYZ Affair"). The difference between his diplomatic success in Europe and failure with the United States illustrates that his diplomacy rested firmly on the power of the French army that was a terrible threat to the German states within reach, but lacked the logistics to threaten the USA not the least because of the Royal Navy domination of the seas. After Napoleon's defeat, he withdrew claims to the title "Prince of Benevento", but was created Duke of Talleyrand with the style "Prince de Talleyrand" for life, in the same manner as his estranged wife. Described by biographer Philip Ziegler as a "pattern of subtlety and finesse" and a "creature of grandeur and guile", Talleyrand was a great conversationalist, gourmet, and wine connoisseur. From 1801 to 1804, he owned Chateau Haut-Brion in Bordeaux. He employed the renowned French chef Carême, one of the first celebrity chefs known as the "chef of kings and king of chefs", and was said to have spent an hour every day with him. His Paris residence on the Place de la Concorde, acquired in 1812 and sold to James Mayer de Rothschild in 1838, is now owned by the Embassy of the United States. Talleyrand has been regarded as a traitor because of his support for successive regimes, some of which were mutually hostile. According to French philosopher Simone Weil, criticism of his loyalty is unfounded, as Talleyrand served not every regime as had been said, but in reality "France behind every regime". Near the end of his life, Talleyrand became interested in Catholicism again while teaching his young granddaughter simple prayers. The Abbe Felix Dupanloup came to Talleyrand in his last hours, and according to his account Talleyrand made confession and received extreme unction. When the abbe tried to anoint Talleyrand's palms, as prescribed by the rite, he turned his hands over to make the priest anoint him on the back of the hands, since he was a bishop. He also signed, in the abbe's presence, a solemn declaration in which he openly disavowed "the great errors which . . . had troubled and afflicted the Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church, and in which he himself had had the misfortune to fall." He died on 17 May 1838 and was buried in Notre-Dame Chapel, near his Castle of Valen?ay. Name: Thompson Biography: Benjamin Thompson(March 26, 1753 - August 21, 1814) Position: lieutenant-colonel of the King's American Dragoons, physicist, inventor Known for:Thermodynamics, Experiments on heat, Mechanical equivalent of heat Awards:Copley Medal (1792)Rumford Medal (1800) Fields:Physics Allegiance: British, Bavaria Branch/service: British Loyalist forces, Bavarian Army Rank: lieutenant-colonel of British Army, Bavarian Army Minister Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, FRS (German: Reichsgraf von Rumford) was an American-born British physicist and inventor whose challenges to established physical theory were part of the 19th-century revolution in thermodynamics. He served as lieutenant-colonel of the King's American Dragoons, part of the British Loyalist forces, during the American Revolutionary War. After the end of the war he moved to London, where his administrative talents were recognized when he was appointed a full colonel, and in 1784 he received a knighthood from King George III. A prolific designer, Thompson also drew designs for warships. He later moved to Bavaria and entered government service there, being appointed Bavarian Army Minister and re-organizing the army, and, in 1791, was made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire. Early years Thompson was born in rural Woburn, Massachusetts, on March 26, 1753; his birthplace is preserved as a museum. He was educated mainly at the village school, although he sometimes walked almost ten miles to Cambridge with the older Loammi Baldwin to attend lectures by Professor John Winthrop of Harvard College. At the age of 13 he was apprenticed to John Appleton, a merchant of nearby Salem. Thompson excelled at his trade, and coming in contact with refined and well educated people for the first time, adopted many of their characteristics including an interest in science. While recuperating in Woburn in 1769 from an injury, Thompson conducted experiments concerning the nature of heat and began to correspond with Loammi Baldwin and others about them. Later that year he worked for a few months for a Boston shopkeeper and then apprenticed himself briefly, and unsuccessfully, to a doctor in Woburn. Thompson's prospects were dim in 1772 but in that year they changed abruptly. He met, charmed and married a rich and well-connected heiress named Sarah Rolfe (nee Walker). Her father was a minister, and her late husband left her property at Concord, New Hampshire, then called Rumford. They moved to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and through his wife's influence with the governor, he was appointed a major in the New Hampshire Militia. Their first child (also named Sarah) was born in 1774. American Revolutionary War When the American Revolutionary War began Thompson was a man of property and standing in New England and was opposed to the uprising. He was active in recruiting loyalists to fight the rebels. This earned him the enmity of the popular party, and a mob attacked Thompson's house. He fled to the British lines, abandoning his wife, as it turned out, permanently. Thompson was welcomed by the British to whom he gave valuable information about the American forces, and became an advisor to both General Gage and Lord George Germain. While working with the British armies in America he conducted experiments to measure the force of gunpowder, the results of which were widely acclaimed when published in 1781 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. On the strength of this he arrived in London at the end of the war with a reputation as a scientist. Bavarian maturity In 1785, he moved to Bavaria where he became an aide-de-camp to the Prince-elector Charles Theodore. He spent eleven years in Bavaria, reorganizing the army and establishing workhouses for the poor. He also invented Rumford's Soup, a soup for the poor, and established the cultivation of the potato in Bavaria. He studied methods of cooking, heating, and lighting, including the relative costs and efficiencies of wax candles, tallow candles, and oil lamps. On Prince Charles' behalf he created the Englischer Garten in Munich in 1789; it remains today and is known as one of the largest urban public parks in the world. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1789. For his efforts, in 1791 Thompson was made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire; he took the name "Rumford" for Rumford, New Hampshire, which was an older name for the town of Concord where he had been married, becoming Reichsgraf von Rumford (English: Imperial Count Rumford). Experiments on heat His experiments on gunnery and explosives led to an interest in heat. He devised a method for measuring the specific heat of a solid substance but was disappointed when Johan Wilcke published his parallel discovery first. Thompson next investigated the insulating properties of various materials, including fur, wool and feathers. He correctly appreciated that the insulating properties of these natural materials arise from the fact that they inhibit the convection of air. He then made the somewhat reckless, and incorrect, inference that air and, in fact, all gases, were perfect non-conductors of heat. He further saw this as evidence of the argument from design, contending that divine providence had arranged for fur on animals in such a way as to guarantee their comfort. In 1797, he extended his claim about non-conductivity to liquids. The idea raised considerable objections from the scientific establishment, John Dalton and John Leslie making particularly forthright attacks. Instrumentation far exceeding anything available in terms of accuracy and precision would have been needed to verify Thompson's claim. Again, he seems to have been influenced by his theological beliefs and it is likely that he wished to grant water a privileged and providential status in the regulation of human life. He is considered the founder of the sous-vide food preparation method owing to his experiment with a mutton shoulder. He described this method in one of his essays. Mechanical equivalent of heat See also: Mechanical equivalent of heat Rumford's most important scientific work took place in Munich, and centred on the nature of heat, which he contended in "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction" (1798) was not the caloric of then-current scientific thinking but a form of motion. Rumford had observed the frictional heat generated by boring cannon at the arsenal in Munich. Rumford immersed a cannon barrel in water and arranged for a specially blunted boring tool. He showed that the water could be boiled within roughly two and a half hours and that the supply of frictional heat was seemingly inexhaustible. Rumford confirmed that no physical change had taken place in the material of the cannon by comparing the specific heats of the material machined away and that remaining. Rumford argued that the seemingly indefinite generation of heat was incompatible with the caloric theory. He contended that the only thing communicated to the barrel was motion. Rumford made no attempt to further quantify the heat generated or to measure the mechanical equivalent of heat. Though this work met with a hostile reception, it was subsequently important in establishing the laws of conservation of energy later in the 19th century. Rumford's calorific and frigorific radiation He explained Pictet's experiment, which demonstrates the reflection of cold, by supposing that all bodies emit invisible rays, undulations in the ethereal fluid. He did experiments to support his theories of calorific and frigorific radiation and said the communication of heat was the net effect of calorific (hot) rays and frigorific (cold) rays and the rays emitted by the object. When an object absorbs radiation from a warmer object (calorific rays) its temperature rises, and when it absorbs radiation from a colder object (frigorific rays) its temperature falls. See note 8, "An enquiry concerning the nature of heat and the mode of its communication" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, starting at page 112. Inventions and design improvements Thompson was an active and prolific inventor, developing improvements for chimneys, fireplaces and industrial furnaces, as well as inventing the double boiler, a kitchen range, and a drip coffeepot. He invented a percolating coffee pot following his pioneering work with the Bavarian Army, where he improved the diet of the soldiers as well as their clothes. The Rumford fireplace created a sensation in London when he introduced the idea of restricting the chimney opening to increase the updraught, which was a much more efficient way to heat a room than earlier fireplaces. He and his workers modified fireplaces by inserting bricks into the hearth to make the side walls angled, and added a choke to the chimney to increase the speed of air going up the flue. The effect was to produce a streamlined air flow, so all the smoke would go up into the chimney rather than lingering, entering the room, and often choking the residents. It also had the effect of increasing the efficiency of the fire, and gave extra control of the rate of combustion of the fuel, whether wood or coal. Many fashionable London houses were modified to his instructions, and became smoke-free. Thompson became a celebrity when news of his success spread. His work was also very profitable, and much imitated when he published his analysis of the way chimneys worked. In many ways, he was similar to Benjamin Franklin, who also invented a new kind of heating stove. The retention of heat was a recurring theme in his work, as he is also credited with the invention of thermal underwear. Industrial furnaces Thompson also significantly improved the design of kilns used to produce quicklime, and Rumford furnaces were soon being constructed throughout Europe. The key innovation involved separating the burning fuel from the limestone, so that the lime produced by the heat of the furnace was not contaminated by ash from the fire. Light and photometry Rumford worked in photometry, the measurement of light. He made a photometer and introduced the standard candle, the predecessor of the candela, as a unit of luminous intensity. His standard candle was made from the oil of a sperm whale, to rigid specifications. He also published studies of "illusory" or subjective complementary colours, induced by the shadows created by two lights, one white and one coloured; these observations were cited and generalized by Michel-Eugène Chevreul as his "law of simultaneous colour contrast" in 1839. Later life After 1799, he divided his time between France and England. With Sir Joseph Banks, he established the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1799. The pair chose Sir Humphry Davy as the first lecturer. The institution flourished and became world-famous as a result of Davy's pioneering research. His assistant, Michael Faraday, established the Institution as a premier research laboratory, and also justly famous for its series of public lectures popularizing science. That tradition continues to the present, and the Royal Institution Christmas lectures attract large audiences through their TV broadcasts. Thompson endowed the Rumford medals of the Royal Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and endowed a professorship at Harvard University. In 1803, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and was as a member of the American Philosophical Society. In 1804, he married Marie-Anne Lavoisier, the widow of the great French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. (His American wife, Sarah—whom he abandoned in America upon the outbreak of the American Revolution—had died in 1792.) Thompson separated from his second wife after 3 years, but he settled in Paris and continued his scientific work until his death on August 21, 1814. Thompson is buried in the small cemetery of Auteuil in Paris, just across from Adrien-Marie Legendre. Upon his death, his daughter from his first marriage, Sarah Thompson, inherited his title as Countess Rumford. Honours Colonel, King's American Dragoons. Knighted, 1784. Count of the Holy Roman Empire, 1791. The crater Rumford on the Moon is named after him. Rumford baking powder (patented 1859) is named after him, having been invented by a former Rumford professor at Harvard University, Eben Norton Horsford (1818-1893), cofounder of the Rumford Chemical Works of East Providence, RI. Rumford Kitchen at the World's Fair in Chicago, 1893. A street in the inner city of Munich is named after him. Rumford Street (and the nearby Rumford Place) in Liverpool, England, are so named due to a soup kitchen established to Count Rumford's plan which formerly stood on land adjacent to Rumford Street. Poland-Lithuania: Order of the White Eagle (1789). Name: Hegel Biography: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 - 14 November 1831) Position: Rector of the University of Berlin Nationality: Stuttgart, Duchy of Württemberg Branch/service: Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Prussia Era : 19th-century philosophy Region: Western philosophy School:Continental philosophyGerman idealismObjective idealismAbsolute idealism HegelianismHistoricismNaturphilosophieEpistemic coherentismConceptualism Empirical realismCoherence theory of truth Institutions : University of Jena(1801-1806)University of Heidelberg(1816-1818) University of Berlin(1818-1831) Main interests : MetaphysicsEpistemologyNaturphilosophiePhilosophy of history EthicsPolitical philosophyLogicAesthetics Voegelin argued that Hegel should be understood not as a philosopher, but as a "sorcerer", i.e. as a mystic and hermetic thinker. This concept of Hegel as a hermetic thinker was elaborated by Glenn Alexander Magee, who argued that interpreting Hegel's body of work as an expression of mysticism and hermetic ideas leads to a more accurate understanding of Hegel. That there is something “mystical” about Hegel's philosophy is a familiar claim. Hegel is often described as a mystic. Hegel's contemporary Schopenhauer was particularly critical and wrote of Hegel's philosophy as "a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking". Karl Popper wrote that "there is so much philosophical writing (especially in the Hegelian school) which may justly be criticised as meaningless verbiage". Popper also makes the claim in the second volume of The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Hegel's system formed a thinly veiled justification for the absolute rule of Frederick William III and that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history was to reach a state approximating that of 1830s Prussia. Popper further proposed that Hegel's philosophy served not only as an inspiration for communist and fascist totalitarian governments of the 20th century, whose dialectics allow for any belief to be construed as rational simply if it could be said to exist. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (/?he?ɡ?l/; German: ; 27 August 1770 - 14 November 1831) was a German philosopher considered one of the most important figures in German idealism. He is one of the fundamental figures of Western philosophy, with his influence extending to the entire range of contemporary philosophical issues, from aesthetics to ontology to politics, both in the analytic and continental tradition. Hegel's principal achievement was his development of a distinctive articulation of idealism, sometimes termed absolute idealism, in which the dualisms of, for instance, mind and nature and subject and object are overcome. His philosophy of spirit conceptually integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion and philosophy. His master-slave dialectic has been influential, especially in 20th-century France. Of special importance is his concept of spirit (Geist, sometimes also translated as "mind") as the historical manifestation of the logical concept - and the "sublation" (Aufhebung, integration without elimination or reduction) - of seemingly contradictory or opposing factors: examples include the apparent opposition between necessity and freedom and between immanence and transcendence. (Hegel has been seen in the twentieth century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad, but as an explicit phrase it originated with Johann Gottlieb Fichte.) Hegel influenced wide variety of thinkers and writers. For example, Paul Tillich wrote that the historical dialectical thought of Hegel "has influenced world history more profoundly than any other structural analysis." Karl Barth described Hegel as a "Protestant Aquinas" while Maurice Merleau-Ponty wrote that "all the great philosophical ideas of the past century—the philosophies of Marx and Nietzsche, phenomenology, German existentialism, and psychoanalysis—had their beginnings in Hegel." Michael Hardt has highlighted that the roots of post-structuralism and its unifying basis lies, in large part, in a general opposition not to the philosophical tradition tout court but specifically to the "Hegelian tradition" dominating philosophy in the twentieth century prior to post-structuralism. Hegel's work has been considered the "completion of philosophy" by multiple of the most influential thinkers in existentialism, post-structuralism, and twentieth-century theology. Derrida wrote of Hegel in his work Of Grammatology that "he undoubtedly summed up the entire philosophy of the logos. He determined ontology as absolute logic; he assembled all the delimitations of philosophy as presence," later remarking that Hegel is thus "the last philosopher of the book and the first philosopher of writing," indicating the relation of Hegel to post-structural thought by stating "if there were a definition of Differance, it would be precisely the limit, the interruption, the destruction of the Hegelian dialectical synthesis wherever it operates." In his work Systematic Theology, theologian Paul Tillich referred to Hegel's work as "perfect essentialism," later writing "essentialism was in Hegel's system fulfilled." Martin Heidegger observed in his 1969 work Identity and Difference and in his personal Black Notebooks that Hegel's system in an important respect "consummates western philosophy" by completing the idea of the logos, the self-grounding ground, in thinking through the identification of Being and beings, which is "the theme of logic", writing "t is... incontestable that Hegel, faithful to tradition, sees the matter of thinking in beings as such and as a whole, in the movement of Being from its emptiness to its developed fullness." Heidegger in various places further stated Hegel's thinking to be "the most powerful thinking of modern times." Hegel was born on 27 August 1770 in Stuttgart, capital of the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany. Christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekret?r (secretary to the revenue office) at the court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg.:2-3, 745 Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa (nee Fromm), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died of bilious fever (Gallenfieber) when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father also caught the disease, but they narrowly survived. Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise (1773-1832); and a brother, Georg Ludwig (1776-1812), who perished as an officer during Napoleon's 1812 Russian campaign.:4 At the age of three, Hegel went to the German School. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he already knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother. In 1776, he entered Stuttgart's gymnasium illustre and during his adolescence read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. His studies at the Gymnasium concluded with his Abiturrede ("graduation speech") "Der verkümmerte Zustand der Künste und Wissenschaften unter den Türken" ("The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey").:16 Tübingen (1788-1793) At the age of eighteen, Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift (a Protestant seminary attached to the University of Tübingen), where he had as roommates the poet and philosopher Friedrich H?lderlin and the future philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization and Hegel additionally steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Lessing during this time. They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. Schelling and H?lderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, from which Hegel remained aloof. Hegel, at this time, envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, (a "man of letters") who serves to make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism did not come until 1800. Although the violence of the 1793 Reign of Terror dampened Hegel's hopes, he continued to identify with the moderate Girondin faction and never lost his commitment to the principles of 1789, which he expressed by drinking a toast to the storming of the Bastille every fourteenth of July. Bern (1793-1796) and Frankfurt (1797-1801) Having received his theological certificate (Konsistorialexamen) from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister (house tutor) to an aristocratic family in Bern (1793-1796). During this period, he composed the text which has become known as the Life of Jesus and a book-length manuscript titled "The Positivity of the Christian Religion". His relations with his employers becoming strained, Hegel accepted an offer mediated by H?lderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt in 1797. There, H?lderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought.:80 While in Frankfurt, Hegel composed the essay "Fragments on Religion and Love". In 1799, he wrote another essay entitled "The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate", unpublished during his lifetime. Also in 1797, the unpublished and unsigned manuscript of "The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism" was written. It was written in Hegel's hand, but may have been authored by Hegel, Schelling, H?lderlin, or an unknown fourth person. Career years Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg (1801-1816) In 1801, Hegel came to Jena at the encouragement of his old friend Schelling, who held the position of Extraordinary Professor at the University of Jena. Hegel secured a position at the University of Jena as a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting the inaugural dissertation De Orbitis Planetarum, in which he briefly criticized arguments that assert—based on Bode's Law or other arbitrary choice of mathematical series—there must exist a planet between Mars and Jupiter. Unbeknownst to Hegel, Giuseppe Piazzi had discovered the minor planet Ceres within that orbit on 1 January 1801. Later in the year, Hegel's first book The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy was completed. He lectured on "Logic and Metaphysics" and gave lectures with Schelling on an "Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy" and facilitated a "philosophical disputorium". In 1802, Schelling and Hegel founded the journal Kritische Journal der Philosophie (Critical Journal of Philosophy) to which they contributed until the collaboration ended when Schelling left for Würzburg in 1803. In 1805, the university promoted Hegel to the position of Extraordinary Professor (unsalaried) after he wrote a letter to the poet and minister of culture Johann Wolfgang Goethe protesting the promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries ahead of him.:223 Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator Johann Heinrich Vo? to obtain a post at the renascent University of Heidelberg, but he failed. To his chagrin, Fries was, in the same year, made Ordinary Professor (salaried).:224-25 With his finances drying up quickly, Hegel was under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his philosophical system. Hegel was putting the finishing touches to it, The Phenomenology of Spirit, as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on 14 October 1806 in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside the city. On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena. Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer: I saw the Emperor—this world-soul —riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it. Pinkard (2000) notes that Hegel's comment to Niethammer "is all the more striking since he had already composed the crucial section of the Phenomenology in which he remarked that the Revolution had now officially passed to another land (Germany) that would complete 'in thought' what the Revolution had only partially accomplished in practice". Although Napoleon chose not to close down Jena as he had other universities, the city was devastated and students deserted it in droves, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse. The following February marked the birth of Hegel's illegitimate son, Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807-1831), as the result of an affair with Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt nee Fischer (who had been abandoned by her husband).:192 In March 1807, Hegel moved to Bamberg, where Niethammer had declined and passed on to Hegel an offer to become editor of a newspaper, the Bamberger Zeitung . Unable to find more suitable employment, Hegel reluctantly accepted. Ludwig Fischer and his mother (whom Hegel may have offered to marry following the death of her husband) stayed behind in Jena.:238 In November 1808, Hegel was again through Niethammer, appointed headmaster of a gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post he held until 1816. While in Nuremberg, Hegel adapted his recently published Phenomenology of Spirit for use in the classroom. Part of his remit was to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences", Hegel developed the idea of an encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences, falling into three parts: logic, philosophy of nature and philosophy of spirit.:337 In 1811, Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791-1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator. This period saw the publication of his second major work, the Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik; 3 vols., 1812, 1813 and 1816), and the birth of his two legitimate sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1813-1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814-1891).:773 Heidelberg and Berlin (1816-1831) Having received offers of a post from the Universities of Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. Soon after, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer (now ten years old) joined the Hegel household in April 1817, having spent time in an orphanage:354-55 after the death of his mother Christiana Burkhardt.:356 In 1817, Hegel published The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline as a summary of his philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg. In 1818, Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Johann Gottlieb Fichte's death in 1814. Here, Hegel published his Philosophy of Right (1821). Hegel devoted himself primarily to delivering lectures; his lectures on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history and the history of philosophy were published posthumously from students' notes. His fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond.:207-208 In 1819-1827, he made two trips to Weimar, where he met Goethe, and to Brussels, the Northern Netherlands, Leipzig, Vienna, Prague, and Paris. Hegel was appointed University Rector of the university in October 1829, but his term ended in September 1830. Hegel was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831 Frederick William III decorated him with the Order of the Red Eagle, 3rd Class for his service to the Prussian state. In August 1831, a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg. Now in a weak state of health, Hegel seldom went out. As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin in the mistaken belief that the epidemic had largely subsided. By 14 November, Hegel was dead. The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died from another gastrointestinal disease. His last words are said to have been, "There was only one man who ever understood me, and even he didn't understand me." He was buried on 16 November. In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried in the Dorotheenstadt cemetery next to Fichte and Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger. Hegel's illegitimate son, Ludwig Fischer, had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in Batavia and the news of his death never reached his father.:548 Early the following year, Hegel's sister Christiane committed suicide by drowning. Hegel's remaining two sons—Karl, who became a historian; and Immanuel , who followed a theological path—lived long and safeguarded their father's manuscripts and letters, and produced editions of his works. Philosophical work Logic and metaphysics Main article: Science of Logic See also: Porphyrian tree Things-in-themselves For both Hegel and Kant, "we arrive at the concept of the thing in itself by removing, or abstracting from, everything in our experiences of objects of which we can become conscious." If we abstract 'Ding' from 'Ding an sich' , we get one of Hegel's standard phrases: 'an sich.' ....A child, in Hegel's example, is thus 'in itself' the adult it will become: to know what a 'child' is means to know that it is, in some respects, a vacancy which will only gain content after it has grown out of childhood. The "thing as it is in itself" is indeed knowable: it is the indeterminate, "futural" aspect of the thing we experience—it is what we will come to know. In other words, although the thing-in-itself is at any given moment thoroughly unknown, it nevertheless remains that part of the thing about which it is possible to learn more.:101-102 At the same time, this should not be construed as a merely epistemological claim (having to do only with our understanding of the thing); the in-itself may be equally taken in the ontological sense, namely as the undeveloped (for example, the seed is the in-itself of the plant). Life Freedom Progress The mystical writings of Jakob B?hme had a strong effect on Hegel. B?hme had written that the Fall of Man was a necessary stage in the evolution of the universe. This evolution was the result of God's desire for complete self-awareness. Hegel was fascinated by the works of Kant, Rousseau and Johann Wolfgang Goethe and by the French Revolution. Modern philosophy, culture and society seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, such as those between the subject and object of knowledge, mind and nature, self and Other, freedom and authority, knowledge and faith, or the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Hegel's main philosophical project was to take these contradictions and tensions and interpret them as part of a comprehensive, evolving, rational unity that in different contexts he called "the absolute Idea" (Science of Logic, sections 1781-1783) or "absolute knowledge" (Phenomenology of Spirit, "(DD) Absolute Knowledge"). According to Hegel, this unity evolved through and manifested itself in contradiction and negation. Contradiction and negation have the dynamic quality that every point in each domain of reality—consciousness, history, philosophy, art, nature and society—leads to further development until a rational unity is reached that preserves the contradictions as phases and sub-parts by lifting them up (Aufhebung) to a higher unity. This mind comprehends all of these phases and sub-parts as steps in its own process of comprehension. It is rational because the same, underlying, logical, developmental order underlies every domain of reality and self-conscious rational thought, although only in the later stages of development does it come to full self-consciousness. The rational, self-conscious whole is not a thing or being that lies outside of other existing things or minds. Rather, it comes to completion in the philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds who through their own understanding bring this developmental process to an understanding of itself. Hegel's thought is revolutionary in that it is a philosophy of absolute negation—as long as absolute negation is at the center, systematization remains open, making it possible for human beings to become subjects. "Mind" and "Spirit" are the common English translations of Hegel's use of the German "Geist", which combines the meaning of spirit—as in god, ghost, or mind—with an intentional force. In Hegel's draft manuscripts written during his time at the University of Jena, his notion of "Geist" was tightly bound to the notion of "Aether", from which he also derived the concepts of space and time, but in his later works (after Jena) he did not explicitly use his old notion of "Aether". Central to Hegel's conception of knowledge, mind, and reality was identity in difference; mind externalizes itself in various forms and objects and stands outside or opposed to them and, through recognizing itself in them, is "with itself" in these external manifestations so that they are at one and the same time mind and other-than-mind. This notion of identity in difference, which is bound up with his conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature differentiating Hegel's thought from other philosophers. For instance, in his "The Philosophy of History", Hegel argued the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years War was part of the struggle against absolutism and advanced the cause of human freedom. His thoughts on the person of Jesus Christ stood out from the theologies of the Enlightenment. In his posthumously published Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, Part 3, Hegel is particularly interested in demonstrations of God's existence and the ontological proof.:100 He espouses that "God is not an abstraction but a concrete God God, considered in terms of his eternal Idea, has to generate the Son, has to distinguish himself from himself; he is the process of differentiating, namely, love and Spirit". This means that Jesus, as the Son of God, is posited by God over and against himself as other. Hegel sees relational and metaphysical unities between Jesus and God the Father. To Hegel, Jesus is both divine and human. Hegel further attests that God (as Jesus) not only died, but " rather, a reversal takes place: God, that is to say, maintains himself in the process, and the latter is only the death of death. God rises again to life, and thus things are reversed". The philosopher Walter Kaufmann argued that there was sharp criticism of traditional Christianity in Hegel's early theological writings. Kaufmann also pointed out that Hegel's references to God or to the divine and spirit drew on classical Greek as well as Christian connotations of the terms. Kaufmann wrote: Aside to his beloved Greeks, Hegel saw before him the example of Spinoza and, in his own time, the poetry of Goethe, Schiller, and H?lderlin, who also liked to speak of gods and the divine. So he, too, sometimes spoke of God and, more often, of the divine; and because he occasionally took pleasure in insisting that he was really closer to this or that Christian tradition than some of the theologians of his time, he has sometimes been understood to have been a Christian. Hegel identified as an orthodox Lutheran and believed his philosophy was consistent with Christianity.:100 This led Hegelian philosopher, jurist and politician Carl Friedrich G?schel (1784-1861) to write a treatise demonstrating the consistency of Hegel's philosophy with Christian doctrine on the soul's immortality (Von den Beweisen für die Unsterblichkeit der menschlichen Seele im Lichte der spekulativen Philosophie: eine Ostergabe - From the evidence of the immortality of the human soul in the light of speculative philosophy: an Easter gift) (Berlin: Verlag von Duncker und Humblot, 1835).:105 Hegel conceived of the immortality of the soul in the following manner in reference to Christianity: Thus the immortality of the soul must not be represented as first entering the sphere of reality only at a later stage; it is the actual present quality of spirit; spirit is eternal, and for this reason is already present. Spirit, as possessed of freedom, does not belong to the sphere of things limited; it, as being what thinks and knows in an absolute way, has the universal for its object; this is eternity, which is not simply duration, as duration can be predicated of mountains, but knowledge. The eternity of spirit is here brought into consciousness, and is found in this reasoned knowledge, in this very separation, which has reached the infinitude of being-for-self, and which is no longer entangled in what is natural, contingent, and external. This eternity of Spirit in itself means that Spirit is, to begin with, potential; but the next standpoint implies that Spirit ought to be what it is in its essential and complete nature, in-and-for-itself. Spirit must reflect upon itself, and in this way disunion arises, it must not remain at the point at which it is seen not to be what it is potentially, but must become adequate to its Concept, it must become universal Spirit. Regarded from the standpoint of division or disunion, its potential Being is for it an Other, and it itself is natural will; it is divided within itself, and this division is so far its feeling or consciousness of a contradiction, and there is thus given along with it the necessity for the abolition of the contradiction. Spirit is immortal; it is eternal; and it is immortal and eternal in virtue of the fact that it is infinite, that it has no such spatial finitude as we associate with the body; when we speak of it being five feet in height, two feet in breadth and thickness, that it is not the Now of time, that the content of its knowledge does not consist of these countless midges, that its volition and freedom have not to do with the infinite mass of existing obstacles, nor of the aims and activities which such resisting obstacles and hindrances have to encounter. The infinitude of spirit is its inwardness, in an abstract sense its pure inwardness, and this is its thought, and this abstract thought is a real present infinitude, while its concrete inwardness consists in the fact that this thought is Spirit. Hegel seemed to have an ambivalent relationship with magic, myth and Paganism. He formulated an early philosophical example of a disenchantment narrative, arguing that Judaism was responsible both for realizing the existence of Geist and, by extension, for separating nature from ideas of spiritual and magical forces and challenging polytheism. However, Hegel's manuscript "The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism" suggests that Hegel was concerned about the perceived decline in myth and enchantment in his age, and he therefore called for a "new myth" to fill the cultural vacuum. Hegel continued to develop his thoughts on religion both in terms of how it was to be given a 'wissenschaftlich', or "theoretically rigorous," account in the context of his own "system," and how a fully modern religion could be understood. Works Posthumous works Legacy See also: Hegelianism Reading Hegel Left and right Hegelianism Triads Main article: Thesis, antithesis, synthesis Renaissance Criticism Selected works Main article: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography Criticism of Hegel has been widespread in the 19th and the 20th centuries. A diverse range of individuals including Arthur Schopenhauer, Karl Marx, S?ren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, Franz Rosenzweig, Eric Voegelin and A. J. Ayer have challenged Hegelian philosophy from a variety of perspectives. Among the first to take a critical view of Hegel's system was the 19th-century German group known as the Young Hegelians, which included Feuerbach, Marx, Engels and their followers. In Britain, the Hegelian British idealism school (members of which included Francis Herbert Bradley, Bernard Bosanquet and in the United States Josiah Royce) was challenged and rejected by analytic philosophers Moore and Russell. In particular, Russell considered "almost all" of Hegel's doctrines to be false. Regarding Hegel's interpretation of history, Russell commented: "Like other historical theories, it required, if it was to be made plausible, some distortion of facts and considerable ignorance". Logical positivists such as Ayer and the Vienna Circle criticized both Hegelian philosophy and its supporters, such as Bradley. Hegel's contemporary Schopenhauer was particularly critical and wrote of Hegel's philosophy as "a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking". Hegel was described by Schopenhauer as a "clumsy charlatan". Kierkegaard criticized Hegel's "absolute knowledge" unity. The physicist and philosopher Ludwig Boltzmann also criticized the obscure complexity of Hegel's works, referring to Hegel's writing as an "unclear thoughtless flow of words". In a similar vein, Robert Pippin notes that some view Hegel as having "the ugliest prose style in the history of the German language". Russell wrote in A History of Western Philosophy (1945) that Hegel was "the hardest to understand of all the great philosophers". Karl Popper quoted Schopenhauer as stating, "Should you ever intend to dull the wits of a young man and to incapacitate his brains for any kind of thought whatever, then you cannot do better than give Hegel to read...A guardian fearing that his ward might become too intelligent for his schemes might prevent this misfortune by innocently suggesting the reading of Hegel." Isaiah Berlin listed Hegel as one of the six architects of modern authoritarianism who undermined liberal democracy, along with Rousseau, Claude Adrien Helvetius, Fichte, Saint-Simon and Joseph de Maistre. Name: Langeron Biography: Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron (24 January 1763 - 16 July 1831) Position: Governor of New Russia Allegiance: Kingdom of France Russian Empire Branch/service: Infantry Rank: General Langeron commanded the second column of the Austrian-Russian army in the Battle of Austerlitz. He took advantage of his previous service in the French army ,obtained The liaison bugle sheet of the French right-wing vanguard ,by using his own royalist spies who were placed in the French army. And then he used the trumpeter to play the score to confuse the French company in the reed. The French army mistakenly thought it was friendly force and put down his vigilance. Langeron was overjoyed and ordered the soldiers to start the battle. He defeated this part of French, but then the whole battle lost . He was later sent to Odessa. In 1815 he became governor of the new Russia. Count Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron (Russian: Алекса?ндр Фёдорович Ланжеро?н), born in Paris, was a French soldier in the service of, first, the Kingdom of France, and then the Russian Empire. Early life Langeron, a member of a noble French family from Nivernais, held the titles of comte de Langeron, marquis de la Coste, baron de Cougny, de la Ferte et de Sassy, and lord du Mont, de Bazolle de l'Isle de Mars et d'Alligny. He entered the French army at age 15 as a Sous-Lieutenant in the Gardes Fran?aises Regiment and was dispatched to Caracas and then to Saint-Domingue from 1782 to 1783. Promoted to captain in the Conde-Dragons Regiment, he took part in the American Revolutionary War. In 1786, Langeron was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in the Medoc Regiment, and in 1788 he became colonel of the Armagnac Regiment. French Revolutionary Wars A Royalist, Langeron left France at the beginning of the French Revolution and entered Russian service in 1790 as a colonel in the Siberian Grenadier Regiment. He distinguished himself in battle against Sweden and then in the Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792). Accompanied by the duc de Fronsac and Prince Charles de Ligne, the son of the famous Austrian diplomat Charles-Joseph, Prince de Ligne, he was present at Alexander Suvorov's capture of Izmail, where he was wounded. He was given leave of absence in order to serve in an emigre army against revolutionary France, and after his return to Russia was sent to the Austrian army in the Netherlands as an observer. He was promoted to brigade command in 1796 and became a major general in 1797 and lieutenant general in 1798. Napoleonic Wars He commanded the second column of the Austro-Russian army in the battle of Austerlitz, and disgraced after the lost battle, he was sent to Odessa. In 1815 he became governor of New Russia. From 1806 to 1811, Langeron participated in the Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) and served in the Army of Moldavia against the Ottomans. He fought at Giurgiu, Silistra, Frasin, Derekoy, and Ruse, for which he was promoted to General of Infantry. In 1812, Langeron was given command of a corps in the Army of the Danube with which he fought at Brest-Litovsk and on the Berezina. In 1813, Langeron was put in charge of the blockade of Thorn, and later that year he commanded a corps at Koenigswarte, Bautzen, Siebeneichen, Lowenberg, Katzbach, and Leipzig. The next year he participated in the French campaign, during which he fought at the battles of Soissons, Craonne, Laon, Rheims, La Fère-Champenoise, and Paris. In late 1814, Langeron was given command of the 4th and 6th Corps in Volhynia. During the Hundred Days, he and his troops were marching to France, but they had only reached middle Germany by the time Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. Later life After a brief return in France, during the Bourbon Restoration, Langeron returned to Odessa as he was appointed the Military Governor of Kherson and Odessa, the commander-in-chief of the Bug and Black Sea Cossacks, and the Governor of Yekaterinoslav, Kherson, and Crimea. Exports continued to grow under his rule, to 40 million rubles in 1817. In Odessa, Langeron opened the Richelieu Lyceum for the elite: only the children of merchants and Greek immigrants could enroll. During Langeron's tenure, the construction of the Odessa Botanical Gardens and Primorsky Boulevard began. The most far-reaching legislation in Langeron's term was that the port of Odessa was pronounced a free port in 1819, which allowed the selling and storing of imported goods with no customs duties. Today Odessa has a street and a beach named after Langeron. In 1823 Langeron was relieved of these duties because of poor health, and he then traveled to France until 1825. After the Decembrist revolt, Langeron was appointed a member of the sentencing panel. Called up with the start of the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 he fought against the Turks in a number of battles until he was replaced by Hans Karl von Diebitsch. Langeron died during a cholera epidemic in 1831. Battles/wars American Revolutionary War Russo-Swedish War (1788-90) Russo-Turkish War (1787-92) French Revolutionary Wars Russo-Turkish War (1806-12) Napoleonic Wars Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) Awards Order of the Holy Spirit Order of the Golden Fleece Order of St. Andrew Order of St. Anna Order of St. George Order of the White Eagle Order of St. Vladimir Order of Saint Louis Order of the Black Eagle Other work Governor of New Russia Name: Bustamante Biography: Jose de Bustamante y Guerra(1 April 1759-10 March 1825) Position: Commander-General of Río de la Plata (Governor of Montevideo),explorer, Allegiance:Spain Branch/service: Spanish Navy Rank: navy brigadier, Commander-General, Captain General Jose de Bustamante y Guerra (1 April 1759 in Corvera de Toranzo, Cantabria′, Spain - 10 March 1825 in Madrid, Spain), sometimes referred to simply as Bustamante, was a Spanish naval officer, explorer, and politician. Early life He descended from the Bustamante de Toranzo and the Guerra de Ibio; his father was Joaquín Antonio de Bustamante y Rueda, a native of Alceda, and his mother Clara Guerra de la Vega, a native of Santander. In 1770 Bustamante became a midshipman at the Academy of the Guardiamarinas in Cádiz, at the age of 11; He was already second lieutenant of frigate in June 1771. He served in several sea campaigns in the squadron under Pedro de Castejón. He fought in the Mediterranean Sea against Berber pirates, at the end of his studies there he embarked on the Santa Ines, bound for the Philippines. But the ship was attacked and captured by a British man-of-war. Bustamante was eventually released and returned to Spain. On October 20, 1782, he took part in the naval battle of Gibraltar, against the squadron of Lord Richard Howe, first Earl of Howe, although he was wounded. His ship was badly damaged in a battle fought near Cádiz. Bustamante then prepared a projected conquest of Jamaica, which was not carried out by the Peace of Paris in 1783. In 1784, with a brilliant service record, he became employed as a frigate captain, and he entered as a knight of the Order of Santiago on October 21, 1784. At that time he planned with his comrade Alessandro Malaspina, one of the singular characters of his time, a scientific journey through the colonial world of Hispanic influence. Malaspina-Bustamante expedition Main article: Malaspina Expedition Expedition from July 30, 1789 to September 21, 1794. In 1788 Bustamante partnered with Alessandro Malaspina. Together they proposed to the Spanish government a grand scientific expedition modeled after the voyages of James Cook. The project was approved and two corvettes were built specifically for the expedition. Bustamante was in command of the Atrevida (meaning "daring" or "bold") while Malaspina commanded the Descubierta ("discovered"). The names were chosen by Malaspina to honor James Cook's Discovery and Resolution. The expedition was under the "dual command" of both Malaspina and Bustamante. Bustamante and Malaspina called it "Scientific and Political Travel around the World" although it was popularly known as "Expedition to the World", later it was officially renamed "Ultramarine Expedition started on July 30, 1789" because it could not be Complete the round the world by having to return to Spain at the beginning of the War of Roussillon against the First Republic of France. Today, however, it is known as Malaspina Expedition or also Malaspina-Bustamante Expedition. The Expedition had a select team composed of the best officers of the moment, who were joined by botanists, painters, doctors and other enlightened humanists. From 1789 to 1794 Bustamante and Malaspina sailed Atlantic Ocean and throughout the Pacific Ocean, stopping at nearly all the Spanish colonies and exploring little known areas such as the Spanish America (Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Patagonia, Islas Malvinas/Falkland Islands, Chiloe island, Talcahuano, Valparaiso, Santiago de Chile, El Callao, Guayaquil, Nueva Granada, Acapulco, California) to Pacific Northwest northwest step or connection between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Alaska), and Spanish Asia (Filipinas, Marsall and Marianas Islands), Macao on the coast of china, New Guinea, Celebes, Molucas and Tonga Islands, New Zealand, and Australia. The two ships sometimes separated to pursue different tasks. For example, when sailing from Talcahuano to Valparaíso (in present-day Chile), Bustamante kept to the coast, surveying and mapping, while Malaspina sailed to the Juan Fernández Islands. Between Valparaíso and Callao, Peru, Malaspina again investigated offshore islands while Bustamante continued charting the coast. The same happened in the Atlantic, when Bustamante reached 57o south latitude (near the South Pole), one of the reason why Uruguay, Argentina and Spain have rights over Antarctica. Bustamante was rewarded with the rank of captain (1791) and was promoted to navy brigadier shortly after his 1794 return to Spain. Bustamante kept a diary during the Malaspina expedition, which was published in 1868 in the official journal of the Directorate of Hydrography. Later life After returning to Spain in 1794 Bustamante continued to work with Malaspina until the latter was imprisoned on charges of plotting against the state. Bustamante remained free of the political troubles of Malaspina. In 1796 he was appointed political and military governor of Paraguay and Commander-General of Río de la Plata (Governor of Montevideo). On October 5, 1804, in peace time, while sailing to Spain in command of four frigates Bustamante was attacked and captured by a British squadron without any declaration of war between U.K. and Spain. He was eventually released and faced a Spanish court-martial, but emerged untainted. That incident supposed that the 14 of December 1804 Spain formally declared the war to Great Britain and allied itself with France in its plan of invasion of Great Britain (Napoleonic Wars). In 1810 he was appointed Captain General of Guatemala. He remained at that post until 1817. At a time of great independence activity; he develops a reformist policy of enlightened style, but before the revolution of Hidalgo and Morelos in Mexico he prepared troops in Guatemala and created the "Fernando VII volunteer corps" and from his position he confronted the insurgents by repressing them. Jose de Bustamante y Guerra died in 1825 at the age of 66. In his will he donates a large amount of money to support the children's schools in Ontaneda, founded by Francisco, his brother. Name: Fatiman Biography: Cecile Fatiman(1771-1883) Nationality:Haitian Known for:Vodou priestess and figure of the Haitian Revolution Title:Mambo (Vodou High Priestess) Cecile Fatiman (1771-1883), was a Haitian vodou priestess, a mambo. She is reported to have lived to the age of 112. She is famous for her participation in the vodou ceremony at Bois Ca?man, which is considered to be one of the starting points of the Haitian Revolution. In August 1791, Fatiman presided over a ceremony at the Bois Ca?man in the role of mambo together with priest Dutty Boukman. Boukman prophesied that the slaves Jean Fran?ois, Biassou, and Jeannot would be leaders of a resistance movement and revolt that would free the slaves of Saint-Domingue. An animal was sacrificed, an oath was taken, and Boukman and the priestess exhorted the listeners to take revenge against their French oppressors and "ast aside the image of the God of the oppressors." According to the Encyclopedia of African Religion: "Blood from the animal, and some say from humans as well, was given in a drink to the attendees to seal their fates in loyalty to the cause of liberation of Sainte-Domingue." During the ceremony, Cecile Fatiman acted as if she were possessed by the goddess Erzulie. She was also said to have cut the throat of a pig and offered its blood to the spectators. A week later, 1800 plantations had been destroyed and 1000 slaveholders killed. Early life and origins Cecile Fatiman was the daughter of an enslaved African woman and a white Frenchman from Corsica. She and her mother were sold as slaves at Saint Domingue, while her two brothers disappeared in the slave trade. She is described as having long silky hair and green eyes. Haitian researcher Rodney Salnave (Bwa Kay Il-Ment) has researched Fatiman's origins. His research has indicated that her father was likely a Corsican prince and a grandson of Theodore Von Neuhoff or Theodore of Corsica, sole king of Corsica. He also believes that her last name, Fatiman, may actually have been a middle name, Attiman, which would have been given after Gregorio Attiman, of Leghorn or Livorno, Italy, who was one of Theodore Neuhoff's pages during his conquest of the Corsican throne in April 1736. This prompted him to state that her full name was most likely Cecile Attiman Coidavid, as she was the daughter of Celestina Coidavid, and the sister of Marie-Louise Coidavid, Queen of Haiti from 1811 to 1820. She was the mother-in-law of Pierre Nord Alexis. Later life Fatiman was married to Louis Michel Pierrot, a general in the Haitian revolutionary army and later president. Name: Wordsworth Biography: William Wordsworth(7 April 1770 - 23 April 1850) Position: Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom Alma mater :St John's College, Cambridge William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 - 23 April 1850) was an English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798). Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published by his wife in the year of his death, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850. Early life Main article: Early life of William Wordsworth The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in what is now named Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland, (now in Cumbria), part of the scenic region in northwestern England known as the Lake District. William's sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was captain, the Earl of Abergavenny, was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Wordsworth's father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit large portions of verse to memory, including works by Milton, Shakespeare and Spenser. William was also allowed to use his father's library. William also spent time at his mother's parents' house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle, who also lived there. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide. Wordsworth was taught to read by his mother and attended, first, a tiny school of low quality in Cockermouth, then a school in Penrith for the children of upper-class families, where he was taught by Ann Birkett, who insisted on instilling in her students traditions that included pursuing both scholarly and local activities, especially the festivals around Easter, May Day and Shrove Tuesday. Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, who later became his wife. After the death of Wordsworth's mother, in 1778, his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire (now in Cumbria) and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for nine years. Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine. That same year he began attending St John's College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791. He returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy. Relationship with Annette Vallon In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement. He fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who, in 1792, gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britain's tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his declared wish to marry Annette. However, he supported her and his daughter as best he could in later life. The Reign of Terror left Wordsworth thoroughly disillusioned with the French Revolution and the outbreak of armed hostilities between Britain and France prevented him from seeing Annette and his daughter for some years. With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette and Caroline in Calais. The purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson. Afterwards he wrote the sonnet "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free", recalling a seaside walk with the 9-year-old Caroline, whom he had never seen before that visit. Mary was anxious that Wordsworth should do more for Caroline. Upon Caroline's marriage, in 1816, Wordsworth settled ￡30 a year on her (equivalent to ￡2,313 as of 2021), payments which continued until 1835, when they were replaced by a capital settlement. First publication and Lyrical Ballads The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. In 1795 he received a legacy of ￡900 from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet. It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. For two years from 1795, William and his sister Dorothy lived at Racedown House in Dorset—a property of the Pinney family—to the west of Pilsdon Pen. They walked in the area for about two hours every day, and the nearby hills consoled Dorothy as she pined for the fells of her native Lakeland. She wrote, "We have hills which, seen from a distance almost take the character of mountains, some cultivated nearly to their summits, others in their wild state covered with furze and broom. These delight me the most as they remind me of our native wilds." In 1797, the pair moved to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced Lyrical Ballads (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement. The volume gave neither Wordsworth's nor Coleridge's name as author. One of Wordsworth's most famous poems, "Tintern Abbey", was published in this collection, along with Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems. It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802. In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the ordinary language "really used by men" while avoiding the poetic diction of much 18th-century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility", and calls his own poems in the book "experimental". A fourth and final edition of Lyrical Ballads was published in 1805. The Borderers Between 1795-1797, Wordsworth wrote his only play, The Borderers, a verse tragedy set during the reign of King Henry III of England, when Englishmen in the North Country came into conflict with Scottish border reivers. He attempted to get the play staged in November 1797, but it was rejected by Thomas Harris, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, who proclaimed it "impossible that the play should succeed in the representation". The rebuff was not received lightly by Wordsworth and the play was not published until 1842, after substantial revision. Germany and move to the Lake District Wordsworth, Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany in the autumn of 1798. While Coleridge was intellectually stimulated by the journey, its main effect on Wordsworth was to produce homesickness. During the harsh winter of 1798-99 Wordsworth lived with Dorothy in Goslar, and, despite extreme stress and loneliness, began work on the autobiographical piece that was later titled The Prelude. He wrote a number of other famous poems in Goslar, including "The Lucy poems". In the Autumn of 1799, Wordsworth and his sister returned to England and visited the Hutchinson family at Sockburn. When Coleridge arrived back in England he travelled to the North with their publisher Joseph Cottle to meet Wordsworth and undertake a proposed tour of the Lake District. This was the immediate cause of the brother and sister's settling at Dove Cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District, this time with another poet, Robert Southey, nearby. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey came to be known as the "Lake Poets". Throughout this period many of Wordsworth's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief. Marriage and children In 1802, Lowther's heir, William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, paid the ￡4,000 owed to Wordsworth's father through Lowther's failure to pay his aide. It was this repayment that afforded Wordsworth the financial means to marry. On 4 October, following his visit with Dorothy to France to arrange matters with Annette, Wordsworth married his childhood friend Mary Hutchinson. Dorothy continued to live with the couple and grew close to Mary. The following year Mary gave birth to the first of five children, three of whom predeceased her and William: Rev. John Wordsworth MA (18 June 1803 - 25 July 1875). Vicar of Brigham, Cumberland and Rector of Plumbland, Cumberland. Buried at Highgate Cemetery (west side). Married four times: Isabella Curwen (died 1848) had six children: Jane, Henry, William, John, Charles and Edward. Helen Ross (died 1854). No children. Mary Ann Dolan (died after 1858) had one daughter Dora (born 1858). Mary Gamble. No children. Dora Wordsworth (16 August 1804 - 9 July 1847). Married Edward Quillinan in 1841. Thomas Wordsworth (15 June 1806 - 1 December 1812). Catherine Wordsworth (6 September 1808 - 4 June 1812). William "Willy" Wordsworth (12 May 1810 - 1883). Married Fanny Graham and had four children: Mary Louisa, William, Reginald, Gordon Autobiographical work and Poems, in Two Volumes Wordsworth had for years been making plans to write a long philosophical poem in three parts, which he intended to call The Recluse. In 1798-99 he started an autobiographical poem, which he referred to as the "poem to Coleridge" and which he planned would serve as an appendix to a larger work called The Recluse. In 1804 he began expanding this autobiographical work, having decided to make it a prologue rather than an appendix. He completed this work, now generally referred to as the first version of The Prelude, in 1805, but refused to publish such a personal work until he had completed the whole of The Recluse. The death of his brother John, also in 1805, affected him strongly and may have influenced his decisions about these works. Wordsworth's philosophical allegiances as articulated in The Prelude and in such shorter works as "Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey" have been a source of critical debate. It was long supposed that Wordsworth relied chiefly on Coleridge for philosophical guidance, but more recently scholars have suggested that Wordsworth's ideas may have been formed years before he and Coleridge became friends in the mid-1790s. In particular, while he was in revolutionary Paris in 1792, the 22-year-old Wordsworth made the acquaintance of the mysterious traveller John "Walking" Stewart (1747-1822), who was nearing the end of his thirty years of wandering, on foot, from Madras, India, through Persia and Arabia, across Africa and Europe, and up through the fledgling United States. By the time of their association, Stewart had published an ambitious work of original materialist philosophy entitled The Apocalypse of Nature (London, 1791), to which many of Wordsworth's philosophical sentiments may well be indebted. In 1807 Wordsworth published Poems, in Two Volumes, including "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood". Up to this point, Wordsworth was known only for Lyrical Ballads, and he hoped that this new collection would cement his reputation. Its reception was lukewarm, however. In 1810, Wordsworth and Coleridge were estranged over the latter's opium addiction, and in 1812, his son Thomas died at the age of 6, six months after the death of 3-year-old Catherine. The following year he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, and the stipend of ￡400 a year made him financially secure, albeit at the cost of political independence. In 1813, he and his family, including Dorothy, moved to Rydal Mount, Ambleside (between Grasmere and Rydal Water), where he spent the rest of his life. The Prospectus In 1814 Wordsworth published The Excursion as the second part of the three-part work The Recluse, even though he had not completed the first part or the third part, and never did. He did, however, write a poetic Prospectus to The Recluse in which he laid out the structure and intention of the whole work. The Prospectus contains some of Wordsworth's most famous lines on the relation between the human mind and nature: ... my voice proclaims How exquisitely the individual Mind (And the progressive powers perhaps no less Of the whole species) to the external World Is fitted:—and how exquisitely, too— Theme this but little heard of among Men, The external World is fitted to the Mind; And the creation (by no lower name Can it be called) which they with blended might Accomplish ... Some modern critics suggest that there was a decline in his work beginning around the mid-1810s, perhaps because most of the concerns that characterised his early poems (loss, death, endurance, separation and abandonment) had been resolved in his writings and his life. By 1820, he was enjoying considerable success accompanying a reversal in the contemporary critical opinion of his earlier works. The poet William Blake, who knew of Wordsworth's work, was struck by Wordsworth's boldness in centering his poetry on the human mind. In response to Wordsworth's poetic program that, “when we look / Into our Minds, into the Mind of Man- / My haunt, and the main region of my song” (The Excursion), William Blake wrote to his friend Henry Crabb Robinson that the passage "“caused him a bowel complaint which nearly killed him”. Following the death of his friend the painter William Green in 1823, Wordsworth also mended his relations with Coleridge. The two were fully reconciled by 1828, when they toured the Rhineland together. Dorothy suffered from a severe illness in 1829 that rendered her an invalid for the remainder of her life. Coleridge and Charles Lamb both died in 1834, their loss being a difficult blow to Wordsworth. The following year saw the passing of James Hogg. Despite the death of many contemporaries, the popularity of his poetry ensured a steady stream of young friends and admirers to replace those he lost. Religious beliefs Wordsworth's youthful political radicalism, unlike Coleridge's, never led him to rebel against his religious upbringing. He remarked in 1812 that he was willing to shed his blood for the established Church of England, reflected in his Ecclesiastical Sketches of 1822. This religious conservatism also colours The Excursion (1814), a long poem that became extremely popular during the nineteenth century. It features three central characters: the Wanderer; the Solitary, who has experienced the hopes and miseries of the French Revolution; and the Pastor, who dominates the last third of the poem. Laureateship and other honours Wordsworth remained a formidable presence in his later years. In 1837, the Scottish poet and playwright Joanna Baillie reflected on her long acquaintance with Wordsworth. "He looks like a man that one must not speak to unless one has some sensible thing to say. However he does occasionally converse cheerfully & well; and when one knows how benevolent & excellent he is, it disposes one to be very much pleased with him." In 1838, Wordsworth received an honorary doctorate in Civil Law from the University of Durham and the following year he was awarded the same honorary degree by the University of Oxford, when John Keble praised him as the "poet of humanity", praise greatly appreciated by Wordsworth. (It has been argued that Wordsworth was a great influence on Keble's immensely popular book of devotional poetry, The Christian Year (1827).) In 1842, the government awarded him a Civil List pension of ￡300 a year. Following the death of Robert Southey in 1843 Wordsworth became Poet Laureate. He initially refused the honour, saying that he was too old, but accepted when the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, assured him that "you shall have nothing required of you". Wordsworth thus became the only poet laureate to write no official verses. The sudden death of his daughter Dora in 1847 at age 42 was difficult for the aging poet to take and in his depression, he completely gave up writing new material. Death William Wordsworth died at home at Rydal Mount from an aggravated case of pleurisy on 23 April 1850, and was buried at St Oswald's Church, Grasmere. His widow, Mary, published his lengthy autobiographical "Poem to Coleridge" as The Prelude several months after his death. Though it failed to interest people at the time, it has since come to be widely recognised as his masterpiece. In popular culture Composer Alicia Van Buren (1860-1922) used text by Wordsworth for her song "In Early Spring". Ken Russell’s 1978 film, William and Dorothy portrays the relationship between William and his sister Dorothy. Wordsworth and Coleridge’s friendship is examined by Julien Temple in his 2000 film Pandaemonium. Wordsworth has appeared as a character in works of fiction, including: William Kinsolving - Mister Christian. 1996 Jasper Fforde - The Eyre Affair. 2001 Val McDermid - The Grave Tattoo. 2006 Sue Limb - The Wordsmiths at Gorsemere. 2008 Isaac Asimov's 1966 novelisation of the 1966 film Fantastic Voyage sees Dr. Peter Duval quoting Wordsworth's The Prelude as the miniaturised submarine sails through the cerebral fluid surrounding a human brain, comparing it to the "strange seas of thought". Taylor Swift's 2020 album Folklore mentions Wordsworth in her bonus track "The Lakes", which is thought to be about the Lake District. On the right bank of the Seine, just a stone’s throw away from the Palais Royal, the Paris Opera and the Musee de Louvre in the French capital’s second arrondissement, lies a blink-and-you’ll-miss-it passageway. Despite being so close to these popular Parisian tourist attractions, the Passage des Petits-Pères boasts little to attract the attention of even the most intrepid of travellers. In the late 18th century, however, this little thoroughfare was significantly larger (a portion has since been swallowed up by the re-development of an adjacent street), and was home to both the H?tel des Etats-Unis and the H?tel d’Angleterre. As such it was a destination of choice for members of both the American and British ex-pat communities, most notably the group of radical Anglo-American exiles who called themselves 'The Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man’. The first recorded meeting of this Society (which was later, somewhat misleadingly, called the British Club) took place at the H?tel d’Angleterre, also known as White’s Hotel, on 18 November 1792, a Sunday. This 'meeting’ was in fact a banquet to celebrate the establishment of the first French Republic and the advancement, as they saw it, of the Romantic ideals of democracy, human rights, and equality. In attendance were about one hundred British and American intellectuals including such progressive thinkers as Thomas Paine, author of the seminal Rights of Man; radical publisher, John Hurford Stone; the Welsh philosopher and polemicist David Williams; the poet and novelist, Helen Maria Williams; and the Irish aristocrat and revolutionary, Lord Edward Fitzgerald. Another possible attendee that night was a young William Wordsworth. While definitive proof of his presence at the meeting remains frustratingly elusive, we do know that the twenty-three-year-old, having already resided in France for a year, was in Paris at the time. He was also armed with a letter of introduction to Helen Maria Williams, which had been furnished by Charlotte Smith, a novelist acquaintance of the Wordsworth family. Further adding to the conceivability of his attendance is the fact that the young man’s interest in revolutionary politics had already been piqued: during his stay in London from January to May 1791 he would have undoubtedly been cognizant of the heated parliamentary debates on the situation in France, while in The Prelude he recalls having 'sometimes read / with care the master pamphlets of the day’ by the likes of Paine and Edmund Burke. His subsequent acquaintance with Captain Michel de Beaupuy, who was a rarity in late 18th century France being as he was an aristocrat and an ardent supporter of the Revolution, further influenced Wordsworth’s nascent political beliefs - it is thought that Beaupuy was the person who ultimately converted Wordsworth to the Jacobin cause. However, unlike many other ex-pat intellectuals in Paris at the time and most of the guests at White’s Hotel on that November evening in 1792, a desire to witness revolution in action was not solely what had initially drawn Wordsworth to France. The reality was much more prosaic: having graduated from Cambridge in 1791 with an undistinguished pass degree (through idleness and a contempt for organised education rather than from any intellectual inadequacies), and after a year of mooching around Britain doing not very much, Wordsworth decided to travel to France ostensibly 'Led thither chiefly by a personal wish / To speak the language more familiarly’. This, though, was a smokescreen; his real intention, when he sailed across the English Channel on 26 November 1791 was simply to escape the suffocating expectations placed on him by his guardians, who wished him to enter either the legal profession or 'a paltry curacy’ in the Church. Landing in Dieppe, the young traveller first made his way to Paris, where he stayed for some five days. During this time he did the rounds of the usual tourist sites, visiting Montmartre, Notre Dame, the Panteon, and the fallen Bastille where he “sat in the open sun / And from the rubbish gathered up a stone / And pocketed the relic, in the guise / Of an enthusiast”. He also met with compatriot Robert Watt who introduced him both to the Jacobin Club, of which Watt was a member, and the National Assembly. Although he later declared that “In both her clamorous halls / The National Synod and the Jacobins / I saw the Revolutionary Power / Toss like a ship at anchor”, it is unlikely that Wordsworth would have been able to follow proceedings very closely given his then-limited grasp of the French language. Leaving Paris, the young man then made a fateful journey south to Orleans. It was here, presumably not very long after his arrival on December 6 1791, that Wordsworth met Marie Anne Vallon. Whether the poet’s relationship with Marie Anne (known as Annette) was really the grand passion it has often been claimed to have been is debatable. Certainly, Annette’s surviving letters prove that she was quite infatuated with him, initially at least, but we can’t say for certain that this intensity of feeling was reciprocated by Wordsworth (perhaps tellingly, there is no direct reference to her in The Prelude). Nevertheless, one fact remains immutable; barely two months after their initial meeting, Annette was carrying Wordsworth’s child. During the early stages of Annette’s pregnancy, the parents-to-be travelled to the smaller town of Blois, presumably to escape the unwanted attention (and perhaps the censure) that a pregnancy out of wedlock might have attracted. It was here that Wordsworth met Beaupuy, a man who was ranked by birth “With the most noble, but unto the poor / Among mankind he was in service bound … Man he loved / As man”. Quickly becoming close, the pair spent time at the local revolutionary club and habitually took long walks together in the countryside along the banks of the Loire. It was during one of these rambles that the men happened upon a starving young girl, and Beaupuy’s response to the sight was, for Wordsworth, both hugely admirable and intensely inspiring: “My friend in agitation cried, 'Tis against that/ That we are fighting”. Now completely converted to the anti-monarchist cause, the young Englishman hoped that the outcome of the French Revolution “Should see the people having a strong hand / In framing their own laws; whence better days / To all mankind.” Having entered into this “noisier world”, he “thus ere long became a patriot.” Revolutionary politics and the abstract predicament of the rural poor were not, however, Wordsworth’s only concerns at this time. With Annette’s pregnancy rapidly coming to term, the indolent traveller was forced to confront his own impoverished circumstances. The prospect of having to support two dependents was weighing heavily on him, and he was left with little choice but to make his way back to England in order, finally, to pick up some gainful employment. And so, with Annette safely back in Orleans, Wordsworth made his way back to England via Paris. At almost six weeks, his second stay in Paris - which coincided with the meeting at White’s Hotel - was significantly longer than the first. This time, though, he encountered a very different atmosphere. The Bourbon monarchy had fallen in August, amid a violent attack on the Tuileries Palace while the September Massacres - an ominous presentiment of the atrocities to come - had thrown the National Convention into turmoil. But while these ugly eruptions of violence, which sullied the high-flown Romantic ideals of many of the Revolution’s foreign supporters, worried and sometimes frightened Wordsworth, they did little to dampen his enthusiasm for the republican movement. Once in England however, with the outbreak of war between Britain and France making it impossible to return to, or even communicate with, Annette and his new-born daughter Caroline, Wordsworth began to waver. Initially, he found himself at odds with the public mood in his home country - his political affiliations and emotional loyalty were still very much with France. Indeed, in his Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff, written in early 1793, he is as defiant in his defence of the Revolution as ever. But the advent of Robespierre’s reign of terror in the autumn of 1793 horrified him, and as the utopian ideals of liberte, egalite et fraternite drowned in a sea of blood, Wordsworth, like many of his contemporaries, became profoundly disillusioned. He saw in Robespierre the destruction of the Revolution, but still, when the bloodthirsty Jacobin was himself shaved by Madame Guillotine, Wordsworth still hoped “for golden times”. But golden times were not forthcoming. The advent of the Napoleonic era precipitated a radical change in Wordsworth’s political views, as he became increasingly conservative in his outlook. At the beginning of his French adventures, Wordsworth declared “Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive!” By 1794, he was saying in a letter to a friend “I am of that odious class of men called democrats” while in another he baldly stated “I recoil from the bare idea of a revolution…” By 1811, in View From the Top of the Black Comb, he was likening Napoleon to Milton’s Satan. Not content simply to distance himself from his early beliefs, Wordsworth in later life actively renounced them. In an echo of his doomed relationship with Annette, whom he met just twice more in 1803 and 1820, William Wordsworth had fallen out of love with France and all that she represented. It was a remarkable turnaround, by anyone’s standards. As is often the case with such things, it can be argued that two competing narratives have grown up around the events in France at the end of the 18th century - there is the myth and there is the reality. The second generation of Romantic poets, including Byron and Shelley, were greatly inspired by the utopian ideals of the early Revolution, without giving sufficient weight to the destruction and horror which followed. It was easy for them to embrace a selective, almost mythical, version of events twenty years after the fact. Not so for Wordsworth; for him, the French Revolution was reality, and a painful reality at that. In renouncing all the beliefs he had once held dear, he was perhaps the most honest of them all. Name: Cochrane Biography: Thomas Cochrane (14 December 1775 - 31 October 1860), 'The Sea Wolf' Nickname(s):Le Loup des Mers (The Sea Wolf).El Diablo (The Devil).El Metálico Lord (The Metallic Lord) Position: Navy officer, mercenary,Radical politician, Member of Parliament for Westminster, Member of Parliament for Honiton Political party :WhigRadical Allegiance: Kingdom of Great Britain, Republic of Chile, Empire of Brazil,Greece Branch/service: Royal Navy, Chilean Navy, Imperial Brazilian Navy, Greek Revolutionary Navy Rank: Admiral of the Red Commands held:North America and West Indies Station In 1812, Lord Cochrane proposed attacking the French coast using a combination of fire ships/bombardment ships, explosion ships, and "stink vessels" (gas warfare). A bombardment ship consisted of a strengthened old hulk filled with powder and shot and made to list to one side. It was anchored at night to face the enemy behind the harbour wall. When set off, it provided saturation bombardment of the harbour, which would be closely followed by landings of troops. He put the plans forward again before and during the Crimean War. The authorities, however, decided not to pursue his plans. Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, Marquess of Maranh?o, styled Lord Cochrane between 1778 and 1831, was a British naval flag officer of the Royal Navy, mercenary and Radical politician. He was a successful captain of the Napoleonic Wars, leading Napoleon to nickname him Le Loup des Mers, 'The Sea Wolf'. He was successful in virtually all of his naval actions. He was dismissed from the Royal Navy in 1814 following a controversial conviction for fraud on the Stock Exchange. He helped organise and lead the rebel navies of Chile and Brazil during their respective successful wars of independence through the 1820s. While in charge of the Chilean Navy, Cochrane also contributed to Peruvian Independence through the Freedom Expedition of Perú. He was also hired to help the Greek Navy but did not have much impact. In 1832, he was pardoned by the Crown and reinstated in the Royal Navy with the rank of Rear-Admiral of the Blue. After several more promotions, he died in 1860 with the rank of Admiral of the Red, and the honorary title of Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom. His life and exploits inspired the naval fiction of 19th- and 20th-century novelists, particularly the figures of C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower and Patrick O'Brian's protagonist Jack Aubrey. Family Thomas Cochrane was born at Annsfield, near Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, Scotland. He was the son of Archibald, Lord Cochrane (1748-1831), who later became, in October 1778, The 9th Earl of Dundonald, and his wife, Anna Gilchrist. She was the daughter of Captain James Gilchrist and Ann Roberton, the daughter of Major John Roberton, 16th Laird of Earnock. Thomas, Lord Cochrane, as he himself became in October 1778, had six brothers. Two served with distinction in the military: William Erskine Cochrane of the 15th Dragoons , who served under Sir John Moore in the Peninsular War and reached the rank of major; and Archibald Cochrane, who became a captain in the Navy. Lord Cochrane was descended from lines of Scottish aristocracy and military service on both sides of his family. Through his uncle, Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, the sixth son of The 8th Earl of Dundonald, Cochrane was cousin to his namesake, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas John Cochrane (1789-1872). Sir Thomas J. Cochrane also had a naval career and was appointed as Governor of Newfoundland and later Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom. By 1793 the family fortune had been spent, and the family estate was sold to cover debts. Early life Lord Cochrane spent much of his early life in Culross, Fife, where his family had an estate. Through the influence of his uncle Alexander Cochrane, he was listed as a member of the crew on the books of four Royal Navy ships starting when he was five years old. This common (though unlawful) practice called false muster was a means of acquiring the years of service required for promotion, if and when he joined the Navy. His father secured him a commission in the British Army at an early age, but Cochrane preferred the Navy. He joined it in 1793 upon the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars. Service in the Royal Navy French Revolutionary wars On 23 July 1793, aged 17, Cochrane joined the navy as a midshipman, spending his first months at Sheerness in the 28-gun sixth-rate frigate HMS Hind commanded by his uncle Captain Alexander Cochrane. He transferred to the 38-gun fifth rate HMS Thetis, also under his uncle's command. While aboard Thetis, he visited Norway and next served on the North America Station. In 1795, he was appointed acting lieutenant. The following year on 27 May 1796, he was commissioned lieutenant after passing the examination. After several transfers in North America and a return home in 1798, he was assigned as 8th Lieutenant on Lord Keith's flagship HMS Barfleur in the Mediterranean. During his service on Barfleur, Cochrane was court-martialled for showing disrespect to Philip Beaver, the ship's first lieutenant. The board reprimanded him for flippancy. This was the first public manifestation of a pattern of Cochrane being unable to get along with many of his superiors, subordinates, employers, and colleagues in several navies and Parliament, even those with whom he had much in common and who should have been natural allies. His behaviour led to a long enmity with Admiral of the Fleet The 1st Earl of St Vincent. In February 1800, Cochrane commanded the prize crew taking the captured French vessel Genereux to the British base at Mahón. The ship was almost lost in a storm, with Cochrane and his brother Archibald going aloft in place of crew who were mostly ill. Cochrane was promoted to commander and took command of the brig sloop HMS Speedy on 28 March 1800. Later that year, a Spanish warship disguised as a merchant ship almost captured him. He escaped by flying a Danish flag and fending off a boarding by claiming that his ship was plague-ridden. On another occasion, he was being chased by an enemy frigate and knew that it would follow him in the night by any glimmer of light from Speedy, so he placed a lantern on a barrel and let it float away. The enemy frigate followed the light and Speedy escaped. In February 1801 at Malta, Cochrane got into an argument with a French Royalist officer at a fancy dress ball. He had come dressed as a common sailor, and the Royalist mistook him for one. This argument led to Cochrane's only duel. Cochrane wounded the French officer with a pistol shot and was himself unharmed. One of his most notable exploits was the capture of the Spanish xebec frigate El Gamo on 6 May 1801. El Gamo carried 32 guns and 319 men, compared with Speedy's 14 guns and 54 men. Cochrane flew an American flag and approached so closely to El Gamo that her guns could not depress to fire on Speedy's hull. The Spanish tried to board and take over the ship but, whenever they were about to board, Cochrane pulled away briefly and fired on the concentrated boarding parties with his ship's guns. Eventually, Cochrane boarded El Gamo and captured her, despite being outnumbered about six to one. In Speedy's 13-month cruise, Cochrane captured, burned, or drove ashore 53 ships before three French ships of the line under Admiral Charles-Alexandre Linois captured him on 3 July 1801. While Cochrane was held as a prisoner, Linois often asked him for advice. In his autobiography, Cochrane recounted how courteous and polite the French officer had been. A few days later, he was exchanged for the second captain of another French ship. On 8 August 1801, he was promoted to the rank of post-captain. Napoleonic Wars After the Peace of Amiens, Cochrane attended the University of Edinburgh. Upon the resumption of war in 1803, St Vincent assigned him in October 1803 to command the sixth-rate 22-gun HMS Arab. Cochrane alleged that the vessel handled poorly, colliding with Royal Navy ships on two occasions (Bloodhound and Abundance). In his autobiography, he compared Arab to a collier. He wrote that his first thoughts on seeing Arab being repaired at Plymouth were that she would "sail like a haystack". Despite this, he intercepted and boarded the American merchant ship Chatham. This created an international incident, as Britain was not at war with the United States. Arab and her commander were assigned to protect Britain's important whaling fleet beyond Orkney in the North Sea. In 1804, Lord St Vincent stood aside for the incoming new government led by William Pitt the Younger, and The 1st Viscount Melville took office. In December of that year, Cochrane was appointed to command of the new 32-gun frigate HMS Pallas. He undertook a series of notable exploits over the following eighteen months one of which was a cruise in the vicinity of the Azores. Here Pallas captured three Spanish merchant ships and a Spanish 14-gun privateer. In August 1806, he took command of the 38-gun frigate HMS Imperieuse, formerly the Spanish frigate Medea. One of his midshipmen was Frederick Marryat, who later wrote fictionalised accounts of his adventures with Cochrane. In Imperieuse, Cochrane raided the Mediterranean coast of France during the continuing Napoleonic Wars. In 1808, Cochrane and a Spanish guerrilla force captured the fortress of Mongat, which straddled the road between Gerona and Barcelona. This delayed General Duhesme's French army for a month. On another raid, Cochrane copied code books from a signal station, leaving behind the originals so that the French would believe them uncompromised. When Imperieuse ran short of water, she sailed up the estuary of the Rhone to replenish. A French army marched into Catalonia and besieged Rosas, and Cochrane took part in the defence of the town. He occupied and defended Fort Trinidad (Castell de la Trinitat) for a number of weeks before the fall of the city forced him to leave; Cochrane was one of the last two men to quit the fort. While captain of Speedy, Pallas, and Imperieuse, Cochrane became an effective practitioner of coastal warfare during the period. He attacked shore installations such as the Martello tower at Son Bou on Menorca, and he captured enemy ships in harbour by leading his men in boats in "cutting out" operations. He was a meticulous planner of every operation, which limited casualties among his men and maximised the chances of success. In 1809, Cochrane commanded the attack by a flotilla of fire ships on Rochefort, as part of the Battle of the Basque Roads. The attack did considerable damage, but Cochrane blamed fleet commander Admiral Gambier for missing the opportunity to destroy the French fleet, accusations that resulted in the Court-martial of James, Lord Gambier. Cochrane claimed that, as a result of expressing his opinion publicly, the admiralty denied him the opportunity to serve afloat. But documentation shows that he was focussed on politics at this time and, indeed, refused a number of offers of command. Political career In June 1806, Lord Cochrane stood for the House of Commons on a ticket of parliamentary reform (a movement which later brought about the Reform Acts) for the potwalloper borough of Honiton in Devon. This was exactly the kind of borough which Cochrane proposed to abolish; votes were mostly sold to the highest bidder. Cochrane offered nothing and lost the election. In October 1806, he ran for Parliament in Honiton and won. Cochrane initially denied that he paid any bribes, but he revealed in a Parliamentary debate ten years later that he had paid ten guineas (￡10 10s) per voter through Mr. Townshend, local headman and banker. In May 1807, Cochrane was elected by Westminster in a more democratic election. He had campaigned for parliamentary reform, allied with such Radicals as William Cobbett, Sir Francis Burdett, and Henry Hunt. His outspoken criticism of the conduct of the war and the corruption in the navy made him powerful enemies in the government. His criticism of Admiral Gambier's conduct at the Battle of the Basque Roads was so severe that Gambier demanded a court-martial to clear his name. Cochrane made important enemies in the Admiralty during this period. In 1810, Sir Francis Burdett, a member of parliament and political ally, had barricaded himself in his home at Piccadilly, London, resisting arrest by the House of Commons. Cochrane went to assist Burdett's defence of the house. His approach was similar to what he used in the navy and would have led to numerous deaths amongst the arresting officers and at least partial destruction of Burdett's house, along with much of Piccadilly. On realising what Cochrane planned, Burdett and his allies took steps to end the siege. Cochrane was popular with the public but was unable to get along with his colleagues in the House of Commons or within the government. He usually had little success in promoting his causes. An exception was his successful confrontation of a prize court in 1814. His conviction in the Great Stock Exchange Fraud of 1814 resulted in Parliament expelling him on 5 July 1814. However, his constituents in the seat of Westminster re-elected him at the resulting by-election on 16 July. He held this seat until 1818. In 1818, Cochrane's last speech in Parliament advocated parliamentary reform. In 1830, Cochrane initially expressed interest in running for Parliament but then declined. Lord Brougham's brother had decided to run for the seat, and Cochrane also thought that it would look bad for him to be publicly supporting a government from which he sought pardon for his fraud conviction. In 1831, his father died and Cochrane became the 10th Earl of Dundonald. As such, he was no longer entitled to sit in the Commons. While serving as the Commander-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station, Cochrane became acquainted with geologist and physicist Abraham Gesner in Halifax. The pair planned a commercial venture that would supply Halifax with lamp oil and mine bitumen deposits in Trinidad and Albert Country, New Brunswick. By 1850, Cochrane had purchased all the land surrounding Trinidad's pitch lake in support of the endeavour. Ultimately, the enterprise did not come into fruition, and Cochrane returned to England after his term of service expired in April 1851. Marriage and children In 1812, Cochrane married Katherine ("Katy") Frances Corbet Barnes, a beautiful orphan who was about twenty years his junior. They met through Cochrane's cousin Nathaniel Day Cochrane. This was an elopement and a civil ceremony, due to the opposition of his wealthy uncle Basil Cochrane, who disinherited his nephew as a result. Cochrane called Katherine "Kate," "Kitty," or "Mouse" in letters to her; she often accompanied her husband on his extended campaigns in South America and Greece. Cochrane and Katherine remarried in the Anglican Church in 1818, and in the Church of Scotland in 1825. They had six children: Thomas Barnes Cochrane, 11th Earl of Dundonald, b. 18 April 1814, m. Louisa Harriett McKinnon. William Horatio Bernardo Cochrane, officer, 92nd Gordon Highlanders, b. 8 March 1818 m. Jacobina Frances Nicholson d. 6 February 1900. Elizabeth Katharine Cochrane, died close to her first birthday. Katharine Elizabeth Cochrane, d. 25 August 1869, m. John Willis Fleming. Admiral Sir Arthur Auckland Leopold Pedro Cochrane KCB (Commander of HMS Niger), b. 24 September 1824, d. 20 August 1905. Captain Ernest Gray Lambton Cochrane RN (High Sheriff of Donegal) b. 4 June 1834, d. 2 February 1911 m. 1. Adelaide Blackall 2. Elizabeth Frances Maria Katherine Doherty. The confusion of multiple ceremonies led to suspicions that Cochrane's first son Thomas Barnes Cochrane was illegitimate. Investigation of this delayed Thomas's accession to the Earldom of Dundonald on his father's death. In 1823 Lady Cochrane sailed with her children to Valparaiso on Sesostris to join her husband. On 13 June Sesostris stopped at Rio de Janeiro where she discovered that he was there, having in March taken command of the Brazilian Navy. Great Stock Exchange Fraud Main article: Great Stock Exchange Fraud of 1814: Cochrane been involved in this unfair charge In 1876, his grandson received a payment of ￡40,000 from the British government (equivalent to ￡3,800,000 in 2019), based on the recommendations of a Parliamentary select committee, in compensation for Cochrane's conviction. The committee had concluded that his conviction was unjust. Service with other navies Chilean Navy Lord Cochrane left the UK in official disgrace, but that did not end his naval career. Accompanied by Lady Cochrane and their two children, he reached Valparaíso on 28 November 1818. Chile was rapidly organising its new navy for its war of independence. Cochrane became a Chilean citizen, on 11 December 1818 at the request of Chilean leader Bernardo O'Higgins. He was appointed Vice Admiral and took command of the Chilean Navy in Chile's war of independence against Spain. He was the first Vice Admiral of Chile.(p37) Cochrane reorganised the Chilean navy with British commanders, introducing British naval customs and, formally, English-speaking governance in their warships. He took command in the frigate O'Higgins and blockaded and raided the coasts of Peru, as he had those of France and Spain. On his own initiative, he organised and led the capture of Valdivia, despite only having 300 men and two ships to deploy against seven large forts. He failed in his attempt to capture the Chiloe Archipelago for Chile. In 1820, O'Higgins ordered him to convoy the Liberation Army of General Jose de San Martín to Peru, blockade the coast, and support the campaign for independence. Later, forces under Cochrane's personal command cut out and captured the frigate Esmeralda, the most powerful Spanish ship in South America. All of this led to Peruvian independence, which O'Higgins considered indispensable to Chile's security. Cochrane's victories in the Pacific were spectacular and important. The excitement was almost immediately marred by his accusations that he had been plotted against by subordinates and treated with contempt and denied adequate financial reward by his superiors. The evidence does not support these accusations, and the problem appeared to lie in Cochrane's own suspicious and uneasy personality. Cochrane had an uneasy relation with San Martín who was serene and calculating in contrast with Cochrane's tendency for audacious actions. San Martín criticized Cochrane's interest for financial gain giving him the nickname El Metálico Lord (The Metallic Lord). Loose words from his wife Katy resulted in a rumour that Cochrane had made plans to free Napoleon from his exile on Saint Helena and make him ruler of a unified South American state. This could not have been true because Charles, the supposed envoy bearing the rumoured plans, had been killed two months before his reported "departure to Europe". Cochrane left the service of the Chilean Navy on 29 November 1822. Chilean naval vessels named after Lord Cochrane The Chilean Navy has named five ships Cochrane or Almirante Cochrane (Admiral Cochrane) in his honour: The first, Almirante Cochrane, was a battery ship that fought in the War of the Pacific (1879-1884). The second Almirante Cochrane was a dreadnought battleship laid down in Britain in 1913. The Royal Navy acquired the unfinished ship in 1917, converting her into the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle. The third ship, Cochrane, was a Fletcher-class destroyer, the former USS Rooks, commissioned into the Chilean Navy in 1962 and scrapped in 1983. The fourth ship, Almirante Cochrane, was a County-class destroyer, the former HMS Antrim, which the Chilean Navy acquired in 1984 and decommissioned in 2006. The fifth and current ship to bear the name, Almirante Cochrane (FF-05), is a Type 23 frigate, the former HMS Norfolk, which the Chilean Navy commissioned in 2006. Imperial Brazilian Navy Brazil was fighting its own war of independence against Portugal. In 1822, the southern provinces (except Montevideo, now in Uruguay) came under the control of the patriots led by the Prince Regent, later Emperor Pedro I. Portugal still controlled some important provincial capitals in the north, with major garrisons and naval bases such as Belem do Pará, Salvador da Bahia, and S?o Luís do Maranh?o. Lord Cochrane took command of the Imperial Brazilian Navy on 21 March 1823 as was appointed "First Admiral of the National and Imperial Navy" at the flagship Pedro I. He blockaded the Portuguese in Bahia, confronted them at the Battle of 4 May, and forced them to evacuate the province in a vast convoy of ships which Cochrane's men attacked as they crossed the Atlantic. Cochrane sailed to Maranh?o (then spelled Maranham) on his own initiative and bluffed the garrison into surrender by claiming that a vast (and mythical) Brazilian fleet and army were over the horizon. He sent subordinate Captain John Pascoe Grenfell to Belem do Pará to use the same bluff and extract a Portuguese surrender. As a result of Cochrane's efforts, Brazil became totally de facto independent and free of any Portuguese troops. On Cochrane's return to Rio de Janeiro in 1824, Emperor Pedro I rewarded the officer by granting him the non-hereditary title of Marquess of Maranh?o (Marquês do Maranh?o) in the Empire of Brazil. He was also awarded an accompanying coat of arms. As in Chile and earlier occasions, Cochrane's joy at these successes was rapidly replaced by quarrels over pay and prize money, and an accusation that the Brazilian authorities were plotting against him. In mid-1824, Cochrane sailed north with a squadron to assist the Brazilian army under General Francisco Lima e Silva in suppressing a republican rebellion in the state of Pernambuco which had begun to spread to Maranh?o and other northern states. The rebellion was rapidly extinguished. Cochrane proceeded to Maranh?o, where he took over the administration. He demanded the payment of prize money which he claimed he was owed as a result of the recapture of the province in 1823. He absconded with public money and sacked merchant ships anchored in S?o Luís do Maranh?o. Defying orders to return to Rio de Janeiro, Cochrane transferred to a captured Brazilian frigate, left Brazil and returned to Britain where he arrived in late June 1825. Greek Navy In August 1825 Cochrane was hired by Greece to support its fight for independence from the Ottoman Empire, which had deployed an army raised in Egypt to suppress the Greek rebellion. He took an active role in the campaign between March 1827 and December 1828, but met with limited success. His subordinate Captain Hastings attacked Ottoman forces at the Gulf of Lepanto, which indirectly led to intervention by Great Britain, France, and Russia. They succeeded in destroying the Turko-Egyptian fleet at the Battle of Navarino, and the war was ended under mediation of the Great Powers. He resigned his commission toward the end of the war and returned to Britain. Return to Royal Navy Lord Cochrane inherited his peerage following his father's death on 1 July 1831, becoming The 10th Earl of Dundonald. He was restored to the Royal Navy list on 2 May 1832 as a Rear-Admiral of the Blue. The full return of Lord Dundonald, as he was now, to Royal Navy service was delayed by his refusal to take a command until his knighthood had been restored, which took 15 years. He continued to receive promotions in the list of flag officers, as follows: Rear-Admiral of the Blue on 2 May 1832 Rear-Admiral of the White on 10 January 1837 Rear-Admiral of the Red on 28 June 1838 Vice-Admiral of the Blue on 23 November 1841 Vice-Admiral of the White on 9 November 1846 Vice-Admiral of the Red on 3 January 1848 Admiral of the Blue on 21 March 1851 Admiral of the White on 2 April 1853 Admiral of the Red on 8 December 1857 On 22 May 1847, Queen Victoria reappointed him Knight of the Order of the Bath. He returned to the Royal Navy, serving as Commander-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station from 1848 to 1851. During the Crimean War, the government considered him for a command in the Baltic, but decided that there was too high a chance that Lord Dundonald would risk the fleet in a daring attack. On 6 November 1854, he was appointed to the honorary office of Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, an office that he retained until his death. In his final years, Lord Dundonald wrote his autobiography in collaboration with G.B. Earp. He twice had to undergo painful surgery for kidney stones in 1860 with his health deteriorating. He died during the second operation on 31 October 1860 in Kensington. Dundonald was buried in Westminster Abbey where his grave is in the central part of the nave. Each year in May, representatives of the Chilean Navy hold a wreath-laying ceremony at his grave. Innovations in technology Convoys were guided by ships following the lamps of those ahead. In 1805, Lord Cochrane entered a Royal Navy competition for a superior convoy lamp. He believed that the judges were biased against him, so he re-entered the contest under another name and won the prize. In 1806, Cochrane had a galley made to his specifications which he carried on board Pallas and used to attack the French coast. It had the advantage of mobility and flexibility. In 1818, Cochrane patented the tunnelling shield, together with engineer Marc Isambard Brunel, which Brunel and his son used in building the Thames Tunnel in 1825-43. Cochrane was an early supporter of steamships. He tried to take the steamship Rising Star from Britain to Chile for use in the war of independence in the 1820s, but its construction took too long; it did not arrive until the war was ending. Rising Star was a 410-ton vessel adapted to a new design at Brent's Yard at the Greenland Dock at the Thames: twin funnels, a retractable paddle wheel, and driven by a 60-horsepower engine.(p33) Similarly, he suffered delays with construction of a steamship which he had hoped to put into use in the Greek War of Independence. In the 1830s, Lord Dundonald, as he now was, experimented with steam power, developing a rotary engine and a propeller. In 1851, Lord Dundonald received a patent on powering steamships with bitumen. He was conferred with Honorary Membership in the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland in 1857. Burial and memorial Lord Dundonald was interred in Westminster Abbey in the floor of the nave directly before the choir. His epitaph, written by Sir Lyon Playfair, reads: 'Here rests in his 85th year Thomas Cochrane Tenth Earl of Dundonald of Paisley and of Ochiltree in the Peerage of Scotland Marquess of Marenham in the Empire of Brazil GCB and Admiral of the Fleet who by his confidence and genius his science and extraordinary daring inspired by his heroic exertion in the cause of freedom and his splended services alike to his own country, Greece, Brazil, Chile and Peru achieved a name illustrious throughout the world for courage, patriotism and chivalry. Born Dec 14 1775. Died Oct 31 1860' Battles/wars Coalition Wars Chilean War of Independence Peruvian War of Independence Brazilian War of Independence Greek War of Independence Awards Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Order of the Merit of Chile Order of the Southern Cross Literary references Influence on naval fiction His career inspired a number of writers of nautical fiction. The first was Captain Frederick Marryat, who had served under him as a midshipman and published his first novel in 1829. In the 20th century, the figures and careers of Horatio Hornblower in the novels by C. S. Forester and of Jack Aubrey in the Aubrey-Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian were in part modelled on his exploits. Appearance in fiction Lord Cochrane was first featured as a character in a novel in G. A. Henty's With Cochrane the Dauntless (1897). The novel The Sea Lord (originally The Frigate Captain) by Showell Styles is about Lord Cochrane. Cochrane is one of the main characters in the novel Sharpe's Devil by Bernard Cornwell, taking place in 1821 and portraying Cochrane's attack on the Chilean port of Valdivia. Lord Cochrane is a minor character in Manuela by Gregory Kauffman, a novel about the South American revolutions. The novel Flashman and the Seawolf, by Robert Brightwell, is based on Cochrane's early career aboard Speedy. His South American adventures, particularly his command of the Brazilian navy, are covered in a later book by the same author, Flashman and the Emperor. In the alternate history series The Domination by S.M. Stirling, Lord Cochrane is featured leading the occupation of Cape Colony in South Africa. Poetry Cochrane inspired "Lord Cochrane de Chile", a 1967 collection of poems by Pablo Neruda which was set to music by Chilean composer Gustavo Becerra-Schmidt. "Lord Cochranes maskine" (Lord Cochrane's Machine) is mentioned in the rather gruesome Danish children's song "En svensk konstabel fra Sverrig" ("A Swedish Constable from Sweden") as a monstrous and unspecified war machine. In fact it is a Swedish soldier that has blown himself up with a cannon. Name: George III Biography: George III (4 June 1738 - 29 January 1820) Position: King of Great Britain and Ireland, Elector/King of Hanover House:Hanover Reign:25 October 1760 - 29 January 1820 Religion:Protestant In the later part of his life, George had recurrent, and eventually permanent, mental illness. Although it has since been suggested that he had bipolar disorder or the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established. His eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, ruled as Prince Regent until his father's death, when he succeeded as George IV. Historical analysis of George III's life has gone through a "kaleidoscope of changing views" that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 1738 - 29 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of the two kingdoms on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death in 1820. He was concurrently Duke and Prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Holy Roman Empire before becoming King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was a monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors, he was born in Great Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover. George's life and reign, which were longer than those of any of his predecessors, were marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of Europe, and places farther afield in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britain's American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Early life George was born on 4 June 1738 in London at Norfolk House in St James's Square. He was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As he was born two months prematurely and thought unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker, who was both Rector of St James's and Bishop of Oxford. One month later, he was publicly baptised at Norfolk House, again by Secker. His godparents were King Frederick I of Sweden (for whom Lord Baltimore stood proxy), his uncle Frederick III, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (for whom Lord Carnarvon stood proxy), and his great-aunt Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia (for whom Lady Charlotte Edwin stood proxy). George grew into a healthy, reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany, were educated together by private tutors. Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically. Apart from chemistry and physics, his lessons included astronomy, mathematics, French, Latin, history, music, geography, commerce, agriculture and constitutional law, along with sporting and social accomplishments such as dancing, fencing, and riding. His religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10, George took part in a family production of Joseph Addison's play Cato and said in the new prologue: "What, tho' a boy! It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, in England bred." Historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear "to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated". King George II disliked the Prince of Wales and took little interest in his grandchildren. However, in 1751 the Prince died unexpectedly from a lung injury at the age of 44, and his son George became heir apparent to the throne and inherited his father's title of Duke of Edinburgh. Now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. In the spring of 1756, as George approached his eighteenth birthday, the King offered him a grand establishment at St James's Palace, but George refused the offer, guided by his mother and her confidant, Lord Bute, who would later serve as Prime Minister. George's mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her strict moral values. Marriage In 1759, George was smitten with Lady Sarah Lennox, sister of Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond, but Lord Bute advised against the match and George abandoned his thoughts of marriage. "I am born for the happiness or misery of a great nation," he wrote, "and consequently must often act contrary to my passions." Nevertheless, attempts by the King to marry George to Princess Sophie Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel were resisted by him and his mother; Sophie married Frederick, Margrave of Bayreuth, instead. The following year, at the age of 22, George succeeded to the throne when his grandfather, George II, died suddenly on 25 October 1760, two weeks before his 77th birthday. The search for a suitable wife intensified. On 8 September 1761 in the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, the King married Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he met on their wedding day. A fortnight later on 22 September, both were crowned at Westminster Abbey. George remarkably never took a mistress (in contrast with his grandfather and his sons), and the couple enjoyed a happy marriage until his mental illness struck. They had 15 children—nine sons and six daughters. In 1762, George purchased Buckingham House (on the site now occupied by Buckingham Palace) for use as a family retreat. His other residences were Kew Palace and Windsor Castle. St James's Palace was retained for official use. He did not travel extensively and spent his entire life in southern England. In the 1790s, the King and his family took holidays at Weymouth, Dorset, which he thus popularised as one of the first seaside resorts in England. Early reign Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years' War George, in his accession speech to Parliament, proclaimed: "Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Britain." He inserted this phrase into the speech, written by Lord Hardwicke, to demonstrate his desire to distance himself from his German forebears, who were perceived as caring more for Hanover than for Britain. Although his accession was at first welcomed by politicians of all parties, the first years of his reign were marked by political instability, largely generated as a result of disagreements over the Seven Years' War. George was also perceived as favouring Tory ministers, which led to his denunciation by the Whigs as an autocrat. On his accession, the Crown lands produced relatively little income; most revenue was generated through taxes and excise duties. George surrendered the Crown Estate to Parliamentary control in return for a civil list annuity for the support of his household and the expenses of civil government. Claims that he used the income to reward supporters with bribes and gifts are disputed by historians who say such claims "rest on nothing but falsehoods put out by disgruntled opposition". Debts amounting to over ￡3 million over the course of George's reign were paid by Parliament, and the civil list annuity was increased from time to time. He aided the Royal Academy of Arts with large grants from his private funds, and may have donated more than half of his personal income to charity. Of his art collection, the two most notable purchases are Johannes Vermeer's Lady at the Virginals and a set of Canalettos, but it is as a collector of books that he is best remembered. The King's Library was open and available to scholars and was the foundation of a new national library. In May 1762, the incumbent Whig government of Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, was replaced with one led by the Scottish Tory Lord Bute. Bute's opponents worked against him by spreading the calumny that he was having an affair with the King's mother, and by exploiting anti-Scottish prejudices amongst the English. John Wilkes, a member of parliament, published The North Briton, which was both inflammatory and defamatory in its condemnation of Bute and the government. Wilkes was eventually arrested for seditious libel but he fled to France to escape punishment; he was expelled from the House of Commons, and found guilty in absentia of blasphemy and libel. In 1763, after concluding the Peace of Paris which ended the war, Lord Bute resigned, allowing the Whigs under George Grenville to return to power. Later that year, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 placed a limit upon the westward expansion of the American colonies. The Proclamation aimed to divert colonial expansion to the north (to Nova Scotia) and to the south (Florida). The Proclamation Line did not bother the majority of settled farmers, but it was unpopular with a vocal minority and ultimately contributed to conflict between the colonists and the British government. With the American colonists generally unburdened by British taxes, the government thought it appropriate for them to pay towards the defence of the colonies against native uprisings and the possibility of French incursions. The central issue for the colonists was not the amount of taxes but whether Parliament could levy a tax without American approval, for there were no American seats in Parliament. The Americans protested that like all Englishmen they had rights to "no taxation without representation". In 1765, Grenville introduced the Stamp Act, which levied a stamp duty on every document in the British colonies in North America. Since newspapers were printed on stamped paper, those most affected by the introduction of the duty were the most effective at producing propaganda opposing the tax. Meanwhile, the King had become exasperated at Grenville's attempts to reduce the King's prerogatives, and tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade William Pitt the Elder to accept the office of Prime Minister. After a brief illness, which may have presaged his illnesses to come, George settled on Lord Rockingham to form a ministry, and dismissed Grenville. Lord Rockingham, with the support of Pitt and the King, repealed Grenville's unpopular Stamp Act, but his government was weak and he was replaced in 1766 by Pitt, whom George created Earl of Chatham. The actions of Lord Chatham and George III in repealing the Act were so popular in America that statues of them both were erected in New York City. Lord Chatham fell ill in 1767, and Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, took over the government, although he did not formally become Prime Minister until 1768. That year, John Wilkes returned to England, stood as a candidate in the general election, and came top of the poll in the Middlesex constituency. Wilkes was again expelled from Parliament. He was re-elected and expelled twice more, before the House of Commons resolved that his candidature was invalid and declared the runner-up as the victor. Grafton's government disintegrated in 1770, allowing the Tories led by Lord North to return to power. George was deeply devout and spent hours in prayer, but his piety was not shared by his brothers. George was appalled by what he saw as their loose morals. In 1770, his brother Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn, was exposed as an adulterer, and the following year Cumberland married a young widow, Anne Horton. The King considered her inappropriate as a royal bride: she was from a lower social class and German law barred any children of the couple from the Hanoverian succession. George insisted on a new law that essentially forbade members of the Royal Family from legally marrying without the consent of the Sovereign. The subsequent bill was unpopular in Parliament, including among George's own ministers, but passed as the Royal Marriages Act 1772. Shortly afterwards, another of George's brothers, Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, revealed he had been secretly married to Maria, Countess Waldegrave, the illegitimate daughter of Sir Edward Walpole. The news confirmed George's opinion that he had been right to introduce the law: Maria was related to his political opponents. Neither lady was ever received at court. Lord North's government was chiefly concerned with discontent in America. To assuage American opinion most of the custom duties were withdrawn, except for the tea duty, which in George's words was "one tax to keep up the right ". In 1773, the tea ships moored in Boston Harbor were boarded by colonists and the tea was thrown overboard, an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. In Britain, opinion hardened against the colonists, with Chatham now agreeing with North that the destruction of the tea was "certainly criminal". With the clear support of Parliament, Lord North introduced measures, which were called the Intolerable Acts by the colonists: the Port of Boston was shut down and the charter of Massachusetts was altered so that the upper house of the legislature was appointed by the Crown instead of elected by the lower house. Up to this point, in the words of Professor Peter Thomas, George's "hopes were centred on a political solution, and he always bowed to his cabinet's opinions even when sceptical of their success. The detailed evidence of the years from 1763 to 1775 tends to exonerate George III from any real responsibility for the American Revolution." Though the Americans characterised George as a tyrant, in these years he acted as a constitutional monarch supporting the initiatives of his ministers. American War of Independence Main articles: American Revolution and American Revolutionary War Constitutional struggle With the collapse of Lord North's ministry in 1782, the Whig Lord Rockingham became Prime Minister for the second time but died within months. The King then appointed Lord Shelburne to replace him. Charles James Fox, however, refused to serve under Shelburne, and demanded the appointment of William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland. In 1783, the House of Commons forced Shelburne from office and his government was replaced by the Fox-North Coalition. Portland became Prime Minister, with Fox and Lord North, as Foreign Secretary and Home Secretary respectively. The King disliked Fox intensely, for his politics as well as his character; he thought Fox was unprincipled and a bad influence on the Prince of Wales. George III was distressed at having to appoint ministers not of his liking, but the Portland ministry quickly built up a majority in the House of Commons, and could not be displaced easily. He was further dismayed when the government introduced the India Bill, which proposed to reform the government of India by transferring political power from the East India Company to Parliamentary commissioners. Although the King actually favoured greater control over the company, the proposed commissioners were all political allies of Fox. Immediately after the House of Commons passed it, George authorised Lord Temple to inform the House of Lords that he would regard any peer who voted for the bill as his enemy. The bill was rejected by the Lords; three days later, the Portland ministry was dismissed, and William Pitt the Younger was appointed Prime Minister, with Temple as his Secretary of State. On 17 December 1783, Parliament voted in favour of a motion condemning the influence of the monarch in parliamentary voting as a "high crime" and Temple was forced to resign. Temple's departure destabilised the government, and three months later the government lost its majority and Parliament was dissolved; the subsequent election gave Pitt a firm mandate. William Pitt For George III, Pitt's appointment was a great victory. It proved that he was able to appoint Prime Ministers on the basis of his own interpretation of the public mood without having to follow the choice of the current majority in the House of Commons. Throughout Pitt's ministry, George supported many of Pitt's political aims and created new peers at an unprecedented rate to increase the number of Pitt's supporters in the House of Lords. During and after Pitt's ministry, George III was extremely popular in Britain. The British people admired him for his piety, and for remaining faithful to his wife. He was fond of his children, and was devastated at the death of two of his sons in infancy in 1782 and 1783 respectively. Nevertheless, he set his children a strict regimen. They were expected to attend rigorous lessons from seven in the morning, and to lead lives of religious observance and virtue. When his children strayed from George's own principles of righteousness, as his sons did as young adults, he was dismayed and disappointed. By this time George's health was deteriorating. He had a mental illness, characterised by acute mania, which was possibly a symptom of the genetic disease porphyria, although this has been questioned. A study of samples of the King's hair published in 2005 revealed high levels of arsenic, a possible trigger for the disease. The source of the arsenic is not known, but it could have been a component of medicines or cosmetics. The King may have had a brief episode of disease in 1765, but a longer episode began in the summer of 1788. At the end of the parliamentary session, he went to Cheltenham Spa to recuperate. It was the furthest he had ever been from London—just short of 100 miles (150 km)—but his condition worsened. In November he became seriously deranged, sometimes speaking for many hours without pause, causing him to foam at the mouth and making his voice hoarse. George would frequently repeat himself, and write sentences with over 400 words at a time, as well as his vocabulary becoming more complex, possible symptoms of bipolar disorder. His doctors were largely at a loss to explain his illness, and spurious stories about his condition spread, such as the claim that he shook hands with a tree in the mistaken belief that it was the King of Prussia. Treatment for mental illness was primitive by modern standards, and the King's doctors, who included Francis Willis, treated the King by forcibly restraining him until he was calm, or applying caustic poultices to draw out "evil humours". In the reconvened Parliament, Fox and Pitt wrangled over the terms of a regency during the King's incapacity. While both agreed that it would be most reasonable for George III's eldest son George, Prince of Wales, to act as regent, to Pitt's consternation Fox suggested that it was the Prince of Wales's absolute right to act on his ill father's behalf with full powers. Pitt, fearing he would be removed from office if the Prince of Wales were empowered, argued that it was for Parliament to nominate a regent, and wanted to restrict the regent's authority. In February 1789, the Regency Bill, authorising the Prince of Wales to act as regent, was introduced and passed in the House of Commons, but before the House of Lords could pass the bill, George III recovered. Slavery and the slave trade Main article: Atlantic slave trade French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars After George's recovery, his popularity, and that of Pitt, continued to increase at the expense of Fox and the Prince of Wales. His humane and understanding treatment of two insane assailants, Margaret Nicholson in 1786 and John Frith in 1790, contributed to his popularity. James Hadfield's failed attempt to shoot the King in the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, on 15 May 1800 was not political in origin but motivated by the apocalyptic delusions of Hadfield and Bannister Truelock. George seemed unperturbed by the incident, so much so that he fell asleep in the interval. The French Revolution of 1789, in which the French monarchy had been overthrown, worried many British landowners. France declared war on Great Britain in 1793; in the war attempt, George allowed Pitt to increase taxes, raise armies, and suspend the right of habeas corpus. The First Coalition to oppose revolutionary France, which included Austria, Prussia, and Spain, broke up in 1795 when Prussia and Spain made separate peace with France. The Second Coalition, which included Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, was defeated in 1800. Only Great Britain was left fighting Napoleon Bonaparte, the First Consul of the French Republic. A brief lull in hostilities allowed Pitt to concentrate effort on Ireland, where there had been an uprising and attempted French landing in 1798. In 1800, the British and Irish Parliaments passed an Act of Union that took effect on 1 January 1801 and united Great Britain and Ireland into a single state, known as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". George used the opportunity to abandon the title "king of France", which English and British Sovereigns had maintained since the reign of Edward III. It was suggested that George adopt the title "Emperor of the British Isles", but he refused. As part of his Irish policy, Pitt planned to remove certain legal disabilities that applied to Roman Catholics. George III claimed that to emancipate Catholics would be to violate his coronation oath, in which Sovereigns promise to maintain Protestantism. Faced with opposition to his religious reform policies from both the King and the British public, Pitt threatened to resign. At about the same time, the King had a relapse of his previous illness, which he blamed on worry over the Catholic question. On 14 March 1801, Pitt was formally replaced by the Speaker of the House of Commons, Henry Addington. Addington opposed emancipation, instituted annual accounts, abolished income tax and began a programme of disarmament. In October 1801, he made peace with the French, and in 1802 signed the Treaty of Amiens. George did not consider the peace with France as real; in his view it was an "experiment". In 1803, the war resumed but public opinion distrusted Addington to lead the nation in war, and instead favoured Pitt. An invasion of England by Napoleon seemed imminent, and a massive volunteer movement arose to defend England against the French. George's review of 27,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, London, on 26 and 28 October 1803 and at the height of the invasion scare, attracted an estimated 500,000 spectators on each day. The Times said, "The enthusiasm of the multitude was beyond all expression." A courtier wrote on 13 November that, "The King is really prepared to take the field in case of attack, his beds are ready and he can move at half an hour's warning." George wrote to his friend Bishop Hurd, "We are here in daily expectation that Bonaparte will attempt his threatened invasion ... Should his troops effect a landing, I shall certainly put myself at the head of mine, and my other armed subjects, to repel them." After Admiral Lord Nelson's famous naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar, the possibility of invasion was extinguished. In 1804, George's recurrent illness returned; after his recovery, Addington resigned and Pitt regained power. Pitt sought to appoint Fox to his ministry, but George refused. Lord Grenville perceived an injustice to Fox, and refused to join the new ministry. Pitt concentrated on forming a coalition with Austria, Russia, and Sweden. This Third Coalition, however, met the same fate as the First and Second Coalitions, collapsing in 1805. The setbacks in Europe took a toll on Pitt's health and he died in 1806, reopening the question of who should serve in the ministry. Grenville became Prime Minister, and his "Ministry of All the Talents" included Fox. Grenville pushed through the Slave Trade Act 1807, which passed both houses of Parliament with large majorities. The King was conciliatory towards Fox, after being forced to capitulate over his appointment. After Fox's death in September 1806, the King and ministry were in open conflict. To boost recruitment, the ministry proposed a measure in February 1807 whereby Roman Catholics would be allowed to serve in all ranks of the Armed Forces. George instructed them not only to drop the measure, but also to agree never to set up such a measure again. The ministers agreed to drop the measure then pending, but refused to bind themselves in the future. They were dismissed and replaced by William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, as the nominal Prime Minister, with actual power being held by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Spencer Perceval. Parliament was dissolved, and the subsequent election gave the ministry a strong majority in the House of Commons. George III made no further major political decisions during his reign; the replacement of Portland by Perceval in 1809 was of little actual significance. Later life In late 1810, at the height of his popularity, already virtually blind with cataracts and in pain from rheumatism, George III became dangerously ill. In his view the malady had been triggered by stress over the death of his youngest and favourite daughter, Princess Amelia. The Princess's nurse reported that "the scenes of distress and crying every day ... were melancholy beyond description." He accepted the need for the Regency Act 1811, and the Prince of Wales acted as Regent for the remainder of George III's life. Despite signs of a recovery in May 1811, by the end of the year George had become permanently insane and lived in seclusion at Windsor Castle until his death. Prime Minister Spencer Perceval was assassinated in 1812 and was replaced by Lord Liverpool. Liverpool oversaw British victory in the Napoleonic Wars. The subsequent Congress of Vienna led to significant territorial gains for Hanover, which was upgraded from an electorate to a kingdom. Meanwhile, George's health deteriorated. He developed dementia, and became completely blind and increasingly deaf. He was incapable of knowing or understanding that he was declared King of Hanover in 1814, or that his wife died in 1818. At Christmas 1819, he spoke nonsense for 58 hours, and for the last few weeks of his life was unable to walk. He died at Windsor Castle at 8:38 pm on 29 January 1820, six days after the death of his fourth son Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. His favourite son, Frederick, Duke of York, was with him. George III was buried on 16 February in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. Legacy George was succeeded by two of his sons, George IV and William IV, who both died without surviving legitimate children, leaving the throne to Victoria, the only legitimate child of Prince Edward. George III lived for 81 years and 239 days and reigned for 59 years and 96 days: both his life and his reign were longer than those of any of his predecessors and subsequent kings. Only Queens Victoria and Elizabeth II lived and reigned longer. Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 4 June 1738 - 31 March 1751: His Royal Highness Prince George 31 March 1751 - 20 April 1751: His Royal Highness The Duke of Edinburgh 20 April 1751 - 25 October 1760: His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales 25 October 1760 - 29 January 1820: His Majesty The King In Great Britain, George III used the official style "George the Third, by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, and so forth". In 1801, when Great Britain united with Ireland, he dropped the title of king of France, which had been used for every English monarch since Edward III's claim to the French throne in the medieval period. His style became "George the Third, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." In Germany, he was "Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire" (Herzog von Braunschweig und Lüneburg, Erzschatzmeister und Kurfürst des Heiligen R?mischen Reiches) until the end of the empire in 1806. He then continued as duke until the Congress of Vienna declared him "King of Hanover" in 1814. Honours Great Britain: Royal Knight of the Garter, 22 June 1749 Ireland: Founder of the Most Illustrious Order of St. Patrick, 5 February 1783 Arms Before his succession, George was granted the royal arms differenced by a label of five points Azure, the centre point bearing a fleur-de-lis Or on 27 July 1749. Upon his father's death, and along with the dukedom of Edinburgh and the position of heir-apparent, he inherited his difference of a plain label of three points Argent. In an additional difference, the crown of Charlemagne was not usually depicted on the arms of the heir, only on the Sovereign's. From his succession until 1800, George bore the royal arms: Quarterly, I Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England) impaling Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); II Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); IV tierced per pale and per chevron (for Hanover), I Gules two lions passant guardant Or (for Brunswick), II Or a semy of hearts Gules a lion rampant Azure (for Lüneburg), III Gules a horse courant Argent (for Saxony), overall an escutcheon Gules charged with the crown of Charlemagne Or (for the dignity of Archtreasurer of the Holy Roman Empire). Following the Acts of Union 1800, the royal arms were amended, dropping the French quartering. They became: Quarterly, I and IV England; II Scotland; III Ireland; overall an escutcheon of Hanover surmounted by an electoral bonnet. In 1816, after the Electorate of Hanover became a kingdom, the electoral bonnet was changed to a crown. Name: Bernadotte Biography: Jean Bernadotte(26 January 1763 - 8 March 1844)，Traitor of the French Empire, King of Sweden Names:Charles XIV John ,French: Jean-Baptiste Jules.Swedish: Karl Johan Baptist Julius Position: Marshal of the Empire, King of Sweden and Norway, Prince of Pontecorvo Reign:5 February 1818 - 8 March 1844 Religion:Lutheran Allegiance: Kingdom of France,France French Republic,France French Empire, Sweden Kingdom of Sweden,United Kingdoms of Sweden-Norway Rank: Marshal of the Empire And Generalissimo of the Swedish Armed Forces Commands held:Governor of Hanover,Governor of Ansbach,Governor of the Hanseatic Cities,Army of the Rhine (1798),Army of the West,I Corps,IX Corps,Army of Antwerp,Allied Army of the North,Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces and Norwegian Armed Forces Bernadotte was once one of Napoleon’s marshals. He was good at artillery and infantry command. He became the Crown Prince of Sweden and joined the anti-French camp. He was the initiator of Trachenberg Plan，for he knows both advantage and weakness of French army pretty well.The plan advocated avoiding direct engagement with French emperor, Napoleon I, which had resulted from fear of the emperor's now legendary prowess in battle. Consequently, the Allies planned to engage and defeat Napoleon's marshals and generals separately, and thus weaken his army while they built up an overwhelming force even he could not defeat. Charles XIV John (Swedish and Norwegian: Karl XIV Johan; born Jean Bernadotte; was King of Sweden and Norway from 1818 until his death. In modern Norwegian lists of kings he is called Charles III John. He was the first monarch of the Bernadotte dynasty. Born in Pau in southern France, Bernadotte joined the French Royal Army in 1780. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, he exhibited great military talent, rapidly rising through the ranks, and was made a brigadier general by 1794. He served with distinction in Italy and Germany, and was briefly Minister of War. His relationship with Napoleon was turbulent; nevertheless, Napoleon named him a Marshal of the Empire on the proclamation of the French Empire. Bernadotte played a significant role in the French victory at Austerlitz, and was made Prince of Pontecorvo as a reward. Bernadotte was, through marriage to Desiree Clary, brother-in-law to Joseph Bonaparte, and thus a member of the extended Imperial Family. In 1810, Bernadotte was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to the childless King Charles XIII of Sweden, thanks to the advocacy of Baron Carl Otto M?rner, a Swedish courtier and obscure member of the Riksdag of the Estates. He assumed the name Charles John and became the de facto regent and head of state. In 1813, following the sudden unprovoked French invasion of Swedish Pomerania, Crown Prince Charles John was instrumental in the creation of the Sixth Coalition by allying with Tsar Alexander and using Swedish diplomacy to bring warring Russia and Britain together in alliance. He then authored the Trachenberg Plan, the war winning Allied campaign plan, and commanded the Allied Army of the North that made the decisive attack on the last day of the catastrophic French defeat at Leipzig. Charles John forced the Danish king to cede Norway to Sweden after the War of the Sixth Coalition, leading to the Swedish-Norwegian war of 1814 where Norway was defeated after a single summer's conflict. This put Norway into a union with Sweden, which lasted for almost a century before being peacefully dissolved in 1905. The Swedish-Norwegian war of 1814 is credited as Sweden's last direct conflict and war. Upon the death of Charles XIII in 1818, Charles John ascended to the throne. He presided over a period of peace and prosperity, and reigned until his death in 1844. Bernadotte was born in Pau, France, as the son of Jean Henri Bernadotte (1711-1780), prosecutor at Pau, and his wife (married at Boeil, 20 February 1754) Jeanne de Saint-Jean (1728-1809), niece of the lay abbot of Sireix. The family name was originally du Poey (or de Pouey), but was changed to Bernadotte—a surname of an ancestress at the beginning of the 17th century. Soon after his birth, Baptiste was added to his name, to distinguish him from his elder brother Jean evangeliste. Bernadotte himself added Jules to his first names as a tribute to the French Empire under Napoleon I. At the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a local attorney. However, the death of his father when Bernadotte was just 17 stopped the youth from following his father's career. Early military career Bernadotte joined the army as a private in the Regiment Royal-La Marine on 3 September 1780, and first served in the newly conquered territory of Corsica. Subsequently, the Regiment stationed in Besan?on, Grenoble, Vienne, Marseille and ?le de Re. Dispatched to India, Bernadotte was captured in the Siege of Cuddalore (1783). He reached the rank of sergeant in August 1785 and was nicknamed Sergeant Belle-Jambe, for his smart appearance. In early 1790 he was promoted to Adjudant-Major, the highest rank for non-commissioned officers in the Ancien Regime. Revolutionary Wars Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, his eminent military qualities brought him speedy promotion. Bernadotte's promotions came both from the esteem of his commanders as well as from his men; having been elected to the rank of lieutenant colonel and colonel by his men, though he refused both nominations in favor of traditional advancement. It was during this period of rapid advancement that the military qualities he became known for, daring assaults and Gasconades, came to the fore. Of the latter, Bernadotte was gifted in his ability to inspire his men to prodigious feats of valor. As Colonel and commander of the 71st Demi-Brigade, Bernadotte rallied his men, who were retreating in disorder before an Austrian attack, by tearing off his epaulettes, throwing them to the ground before his men and shouting “If you dishonor yourselves by flight, I refuse to remain your colonel!” Soldiers left the ranks, gathered his epaulettes, pressed them into his hands, formed ranks and reformed the line and counter-attacked. By 1794 he was promoted to brigadier, attached to the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse. After Jourdan's victory at Fleurus (26 June 1794), where he distinguished himself with a decisive attack and seizure of key terrain that led to the Austrian retreat, he then became a divisional general. Bernadotte played key roles throughout the next 18 months during the three French invasions into Germany; often employed in the place of honor during offensives leading the vanguard, and in retreat as a defensive specialist commanding the rearguard. At the Battle of Theiningen (1796), where the Austrians outnumbered the French three-to-one, Bernadotte's rear-guard successfully repulsed numerous attacks while inflicting heavy losses on the enemy, preventing the Archduke Charles from cutting off the retreat of the French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the Austrians at the Battle of Würzburg. At the beginning of 1797 he was ordered by the Directory to march with 20,000 men as reinforcements to Napoleon Bonaparte's army in Italy. His successful crossing of the Alps through the storm in midwinter was highly praised but coldly received by the Italian Army. Upon receiving insult from Dominique Martin Dupuy, the commander of Milan, Bernadotte was to arrest him for insubordination. However, Dupuy was a close friend of Louis-Alexandre Berthier and this started a long-lasting feud between Bernadotte and Napoleon's Chief of Staff. He had his first interview with Napoleon in Mantua and was appointed the commander of the 4th division. During the invasion of Friuli and Istria, Bernadotte distinguished himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento where he led the vanguard, and at the capture of the fortress of Gradisca (19 March 1797). After the 18th Fructidor, Napoleon ordered his generals to collect from their respective divisions' addresses in favor of the coup d'etat of that day; but Bernadotte sent an address to the directory different from that which Napoleon wished for and without conveying it through Napoleon's hands. After the Treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon gave Bernadotte a friendly visit at his headquarters at Udine, but immediately after deprived him of half his division of the army of the Rhine, and commanded him to march the other half back to France. Paul Barras, one of five directors, was cautious that Napoleon would overturn the Republic, so he appointed Bernadotte commander-in-chief of the Italian Army in order to offset Napoleon's power. Bernadotte was pleased with this appointment but Napoleon lobbied Talleyrand-Perigord, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, to appoint him to the embassy of Vienna instead. Bernadotte was very dissatisfied; he finally accepted the post in Vienna, but had to quit owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolour over the embassy. After returning from Vienna, he resided in Paris. He married Desiree Clary in August 1798, the daughter of a Marseilles merchant, and once engaged to Napoleon, and Joseph Bonaparte's sister-in-law. In November of the same year he was made commander of the army of observation on the upper Rhine. Although solicited to do so by Barras and Joseph Bonaparte, he did not take part in the coup d'etat of the 30th Prairial. From 2 July to 14 September he was Minister of War, in which capacity he displayed great ability. However, his popularity and contacts with radical Jacobins aroused antipathy towards him in the government. On the morning of 13 September he found his resignation announced in the Moniteur before he was aware that he had tendered it. This was a trick; played upon him by Sieyès and Roger Ducos, the directors allied to Napoleon. Though Bernadotte declined to help Napoleon Bonaparte stage his coup d'etat of November 1799, Napoleon was resolved to win over the "Obstacle Man" and showered him with honors. Napoleon acknowledged Bernadotte's administrative ability and influence by naming him a Councillor of State in February 1800. In April 1800, despite his Republican sympathies, Bernadotte was offered, and freely accepted, from April 1800 to 18 August 1801, the post of Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the West in the rebellious Vendee where he successfully restored its tranquility. This was seen as an appointment of trust as while Napoleon embarked on his summer Italian Campaign, where he ultimately prevailed at the Battle of Marengo, he left Bernadotte not far from Paris with an army. In his farewell note to Bernadotte on his way to Italy, Napoleon wrote: "I am going to fling myself once more into the hazards of war. We do not know how it may turn out. If I fall, you will find yourself with 40,000 men at the gates of Paris. In your hands will be the fate of the Republic." As Bernadotte was brother-in-law to Joseph and close friends with his other brothers and sisters, Napoleon is thought to have been considering the welfare of his family in the possible event of his death on the battlefield, as well as the future of the country, by leaving his erstwhile rival in a position to seize the reins of government as, of his former rivals, only Bernadotte had the political and military skill and popularity to maintain the Republic. In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte proposed that Bernadotte head to New France to serve as governor of Louisiana, which was to be transferred back to French control following the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. In accepting the position, Bernadotte requested additional soldiers, settlers, and funding to support the colony, but Napoleon refused. In response, Bernadotte, declined the posting and instead was named plenipotentiary ambassador to the United States. His posting was cancelled, however, after the Sale of Louisiana. Marshal of the French Empire On the introduction of the First French Empire, Bernadotte became one of the eighteen Marshals of the Empire, and from June 1804 to September 1805 served as governor of the recently occupied Hanover. In this capacity, as well as during his later command of the army of northern Germany, he created for himself a reputation for independence, incorruptibility, moderation, and administrative ability. Offer of the Swedish throne In 1810 Bernadotte was about to enter his new post as governor of Rome when he was unexpectedly elected the heir-presumptive to King Charles XIII of Sweden. The problem of Charles's successor had been acute almost from the time he had ascended the throne a year earlier. He was 61 years old and in poor health. He was also childless; Queen Charlotte had given birth to two children who had died in infancy, and there was no prospect of her bearing another child. It was apparent almost as soon as Charles XIII was crowned that the Swedish branch of the House of Holstein-Gottorp would die with him. The king had adopted a Danish prince, Charles August, as his son soon after his coronation, but he had died just a few months after his arrival. Despite the fact that Napoleon favored his ally Danish King Frederick VI, Danish Prince Frederick Christian initially had the most support to become Swedish Crown Prince as well. The Swedish court initially sounded out the emperor for his preferences on candidates for crown prince, whereupon Napoleon made it clear he preferred his adopted stepson Eugène de Beauharnais, one of his nephews or one of his brothers. However, Eugène, serving as viceroy in Italy, did not wish to convert to Lutheranism, a prerequisite for accepting the Swedish offer. Moreover, none of Napoleon's brothers were interested in going to Sweden and his nephews were too young, as the Swedes did not want the hazards of minority rule in the event King Charles died prematurely. The matter was decided by an obscure Swedish courtier, Baron Karl Otto M?rner (nephew of Count Gustav M?rner, the commander of the Swedish force captured by Bernadotte at Lübeck), who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated M?rner's offer to Napoleon who at first treated the situation as an absurdity, but later came around to the idea and diplomatically and financially supported Bernadotte's candidacy. Although the Swedish government, amazed at M?rner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour and on 21 August 1810 he was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates in ?rebro to be the new crown prince, and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King. Bernadotte was elected partly because a large part of the Swedish Army, in view of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier, and partly because he was also personally popular, owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners in Lübeck. Another factor which favored Bernadotte's election was his (presumed) close ties to French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, who had recently defeated Sweden in the Franco-Swedish War. Before freeing Bernadotte from his allegiance to France, Napoleon asked him to agree never to take up arms against France. Bernadotte refused to make any such agreement, upon the ground that his obligations to Sweden would not allow it; Napoleon exclaimed "Go, and let our destinies be accomplished" and signed the act of emancipation unconditionally. Many were also optimistic that Sweden would capture Finland under Charles John. The Swedish crown prince even unsuccessfully sought Napoleon's support to assist Sweden in conquering Norway. Crown Prince and RegentFurther information: Union between Sweden and Norway On 2 November 1810 Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan). At the same time, he converted from Roman Catholicism to the Lutheranism of the Swedish court; Swedish law required the monarch to be Lutheran. The new Crown Prince was very soon the most popular and most powerful man in Sweden and quickly impressed his adoptive father. Following his first meeting with his new heir, Charles XIII (who had initially opposed Bernadotte's candidacy) remarked to his aide-de-camp count Charles de Suremain "My dear Suremain, I have gambled heavily, and I believe that after all I have won." He also made himself well liked by Queen Charlotte, who regarded him a "gentleman in every sense of the word", and established a net of contact within the Swedish aristocracy, befriending in particular the Brahe family through his favorite Magnus Brahe and countess Aurora Wilhelmina Brahe, whose cousin Mariana Koskull became his lover. The infirmity of the old King and the dissensions in the Privy Council of Sweden placed the government, and especially the control of foreign policy, entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the acquisition of Norway as a compensation for the loss of Finland and Bernadotte proved anything but a puppet of France. Many Swedes expected him to reconquer Finland, which had been ceded to Russia; however, the Crown Prince was aware of its difficulty for reasons of the desperate situation of the state finance and the reluctance of the Finnish people to return to Sweden. Even if Finland was regained, he thought, it would put Sweden into a new cycle of conflicts with a powerful neighbor because there was no guarantee Russia would accept the loss as final. Therefore, he made up his mind to make a united Scandinavian peninsula, which was easier to defend, by taking Norway (intentionally without the ancient and remote provinces of Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands) from Denmark and uniting her to Sweden. He tried to divert public opinion from Finland to Norway, by arguing that to create a compact peninsula, with sea for its natural boundary, was to inaugurate an era of peace, and that waging war with Russia would lead to ruinous consequences. Soon after Charles John's arrival in Sweden, Napoleon compelled him to accede to the Continental System and declare war against the United Kingdom; otherwise, Sweden would have to face the determination of France, Denmark and Russia. This demand would mean a hard blow to the national economy and the Swedish population. Sweden reluctantly declared war against the UK but it was treated by both countries as being merely nominal, although Swedish imports of British goods decreased from ￡4,871 million in 1810 to ￡523 million in the following year. In January 1812, French troops suddenly invaded Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. The decisive reason was that Napoleon, before marching to Moscow, had to secure his rear and dared not trust a Swedish continental foothold behind him. To render it the more insulting, Napoleon scheduled it for the Crown Prince's birthday. The initially amicable relationship which Charles John had with Napoleon soon changed because of this invasion. The invasion was a clear violation of international law as well as an act of war so public opinion in Sweden was understandably outraged. Moreover, it antagonized the pro-French faction at the Swedish court. Thereafter, the Crown Prince declared the neutrality of Sweden and opened negotiations with the UK and Russia. In 1812, he allied Sweden with its traditional enemy Russia, and sought to make peace with the United Kingdom with whom Sweden was technically at war. Charles John's personal diplomacy served as the bridge between Russia and the UK as on 18 July 1812 the Treaty of ?rebro formally ended the wars between Britain and Sweden and Britain and Russia and formed an alliance between Russia, Britain, and Sweden; creating the Sixth Coalition. The treaty stipulated that Sweden would land an army of no less than 25,000 on the continent for the express purpose of fighting France, as well as liberating Swedish Pomerania, and in exchange, Russia and the UK would diplomatically and militarily support the cession of Norway from the doggedly French-allied Denmark to Sweden. Throughout summer and fall 1812, Bernadotte sought to add more allies to the Coalition, and negotiated a treaty with the Spanish Bourbons against his own brother-in-law who was currently King of Spain. He corresponded with the King of Prussia, despite Napoleon forcing Frederick Wilhelm III to break off relations with Sweden, encouraging him to renounce the forced alliance with France and join the Coalition. Following the Convention of Tauroggen, which broke the Prussian/French Alliance, Frederick Wilhelm signed the Treay of Kalisz with Russia, and then a separate peace treaty with Sweden, on the basis of Prussian recognition of the Norwegian cession to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pomerania, thus formally joining the Coalition in spring 1813. After the defeats at Lützen (2 May 1813) and Bautzen (21 May 1813), it was the Swedish Crown Prince who put fresh fighting spirit into the Allies; and at the conference of Trachenberg he drew up the Trachenberg Plan, the general plan for the campaign which began after the expiration of the Truce of Pl?switz. Charles John, as the Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Army, successfully defended the approaches to Berlin and was victorious in battle against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September at the Battles of Gro?beeren and Dennewitz. Bernadotte's Army of the North would continue to guard Berlin and keep watch on Davout's forces in Hamburg while the Allies, in accordance with the plan conceived at Trachenberg, maneuvered toward Napoleon's army at Leipzig. With the other Allied armies engaged in battle on 17 October, Bernadotte's army finally crossed the Elbe and joined in the Battle of Leipzig on 19 October. His fresh troops, reinforced by 30,000 Prussians, joined the fray against the already battered French lines where Swedish forces entered battle in numbers for the first time in the campaign. At a critical moment entire Saxon regiments went over to his army in response to a proclamation released a week prior in which Bernadotte invited the Saxons to join their old commander in defeating Napoleon. The Army of the North committed the coup de grace on the already depleted French and Bernadotte was the first of the Allied sovereigns to enter Leipzig. After the Battle of Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all hazards to cripple Denmark and to secure Norway, defeating the Danes in a relatively quick campaign. His efforts culminated in the favourable Treaty of Kiel, which transferred Norway to Swedish control. However, the Norwegians were unwilling to accept Swedish control. They declared independence, adopted a liberal constitution and elected Danish crown prince Christian Frederick to the throne. The ensuing war was swiftly won by Sweden under Charles John's generalship. The military operations in 1814 were to be Sweden's last war to this day. Charles John could have named his terms to Norway, but in a key concession accepted the Norwegian constitution and its own political autonomy. This paved the way for Norway to enter a personal union with Sweden later that year. During the period of the Allied invasion of France in the winter and spring of 1814, when it was unclear who would rule France after the war, the Russian Tsar Alexander I, with support from French liberals like Benjamin Constant and Madame de Sta?l, advocated placing Charles John on the French throne in place of Napoleon. He would rule France as a Constitutional Monarch and leave Oscar as Regent in Sweden and Norway. Ultimately the British and Austrians vetoed the idea, and the Allies agreed that if Napoleon were to be deposed, the only acceptable alternative was the restoration of the House of Bourbon. King of Sweden and Norway Charles John had been regent and de facto head of state upon his arrival, and took an increasing role in government from 1812 onward, with Charles XIII reduced to a mute witness in government councils following a stroke. Upon Charles's death on 5 February 1818, Charles John ascended the throne. He was initially popular in both countries. The democratic process and forces steadily matured under the King's restrained executive power. The foreign policy applied by Charles John in the post-Napoleonic era was characterized by the maintenance of balance between the Great Powers and non-involvement into conflicts that took place outside of the Scandinavian peninsula. It made a sharp contrast with Sweden's previous hegemonic expansionism resulting in uninterrupted wars with neighboring countries for centuries, and he successfully kept his kingdoms in a state of peace from 1814 until his death. He was especially concerned about the conflict between the UK and Russia. In 1834, when the relationship between the two countries strained regarding the Near East Crisis, he sent memoranda to British and Russian governments and proclaimed neutrality in advance. It is pointed out as the origin of Swedish neutrality. His domestic policy particularly focused on promotion of economy and investment in social overhead capital, and the long peace since 1814 led to an increased prosperity for the country. During his long reign of 26 years (34 years if one counts his time as regent of the Kingdom from 1810 to 1818), the population of the Kingdom was so increased that the inhabitants of Sweden alone became equal in number to those of Sweden and Finland before the latter province was torn from the former, the national debt was paid off, a civil and a penal code were proposed for promulgation, education was promoted, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures prospered, and the means of internal communication were increased. On the other hand, radical in his youth, his views had veered steadily rightward over the years, and by the time he ascended the throne he was an ultra-conservative. His autocratic methods, particularly his censorship of the press, were very unpopular, especially after 1823. However, his dynasty never faced serious danger, as the Swedes and the Norwegians alike were proud of a monarch with a good European reputation. His popularity decreased for a time in the 1830s, culminating in the Rabulist riots after the Lèse-majeste conviction of the journalist Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe, and some calls for his abdication. Charles John survived the abdication controversy and he went on to have his silver jubilee, which was celebrated with great enthusiasm on 18 February 1843. He reigned as King of Sweden and Norway from 5 February 1818 until his death in 1844. Death On 26 January 1844, his 81st birthday, Charles John was found unconscious in his chambers having suffered a stroke. While he regained consciousness, he never fully recovered and died on the afternoon of 8 March. On his deathbed, he was heard to say: "Nobody has had a career in life like mine. I could perhaps have been able to agree to become Napoleon’s ally: but when he attacked the country that had placed its fate in my hands, he could find in me no other than an opponent. The events that shook Europe and that gave her back her freedom are known. It is also known which part I played in that." His remains were interred after a state funeral in Stockholm's Riddarholm Church. He was succeeded by his only son, Oscar I. Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars Awards Grand Master Order of the Seraphim Grand Master Order of the Sword Grand Master Order of the Polar Star Grand Master Order of Vasa Grand Collar Legion of Honour Grand Cross of the Iron Cross Order of St. George 1st Class Order of the Iron Crown Order of the Elephant Military Order of Maria Theresa Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe Honours The main street of Oslo, Karl Johans gate, was named after him in 1852. The main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy, Karljohansvern, was also named after him in 1854. The Karlsborg Fortress (Swedish: Karlsborgs f?stning), located in present-day Karlsborg Municipality in V?stra G?taland County, was also named in honour of him. The Caserne Bernadotte , a French military building located in Pau, was also named after him in 1875. National French Empire: Knight Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, 2 February 1805 Kingdom of Italy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Iron Crown Sweden: Knight and Commander of the Order of the Seraphim, 21 August 1810 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, 1st Class, 21 August 1810 Commander Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa, 28 January 1813 Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star, 21 August 1810 Knight of the Order of Charles XIII, 21 August 1810 He became Lord and Master of all Swedish orders of chivalry upon his accession to the throne. Foreign Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of the Order of St. Hubert, 1805 Kingdom of Prussia: Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, 7 April 1805 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle, 7 April 1805 Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, 1813Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 15 October 1808 Kingdom of Saxony: Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Henry, 1809 Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown, 1832Russia: Knight of the Order of St. Andrew, 30 August 1812 Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, 30 August 1812 Knight of the Order of St. Anna, 1st Class Knight of the Order of St. George, 1st Class, 30 August 1813 Austrian Empire: Knight Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1813 Spain: Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 2 September 1822 Baden: Knight Grand Cross of the House Order of Fidelity, 1830 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Z?hringer Lion, 1830Kingdom of Portugal: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword United Kingdom: Knight of the Order of St. Patrick Name: Congreve Biography: Sir William Congreve Allegiance: United Kingdom Branch/service: British Army Rank:Major general Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet KCH FRS (20 May 1772 - 16 May 1828) was an English soldier, publisher, inventor, rocket artillery pioneer renowned for his development and deployment of Congreve rockets, and a Tory Member of Parliament (MP). Biography He was the eldest son of Rebeca Elmston and Lt. General Sir William Congreve, 1st Baronet, the Comptroller of the Royal Laboratories at the Royal Arsenal and raised in Kent, England. He was educated at Newcome's school in Hackney, Wolverhampton Grammar School and Singlewell School in Kent. He then studied law at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1793 and MA in 1796. In 1814 he succeeded his father as second Baronet Congreve. In 1803 he was a volunteer in the London and Westminster Light Horse, and was a London businessman who published a polemical newspaper, the Royal Standard and Political Register, which was Tory, pro-government and anti-Cobbett. Following a damaging libel action against it in 1804, Congreve withdrew from publishing and applied himself to inventing. Many years previously, several unsuccessful experiments had been made at the Royal Laboratory in Woolwich by Lt. General Thomas Desaguliers. In 1804, at his own expense, he began experimenting with rockets at Woolwich. Congreve was named as comptroller of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich from 1814 until his death. (Congreve's father had also held the same post.) Congreve was awarded the honorary rank of lieutenant colonel in the Hanoverian army's artillery in 1811, and was often referred to as "Colonel Congreve", later made major general in the same army. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March that year. He was also awarded the Order of St. George following the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and 1816 he was made Knight Commander of the Royal Guelphic Order (KCH). In 1821 he was awarded the Order of the Sword by the King of Sweden. He enjoyed the friendship of the Prince Regent, in whose household he served as an equerry from 1811, carrying on the service when the Prince, who supported his rocket projects, became King George IV in 1820. Earlier in 1812 he offered to contest for Parliament the borough of Liverpool but withdrew before polling for lack of support. He entered Parliament later that year when he was nominated as MP for the rotten borough of Gatton in 1812, but withdrew at the next elections in 1814 in favour of the son of the borough's proprietor Sir Mark Wood. In 1818 he was returned as Member for Plymouth, a seat he held until his death. After living with a mistress and fathering two illegitimate sons, he married in December 1824, at Wessel, Prussia, Isabella Carvalho (or Charlotte), a young woman of Portuguese descent and widow of Henry Nisbett McEvoy. They had two sons and a daughter. In 1824 he became general manager of the English Association for Gas Lighting on the Continent, a sizeable business producing gas for several cities in mainland Europe, including Berlin. In later years he became a businessman and was chairman of the Equitable Loan Bank, director of the Arigna Iron and Coal Company, the Palladium Insurance Company and the Peruvian Mining Company. After a major fraud case began against him in 1826 in connection with the Arigna company, he fled to France, where he was taken seriously ill. He was prosecuted in his absence, the Lord Chancellor ultimately ruling, just before Congreve's death, that the transaction was "clearly fraudulent" and designed to profit Congreve and others. He died in Toulouse, France, in May 1828, aged 55, and was buried there in the Protestant and Jewish cemetery of Chemin du Bearnais. Congreve's name was used for a kind of friction match, "Congreaves", though he was not involved in their invention or production. Congreve Rockets Main article: Congreve rocket Mysorean rockets were the first iron-cased rockets that were successfully deployed for military use. Hyder Ali, the 18th century ruler of Mysore and his son and successor Tipu Sultan used them against the forces of the East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, beginning in 1780 with the Battle of Pollilur. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with minimal effect against the British. The experiences of the British with Mysorean rockets, mentioned in Munro's book of 1789, eventually led to the Royal Arsenal beginning a military rocket R&D program in 1801. Several rocket cases were collected from Mysore and sent to Britain for analysis. The development was chiefly the work of William Congreve, who set up a research and development programme at the Woolwich Arsenal's laboratory. After development work was complete the rockets were manufactured in quantity further north, near Waltham Abbey, Essex. He was told that "the British at Seringapatam had suffered more from the rockets than from the shells or any other weapon used by the enemy." "In at least one instance", an eyewitness told Congreve, "a single rocket had killed three men and badly wounded others." It has been suggested that Congreve may have adapted iron-cased gunpowder rockets for use by the British military from prototypes created by the Irish nationalist Robert Emmet during Emmet's Rebellion in 1803. But this seems far less likely given the fact that the British had been exposed to Indian rockets since 1780 at the latest, and that a vast quantity of unused rockets and their construction equipment fell into British hands at the end of the Anglo-Mysore Wars in 1799, 4 years before Emmet's rockets. Congreve first demonstrated solid fuel rockets at the Royal Arsenal in 1805. He considered his work sufficiently advanced to engage in two Royal Navy attacks on the French fleet at Boulogne, France, one that year and one the next. In 1807 Congreve and sixteen Ordnance Department civilian employees were present at the Bombardment of Copenhagen, during which 300 rockets contributed to the conflagration of the city. Congreve rockets were successfully used for the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars, with the most important employment of the weapon being at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. The "rockets' red glare" in the American national anthem describes their firing at Fort McHenry during the War of 1812. In January 1814 the Royal Artillery absorbed the various companies armed with rockets into two Rocket Troops within the Royal Horse Artillery. They remained in the arsenal of the United Kingdom until the 1850s. Congreve organized the impressive firework displays in London for the peace of 1814 and for the coronation of George IV in 1821. Other inventions Besides his rockets, Congreve was a prolific (if indifferently successful) inventor for the remainder of his life. He registered 18 patents, of which 2 were for rockets. Congreve invented a gun-recoil mounting, a time-fuze, a rocket parachute attachment, a hydropneumatic canal lock (installed at Hampstead Road Lock, north London) and sluice (1813), a perpetual motion machine, a process of colour printing (1821) which was widely used in Germany, a new form of steam engine, and a method of consuming smoke (which was applied at the Royal Laboratory). He also took out patents for a clock in which time was measured by a ball rolling along a zig-zag track on an inclined plane; for protecting buildings against fire; inlaying and combining metals; unforgeable bank note paper; a method of killing whales by means of rockets; improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder; stereotype plates; fireworks; and gas meters. Congreve's unsuccessful perpetual motion scheme involved an endless band which should raise more water by its capillary action on one side than on the other. He used capillary action of fluids that would disobey the law of never rising above their own level, so to produce a continual ascent and overflow. The device had an inclined plane over pulleys. At the top and bottom, there travelled an endless band of sponge, a bed, and, over this, again an endless band of heavy weights jointed together. The whole stood over the surface of still water. The capillary action raised the water, whereas the same thing could not happen in the part, since the weights would squeeze the water out. Hence, it was heavier than the other; but as "we know that if it were the same weight, there would be equilibrium, if the heavy chain be also uniform". Therefore, the extra weight of it would cause the chain to move round in the direction of the arrow, and this would go on, supposedly, continually. Publications In 1804 Congreve published A concise account of the origin and progress of the rocket system. Publication of A Concise Account of the Origin and Progress of the Rocket System by William Congreve was in 1807. In 1814 Congreve published The details of the rocket system. In 1827 The Congreve Rocket System was published in London. His other publications were: An Elementary Treatise on the Mounting of Naval Ordnance (1812); A Description of the Hydropneumatical Lock (1815); A New Principle of Steam-Engine (1819); Resumption of Cash Payments (1819) and Systems of Currency (1819). Name: Goya Biography: Francisco Goya(30 March 1746 - 16 April 1828) Nationality:Spanish Known for:Painting, drawing Movement:Romanticism In 1807, Napoleon led the French army into the Peninsular War against Spain. Goya remained in Madrid during the war, which seems to have affected him deeply. Although he did not speak his thoughts in public, they can be inferred from his Disasters of War series of prints (although published 35 years after his death) and his 1814 paintings The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808. Other works from his mid-period include the Caprichos and Los Disparates etching series, and a wide variety of paintings concerned with insanity, mental asylums, witches, fantastical creatures and religious and political corruption, all of which suggest that he feared for both his country's fate and his own mental and physical health. Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes (/?ɡ???/; Spanish: ; 30 March 1746 - 16 April 1828) was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker. He is considered the most important Spanish artist of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His paintings, drawings, and engravings reflected contemporary historical upheavals and influenced important 19th- and 20th-century painters. Goya is often referred to as the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns. Goya was born to a middle-class family in 1746, in Fuendetodos in Aragon. He studied painting from age 14 under Jose Luzán y Martinez and moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs. He married Josefa Bayeu in 1773. Their life was characterised by a series of pregnancies and miscarriages, and only one child, a son, survived into adulthood. Goya became a court painter to the Spanish Crown in 1786 and this early portion of his career is marked by portraits of the Spanish aristocracy and royalty, and Rococo-style tapestry cartoons designed for the royal palace. He was guarded, and although letters and writings survive, little is known about his thoughts. He suffered a severe and undiagnosed illness in 1793 which left him deaf, after which his work became progressively darker and pessimistic. His later easel and mural paintings, prints and drawings appear to reflect a bleak outlook on personal, social and political levels, and contrast with his social climbing. He was appointed Director of the Royal Academy in 1795, the year Manuel Godoy made an unfavorable treaty with France. In 1799, Goya became Primer Pintor de Cámara (Prime Court Painter), the highest rank for a Spanish court painter. In the late 1790s, commissioned by Godoy, he completed his La maja desnuda, a remarkably daring nude for the time and clearly indebted to Diego Velázquez. In 1800-01 he painted Charles IV of Spain and His Family, also influenced by Velázquez. His late period culminates with the Black Paintings of 1819-1823, applied on oil on the plaster walls of his house the Quinta del Sordo (House of the Deaf Man) where, disillusioned by political and social developments in Spain, he lived in near isolation. Goya eventually abandoned Spain in 1824 to retire to the French city of Bordeaux, accompanied by his much younger maid and companion, Leocadia Weiss, who may or may not have been his lover. There he completed his La Tauromaquia series and a number of other, major, canvases. Following a stroke which left him paralyzed on his right side, and suffering failing eyesight and poor access to painting materials, he died and was buried on 16 April 1828 aged 82. His body was later re-interred in the Real Ermita de San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid. Famously, the skull was missing, a detail the Spanish consul immediately communicated to his superiors in Madrid, who wired back, "Send Goya, with or without head." Early years (1746-1771) Francisco Goya was born in Fuendetodos, Aragón, Spain, on 30 March 1746 to Jose Benito de Goya y Franque and Gracia de Lucientes y Salvador. The family had moved that year from the city of Zaragoza, but there is no record why; likely Jose was commissioned to work there. They were lower middle-class. Jose was the son of a notary and of Basque origin, his ancestors being from Zerain, earning his living as a gilder, specialising in religious and decorative craftwork. He oversaw the gilding and most of the ornamentation during the rebuilding of the Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar (Santa Maria del Pilar), the principal cathedral of Zaragoza. Francisco was their fourth child, following his sister Rita (b. 1737), brother Tomás (b. 1739) (who was to follow in his father's trade) and second sister Jacinta (b. 1743). There were two younger sons, Mariano (b. 1750) and Camilo (b. 1753). His mother's family had pretensions of nobility and the house, a modest brick cottage, was owned by her family and, perhaps fancifully, bore their crest. About 1749 Jose and Gracia bought a home in Zaragoza and were able to return to live in the city. Although there are no surviving records, it is thought that Goya may have attended the Escuelas Pías de San Antón, which offered free schooling. His education seems to have been adequate but not enlightening; he had reading, writing and numeracy, and some knowledge of the classics. According to Robert Hughes the artist "seems to have taken no more interest than a carpenter in philosophical or theological matters, and his views on painting ... were very down to earth: Goya was no theoretician." At school he formed a close and lifelong friendship with fellow pupil Martín Zapater; the 131 letters Goya wrote to him from 1775 until Zapater's death in 1803 give valuable insight into Goya's early years at the court in Madrid. Visit to Italy At age 14 Goya studied under the painter Jose Luzán, where he copied stamps for 4 years until he decided to work on his own, as he wrote later on "paint from my invention". He moved to Madrid to study with Anton Raphael Mengs, a popular painter with Spanish royalty. He clashed with his master, and his examinations were unsatisfactory. Goya submitted entries for the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in 1763 and 1766 but was denied entrance into the academia. Rome was then the cultural capital of Europe and held all the prototypes of classical antiquity, while Spain lacked a coherent artistic direction, with all of its significant visual achievements in the past. Having failed to earn a scholarship, Goya relocated at his own expense to Rome in the old tradition of European artists stretching back at least to Albrecht Dürer. He was an unknown at the time and so the records are scant and uncertain. Early biographers have him travelling to Rome with a gang of bullfighters, where he worked as a street acrobat, or for a Russian diplomat, or fell in love with a beautiful young nun whom he plotted to abduct from her convent. It is possible that Goya completed two surviving mythological paintings during the visit, a Sacrifice to Vesta and a Sacrifice to Pan, both dated 1771. In 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition organized by the City of Parma. That year he returned to Zaragoza and painted elements of the cupolas of the Basilica of the Pillar (including Adoration of the Name of God), a cycle of frescoes for the monastic church of the Charterhouse of Aula Dei, and the frescoes of the Sobradiel Palace. He studied with the Aragonese artist Francisco Bayeu y Subías and his painting began to show signs of the delicate tonalities for which he became famous. He befriended Francisco Bayeu and married his sister Josefa (he nicknamed her "Pepa") on 25 July 1773. Their first child, Antonio Juan Ramon Carlos, was born on 29 August 1774. Madrid (1775-1789) The marriage and Francisco Bayeu's 1765 membership of the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando and directorship of the tapestry works from 1777 helped Goya earn a commission for a series of tapestry cartoons for the Royal Tapestry Factory. Over five years he designed some 42 patterns, many of which were used to decorate and insulate the stone walls of El Escorial and the Palacio Real del Pardo, the residences of the Spanish monarchs. While designing tapestries was neither prestigious nor well paid, his cartoons are mostly popularist in a rococo style, and Goya used them to bring himself to wider attention. The cartoons were not his only royal commissions, and were accompanied by a series of engravings, mostly copies after old masters such as Marcantonio Raimondi and Velázquez. Goya had a complicated relationship to the latter artist; while many of his contemporaries saw folly in Goya's attempts to copy and emulate him, he had access to a wide range of the long-dead painter's works that had been contained in the royal collection. Nonetheless, etching was a medium that the young artist was to master, a medium that was to reveal both the true depths of his imagination and his political beliefs. His c. 1779 etching of The Garrotted Man ("El agarrotado") was the largest work he had produced to date, and an obvious foreboding of his later "Disasters of War" series. Goya was beset by illness, and his condition was used against him by his rivals, who looked jealously upon any artist seen to be rising in stature. Some of the larger cartoons, such as The Wedding, were more than 8 by 10 feet, and had proved a drain on his physical strength. Ever resourceful, Goya turned this misfortune around, claiming that his illness had allowed him the insight to produce works that were more personal and informal. However, he found the format limiting, as it did not allow him to capture complex color shifts or texture, and was unsuited to the impasto and glazing techniques he was by then applying to his painted works. The tapestries seem as comments on human types, fashion and fads. Other works from the period include a canvas for the altar of the Church of San Francisco El Grande in Madrid, which led to his appointment as a member of the Royal Academy of Fine Art. Court painter In 1783, the Count of Floridablanca, favorite of King Charles III, commissioned Goya to paint his portrait. He became friends with the King's half-brother Luis, and spent two summers working on portraits of both the Infante and his family. During the 1780s, his circle of patrons grew to include the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, the King and other notable people of the kingdom whom he painted. In 1786, Goya was given a salaried position as painter to Charles III. Goya was appointed court painter to Charles IV in 1789. The following year he became First Court Painter, with a salary of 50,000 reales and an allowance of 500 ducats for a coach. He painted portraits of the king and the queen, and the Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy and many other nobles. These portraits are notable for their disinclination to flatter; his Charles IV of Spain and His Family is an especially brutal assessment of a royal family. Modern interpreters view the portrait as satirical; it is thought to reveal the corruption behind the rule of Charles IV. Under his reign his wife Louisa was thought to have had the real power, and thus Goya placed her at the center of the group portrait. From the back left of the painting one can see the artist himself looking out at the viewer, and the painting behind the family depicts Lot and his daughters, thus once again echoing the underlying message of corruption and decay. Goya earned commissions from the highest ranks of the Spanish nobility, including Pedro Tellez-Girón, 9th Duke of Osuna and his wife María Josefa Pimentel, 12th Countess-Duchess of Benavente, Jose álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba and his wife María del Pilar de Silva, and María Ana de Pontejos y Sandoval, Marchioness of Pontejos. In 1801 he painted Godoy in a commission to commemorate the victory in the brief War of the Oranges against Portugal. The two were friends, even if Goya's 1801 portrait is usually seen as satire. Yet even after Godoy's fall from grace the politician referred to the artist in warm terms. Godoy saw himself as instrumental in the publication of the Caprichos and is widely believed to have commissioned La maja desnuda. Middle period (1793-1799) Portrait of Manuel Godoy, 1801. Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando La Maja Desnuda (La maja desnuda) has been described as "the first totally profane life-size female nude in Western art" without pretense to allegorical or mythological meaning. The identity of the Majas is uncertain. The most popularly cited models are the Duchess of Alba, with whom Goya was sometimes thought to have had an affair, and Pepita Tudó, mistress of Manuel de Godoy. Neither theory has been verified, and it remains as likely that the paintings represent an idealized composite. The paintings were never publicly exhibited during Goya's lifetime and were owned by Godoy. In 1808 all Godoy's property was seized by Ferdinand VII after his fall from power and exile, and in 1813 the Inquisition confiscated both works as 'obscene', returning them in 1836 to the Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando. In 1798 he painted luminous and airy scenes for the pendentives and cupola of the Real Ermita (Chapel) of San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid. Many of these depict miracles of Saint Anthony of Padua set in the midst of contemporary Madrid. At some time between late 1792 and early 1793 an undiagnosed illness left Goya deaf. He became withdrawn and introspective while the direction and tone of his work changed. He began the series of aquatinted etchings, published in 1799 as the Caprichos—completed in parallel with the more official commissions of portraits and religious paintings. In 1799 Goya published 80 Caprichos prints depicting what he described as "the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society, and from the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom, ignorance, or self-interest have made usual". The visions in these prints are partly explained by the caption "The sleep of reason produces monsters". Yet these are not solely bleak; they demonstrate the artist's sharp satirical wit, particularly evident in etchings such as Hunting for Teeth. Goya's physical and mental breakdown seems to have happened a few weeks after the French declaration of war on Spain. A contemporary reported, "The noises in his head and deafness aren’t improving, yet his vision is much better and he is back in control of his balance." These symptoms may indicate a prolonged viral encephalitis, or possibly a series of miniature strokes resulting from high blood pressure and which affected the hearing and balance centers of the brain. Symptoms of tinnitus, episodes of imbalance and progressive deafness are typical of Menière's disease. It is possible that Goya suffered from cumulative lead poisoning, as he used massive amounts of lead white—which he ground himself—in his paintings, both as a canvas primer and as a primary color. Other postmortem diagnostic assessments point toward paranoid dementia, possibly due to brain trauma, as evidenced by marked changes in his work after his recovery, culminating in the "black" paintings. Art historians have noted Goya's singular ability to express his personal demons as horrific and fantastic imagery that speaks universally, and allows his audience to find its own catharsis in the images. Peninsular War (1808-1814) The French army invaded Spain in 1808, leading to the Peninsular War of 1808-1814. The extent of Goya's involvement with the court of the "Intruder king", Joseph I, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, is not known; he painted works for French patrons and sympathisers, but kept neutral during the fighting. After the restoration of the Spanish king Ferdinand VII in 1814, Goya denied any involvement with the French. By the time of his wife Josefa's death in 1812, he was painting The Second of May 1808 and The Third of May 1808, and preparing the series of etchings later known as The Disasters of War (Los desastres de la guerra). Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in 1814 but relations with Goya were not cordial. The artist completed portraits of the king for a variety of ministries, but not for the king himself. While convalescing between 1793 and 1794, Goya completed a set of eleven small pictures painted on tin that mark a significant change in the tone and subject matter of his art, and draw from the dark and dramatic realms of fantasy nightmare. Yard with Lunatics is an imaginary vision of loneliness, fear and social alienation. The condemnation of brutality towards prisoners (whether criminal or insane) is a subject that Goya assayed in later works that focused on the degradation of the human figure. It was one of the first of Goya's mid-1790s cabinet paintings, in which his earlier search for ideal beauty gave way to an examination of the relationship between naturalism and fantasy that would preoccupy him for the rest of his career. He was undergoing a nervous breakdown and entering prolonged physical illness, and admitted that the series was created to reflect his own self-doubt, anxiety and fear that he was losing his mind. Goya wrote that the works served "to occupy my imagination, tormented as it is by contemplation of my sufferings." The series, he said, consisted of pictures which "normally find no place in commissioned works." Although Goya did not make his intention known when creating The Disasters of War, art historians view them as a visual protest against the violence of the 1808 Dos de Mayo Uprising, the subsequent Peninsular War and the move against liberalism in the aftermath of the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in 1814. The scenes are singularly disturbing, sometimes macabre in their depiction of battlefield horror, and represent an outraged conscience in the face of death and destruction. They were not published until 1863, 35 years after his death. It is likely that only then was it considered politically safe to distribute a sequence of artworks criticising both the French and restored Bourbons. The first 47 plates in the series focus on incidents from the war and show the consequences of the conflict on individual soldiers and civilians. The middle series (plates 48 to 64) record the effects of the famine that hit Madrid in 1811-12, before the city was liberated from the French. The final 17 reflect the bitter disappointment of liberals when the restored Bourbon monarchy, encouraged by the Catholic hierarchy, rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and opposed both state and religious reform. Since their first publication, Goya's scenes of atrocities, starvation, degradation and humiliation have been described as the "prodigious flowering of rage". The Third of May 1808, 1814. Oil on canvas, 266 cm × 345 cm (105 in × 136 in). Museo del Prado, Madrid The Second of May 1808, 1814 Plate 4: Las mujeres dan valor (The women are courageous). This plate depicts a struggle between a group of civilians fighting soldiers. Plate 5: Y son fieras (And they are fierce or And they fight like wild beasts). Civilians, including women, fight against soldiers with spears and rocks. Plate 46: Esto es malo (This is bad). A monk is killed by French soldiers looting church treasures. A rare sympathetic image of clergy generally shown on the side of oppression and injustice. Plate 47: Así sucedió (This is how it happened). The last print in the first group. Murdered monks lie by French soldiers looting church treasures. His works from 1814 to 1819 are mostly commissioned portraits, but also include the altarpiece of Santa Justa and Santa Rufina for the Cathedral of Seville, the print series of La Tauromaquia depicting scenes from bullfighting, and probably the etchings of Los Disparates. Quinta del Sordo and Black Paintings (1819-1822) Records of Goya's later life are relatively scant, and ever politically aware, he suppressed a number of his works from this period, working instead in private. Goya was tormented by a dread of old age and fear of madness, the latter possibly from anxiety caused by an undiagnosed illness that left him deaf from the early 1790s. Goya had been a successful and royally placed artist, but withdrew from public life during his final years. From the late 1810s he lived in near-solitude outside Madrid in a farmhouse converted into a studio. The house had become known as "La Quinta del Sordo" (The House of the Deaf Man), after the nearest farmhouse that had coincidentally also belonged to a deaf man. Art historians assume Goya felt alienated from the social and political trends that followed the 1814 restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, and that he viewed these developments as reactionary means of social control. In his unpublished art he seems to have railed against what he saw as a tactical retreat into Medievalism. It is thought that he had hoped for political and religious reform, but like many liberals became disillusioned when the restored Bourbon monarchy and Catholic hierarchy rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812. At the age of 75, alone and in mental and physical despair, he completed the work of his 14 Black Paintings, all of which were executed in oil directly onto the plaster walls of his house. Goya did not intend for the paintings to be exhibited, did not write of them, and likely never spoke of them. Around 1874, 50 years after his death, they were taken down and transferred to a canvas support by owner Baron Frederic emile d'Erlanger. Many of the works were significantly altered during the restoration, and in the words of Arthur Lubow what remain are "at best a crude facsimile of what Goya painted." The effects of time on the murals, coupled with the inevitable damage caused by the delicate operation of mounting the crumbling plaster on canvas, meant that most of the murals suffered extensive damage and loss of paint. Today they are on permanent display at the Museo del Prado, Madrid. Witches' Sabbath or Aquelarre is one of 14 from the Black Paintings series. Bordeaux (October 1824 - 1828) Leocadia Weiss (nee Zorrilla, 1790-1856) the artist's maid, younger by 35 years, and a distant relative, lived with and cared for Goya after Bayeu's death. She stayed with him in his Quinta del Sordo villa until 1824 with her daughter Rosario. Leocadia was probably similar in features to Goya's first wife Josefa Bayeu, to the point that one of his well-known portraits bears the cautious title of Josefa Bayeu (or Leocadia Weiss). Not much is known about her beyond her fiery temperament. She was likely related to the Goicoechea family, a wealthy dynasty into which the artist's son, Javier, had married. It is known that Leocadia had an unhappy marriage with a jeweler, Isidore Weiss, but was separated from him since 1811, after he had accused her of "illicit conduct". She had two children before that time, and bore a third, Rosario, in 1814 when she was 26. Isidore was not the father, and it has often been speculated—although with little firm evidence—that the child belonged to Goya. There has been much speculation that Goya and Weiss were romantically linked; however, it is more likely the affection between them was sentimental. Goya died on 16 April 1828. Leocadia was left nothing in Goya's will; mistresses were often omitted in such circumstances, but it is also likely that he did not want to dwell on his mortality by thinking about or revising his will. She wrote to a number of Goya's friends to complain of her exclusion but many of her friends were Goya's also and by then were old men or had died, and did not reply. Largely destitute, she moved into rented accommodation, later passing on her copy of the Caprichos for free. Films and television Goya: Crazy Like a Genius (2002), a documentary by Ian MacMillan, presented by Robert Hughes Goya's Ghosts (2006), directed by Milo? Forman Volaverunt (1999), directed by Bigas Luna and based on the novel by Antonio Larreta Goya in Bordeaux (1999), Spanish historical drama film written and directed by Carlos Saura about the life of Francisco de Goya Goya or the Hard Way to Enlightenment (1971) (German: Goya - oder der arge Weg der Erkenntnis) is a 1971 East German drama film directed by Konrad Wolf. It was entered into the 7th Moscow International Film Festival where it won a Special Prize. It is based on a novel with the same title by Lion Feuchtwanger. The Naked Maja (1958), directed by Henry Koster. A film about the painter Francisco Goya and the Duchess of Alba; Anthony Franciosa played Goya and Ava Gardner played The Duchess. Tiempo de ilustrados (Time of the Enlightened) in the series The Ministry of Time. Goya (played by Pedro Casablanc) must repaint La maja desnuda after a cult called the Exterminating Angels destroy it. Goya's influence on modern and contemporary artists and writers In the early 20th century, Spanish masters Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí drew influence from Los caprichos and the Black Paintings of Goya. In the 21st century, American postmodern painters such as Michael Zansky and Bradley Rubenstein draw inspiration from "The Dream of Reason Produces Monsters" (1796-98) and Goya's Black Paintings. Zanksy's "Giants and Dwarf Series' (1990-2002) of large-scale paintings and wood carvings use imagery from Goya. Spanish author Fernando Arrabal's novel The Burial of the Sardine was inspired by Goya's painting. Russian poet Andrei Voznesensky's I Am Goya was inspired by Goya's anti-war paintings. Name: Blücher Biography: Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher Nickname(s) Marschall Vorw?rts (Marshal Forwards) Allegiance: Sweden Prussia Branch/service: Prussian Army Rank: Generalfeldmarschall It was to be said later among the Prussian military that Blücher established "a Prussian way of war" that had abiding influence: The key to this way of war was Blücher’s concept of victory. Like Napoleon, he placed tremendous emphasis on the decisive battle and achieving a decisive victory as quickly as possible at any cost. Also like Napoleon, he measured victory and defeat only in terms of battlefield results. Deviating very little from the Corsican’s art of war, the objective of Blücher’s Prussian way of war was to make contact with the enemy as quickly as possible, concentrate all forces, deliver the decisive blow, and end the war. A popular German idiom, geht ran wie Blücher ("charge like Blücher"), means that someone is taking very direct and aggressive action, in war or otherwise, refers to Blücher. The full German saying, now obsolete, relates to the Battle of the Katzbach in 1813: "Der geht ran wie Blücher an der Katzbach!" ("He's advancing like Blücher at Katzbach!"), referring to Blücher and describing vigorous, forceful behavior. Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Fürst von Wahlstatt (German pronunciation: ; 21 December 1742 - 12 September 1819), Graf (count), later elevated to Fürst (sovereign prince) von Wahlstatt, was a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal). He earned his greatest recognition after leading his army against Napoleon I at the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig in 1813 and the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Blücher was born in Rostock, the son of a retired army captain. His military career began in 1758 as a hussar in the Swedish Army. He was captured by the Prussians in 1760 during the Pomeranian Campaign and thereafter joined the Prussian Army, serving as a hussar officer for Prussia during the remainder of the Seven Years' War. In 1773, Blücher was forced to resign by Frederick the Great for insubordination. He worked as a farmer until the death of Frederick in 1786, when Blücher was reinstated and promoted to colonel. For his success in the French Revolutionary Wars, Blücher became a major general in 1794. He became a lieutenant general in 1801 and commanded the cavalry corps during the Napoleonic Wars in 1806. War broke out between Prussia and France again in 1813 and Blücher returned to active service at the age of 71. He was appointed full general over the Prussian field forces and clashed with Napoleon at the Battles of Lützen and Bautzen. Later he won a critical victory over the French at the Battle of Katzbach. Blücher commanded the Prussian Army of Silesia at the Battle of the Nations where Napoleon was decisively defeated. For his role, Blücher was made a field marshal and received his title of Prince of Wahlstatt. After Napoleon’s return in 1815, Blücher took command of the Prussian Army of the Lower Rhine and coordinated his force with that of the British and Allied forces under the Duke of Wellington. At the Battle of Ligny, he was severely injured and the Prussians retreated. After recovering, Blücher resumed command and joined Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo, with the intervention of Blücher's army playing a decisive role in the final allied victory. Blücher was made an honorary citizen of Berlin, Hamburg and Rostock. Known for his fiery personality, he was nicknamed Marschall Vorw?rts ("Marshal Forward") by his soldiers because of his aggressive approach in warfare. Along with Paul von Hindenburg, he was the most highly decorated Prussian-German soldier in history: Blücher and Hindenburg are the only Prussian-German military officers to have been awarded the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross. A statue once stood in the square that bore his name, Blücherplatz, in Breslau (today Wroc?aw). Biography Early life Blücher was born on 21 December 1742 in Rostock, a Baltic port in northern Germany, then in the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. His father was a retired army captain, and his family belonged to the nobility and had been landowners in northern Germany since at least the 13th century. He began his military career at the age of 16, when he joined the Swedish Army as a hussar. At the time, Sweden was at war with Prussia in the Seven Years' War. Blücher took part in the Pomeranian campaign of 1760, where Prussian hussars captured him in a skirmish. The colonel of the Prussian regiment, Wilhelm Sebastian von Belling (a distant relative), was impressed with the young hussar and had him join his own regiment. Blücher took part in the later battles of the Seven Years' War, and as a hussar officer, gained much experience in light cavalry work. In peace, however, his ardent spirit led him into excesses of all kinds, such as the mock execution of a priest suspected of supporting Polish uprisings in 1772. As a result, he was passed over for promotion to major. Blücher submitted a rude letter of resignation in 1773, which Frederick the Great replied to with "Captain Blücher can take himself to the devil" (1773). Blücher settled down to farming. Within 15 years, he had acquired financial independence and had become a {Freemason}. During Frederick the Great's lifetime, Blücher could not return to the army. However, the monarch died in 1786, and the following year, Blücher was reinstated as a major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part in the expedition to the Netherlands in 1787, and the next year was promoted to lieutenant colonel. In 1789, he received Prussia's highest military order, the Pour le Merite, and in 1794, he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In 1793 and 1794, Blücher distinguished himself in cavalry actions against the French, and for his victory at Kirrweiler on 28 May 1794, he was promoted to major general. In 1801, he was made a lieutenant general. Napoleonic Wars Blücher was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in 1805, and he served as a cavalry general in the disastrous campaign of 1806. At the double Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Blücher fought at Auerstedt, repeatedly leading the charges of the Prussian cavalry, but without success. During the retreat of the broken armies, he commanded the rearguard composed of Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe's corps. With the capitulation of the main body after the Battle of Prenzlau on 28 October, he found his march toward the north-east blocked. He led the remnant of his corps away to the north-west. Reinforcing his numbers with a division previously commanded by Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Blücher and his new chief of staff, Gerhard von Scharnhorst, reorganised his forces into two small corps totaling 21,000 men and 44 cannons. Nevertheless, he was defeated by two French corps at the Battle of Lübeck on 6 November. The next day, trapped against the Danish frontier by 40,000 French troops, he was compelled to surrender with less than 10,000 soldiers at Ratekau. Blücher insisted that clauses be written in the capitulation document that he had had to surrender due to lack of provisions and ammunition, and that his soldiers should be honoured by a French formation along the street. He was allowed to keep his sabre and to move freely, bound only by his word of honour, and was soon exchanged for future Marshal Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno, and was actively employed in Pomerania, at Berlin, and at K?nigsberg until the conclusion of the war. After the war, Blücher was looked upon as the natural leader of the Patriot Party, with which he was in close touch during the period of Napoleonic domination, but his hopes of an alliance with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this year, he was made general of cavalry. In 1812, he expressed himself so openly on the alliance of Russia with France that he was recalled from his military governorship of Pomerania and virtually banished from the court. Following the start of the War of Liberation in the spring of 1813, Blücher was again placed in high command, and he was present at Lützen and Bautzen. During the summer truce, he worked on the organisation of the Prussian forces; when the war was resumed, he became commander-in-chief of the Army of Silesia, with August von Gneisenau and Karl von Müffling as his principal staff officers and 40,000 Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his command during the autumn campaign. The most conspicuous military quality displayed by Blücher was his unrelenting energy. The irresolution and divergence of interests usual in Sixth Coalition armies found in him a restless opponent. Knowing that if he could not induce others to co-operate, he was prepared to attempt the task at hand by himself, which often caused other generals to follow his lead. He defeated Marshal MacDonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory over Marshal Marmont at M?ckern led the way to the decisive defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig. Blücher's own army stormed Leipzig on the evening of the last day of the battle. This was the fourth battle between Napoleon and Blücher, and the first that Blücher had won. On the day of M?ckern (16 October 1813), Blücher was made a field marshal, and after the victory, he pursued the French with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814, Blücher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental in inducing the Coalition sovereigns to carry the war into France itself. The Battle of Brienne and the Battle of La Rothière were the chief incidents of the first stage of the celebrated 1814 campaign in north-east France, and they were quickly followed by victories of Napoleon over Blücher at Champaubert, Vauchamps, and Montmirail. The courage of the Prussian leader was undiminished, though, and his victory against the vastly outnumbered French, at Laon (9 and 10 March) practically decided the fate of the campaign. However, his health had been severely affected by the strains of the previous two months, and he now suffered a breakdown, during which he lost his sight and suffered a delusion that a Frenchman had impregnated him with an elephant. Dominic Lieven wrote that the breakdown, "revealed the fragility of the coalition armies' command structure and just how much the Army of Silesia had depended on Blücher's drive, courage, and charisma.... The result was that for more than a week after the battle of Laon, the Army of Silesia... played no useful role in the war". After this, Blücher infused some of his energy into the operations of the Prince Schwarzenberg's Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and the Army of Silesia marched in one body directly towards Paris. The victory of Montmartre, the entry of the allies into the French capital, and the overthrow of the First Empire were the direct consequences. Blücher was in favour of punishing the city of Paris severely for the sufferings of Prussia at the hands of the French armies, but the allied commanders intervened. According to the Duke of Wellington, one of Blücher's plans involved blowing up the Jena Bridge near the Champ de Mars: About blowing up the bridge of Jena there were two parties in the Prussian Army — Gneisenau and Muffling against, but Blücher violently for it. In spite of all I could do, he did make the attempt, even while I believe my sentinel was standing at one end of the bridge. But the Prussians had no experience of blowing up bridges. We, who had blown up so many in Spain, could have done it in five minutes. The Prussians made a hole in one of the pillars, but their powder blew out instead of up, and I believe hurt some of their own people. In gratitude for his victories in 1814, King Frederick William III of Prussia created Blücher Prince (Fürst) of Wahlstatt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield). The king also awarded him estates near Krieblowitz (now Krobielowice, Poland) in Lower Silesia and a grand mansion at 2, Pariser Platz in Berlin (which in 1930 became the Embassy of the United States, Berlin). Soon afterward, Blücher paid a visit to England, where he was received with royal honours and cheered enthusiastically everywhere he went. When Oxford University granted him an honorary doctorate (doctor of laws), he is supposed to have joked that if he was made a doctor, they should at least make Gneisenau an apothecary; "...for if I wrote the prescription, he made the pills." Hundred Days and later life After the war, Frederick William III gave Blücher properties in the area of Neustadt (now Prudnik). In November of the same year, Blücher leased Kunzendorf, Mühlsdorf, Wackenau and Achthuben to a local farmer, Hübner, in exchange for 2,000 thalers, rolls of linen cloth and yarn. His wife also moved to Kunzendorf. While living in the area of Neustadt, he financed the families of the fallen soldiers, gave a few liters of beer to the local parish priest every day, and paid a doctor from Neustadt to treat the poor. Thanks to his efforts, a health resort called "Blücher's Spring" was established in Kunzendorf (it was destroyed together with the castle as a result of the battles of the Neustadt in 1945). After the war, Blücher retired to Silesia. However, the return of Napoleon from Elba and his entry into Paris at the start of the Hundred Days, called him back to service. He was put in command of the Army of the Lower Rhine, with Gneisenau serving again as his chief of staff. At the outset of the Waterloo Campaign of 1815, the Prussians sustained a serious defeat at Ligny (16 June), in the course of which the old field marshal lay trapped under his dead horse for several hours and was repeatedly ridden over by cavalry, his life saved only by the devotion of his aide-de-camp Count Nostitz, who threw a greatcoat over his commander to obscure Blücher's rank and identity from the passing French. As Blücher was unable to resume command for some hours, Gneisenau took command, drew off the defeated army, and rallied it. In spite of Gneisenau's distrust of Wellington, he obeyed Blücher's last orders to direct the army's retreat towards Wavre, rather than Liège, to keep alive the possibility of joining the Prussian and Wellington's Anglo-allied armies together. After bathing his wounds in a liniment of rhubarb and garlic, and fortified by a liberal internal dose of schnapps, Blücher rejoined his army. Gneisenau feared that the British had reneged on their earlier agreements and favored a withdrawal, but Blücher convinced him to send two corps to join Wellington at Waterloo. He then led his army on a tortuous march along muddy paths, arriving on the field of Waterloo in the late afternoon. In spite of his age, the pain of his wounds, and the effort it must have taken for him to remain on horseback, Bernard Cornwell states that several soldiers attested to Blücher's high spirits and his determination to defeat Napoleon: "Forwards!" he was quoted as saying. "I hear you say it's impossible, but it has to be done! I have given my promise to Wellington, and you surely don't want me to break it? Push yourselves, my children, and we'll have victory!" It is impossible not to like Blücher. He was 74 years (sic) old, still in pain and discomfort from his adventures at Ligny, still stinking of schnapps and of rhubarb liniment, yet he is all enthusiasm and energy. If Napoleon's demeanour that day was one of sullen disdain for an enemy he underestimated, and Wellington's a cold, calculating calmness that hid concern, then Blücher is all passion. With the battle hanging in the balance, Blücher's army intervened with decisive and crushing effect, his vanguard drawing off Napoleon's badly needed reserves, and his main body being instrumental in crushing French resistance. This victory led the way to a decisive victory through the relentless pursuit of the French by the Prussians. The two Coalition armies entered Paris on 7 July. Blücher remained in the French capital for a few months, but his age and infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian residence at Krieblowitz. At the invitation of the British government, he made another state visit to England, to be formally thanked for his army and his role in the Waterloo Campaign. When his carriage stopped on Blackheath Hill, overlooking London, he is said to have exclaimed, "What a city to sack!" He died at Krieblowitz on 12 September 1819, aged 76. After his death, an imposing mausoleum was built for his remains. When Krieblowitz was conquered by the Red Army in 1945, Soviet soldiers broke into the Blücher mausoleum and scattered the remains. Soviet troops reportedly used his skull as a football. After 1989, some of his remains were taken by a Polish priest and interred in the catacomb of the church in So?nica (German: Schosnitz), three km from the now Polish Krobielowice. More generally, Blücher was a courageous and popular general who "had much to be proud of: energy, controlled aggression and a commitment to defeating the enemy army." Campaigns 1760: Pomeranian Campaign (as Swedish soldier; captured by Prussia; changed sides) Seven Years' War 1787: Expedition to the Netherlands with Red Hussars 1793-1794: French campaigns with Red Hussars 1806: Auerstadt, Pomerania, Berlin, K?nigsberg 1813: Lützen, Bautzen, Katzbach, M?ckern, Leipzig 1814: Brienne, La Rothière, Champaubert, Vauchamps, Chateau-Thierry, Montmirail, Laon, Montmartre 1815: Lower Rhine (Battle of Ligny), Battle of Waterloo Publications His campaign journal covering the years 1793 to 1794 was published in 1796: Kampagne-Journal der Jahre 1793 und 1794 (Berlin: Decker, 1796) A second edition of this diary, together with some of Blücher's letters, was published in 1914: Vorw?rts! Ein Husaren-Tagebuch und Feldzugsbriefe von Gebhardt Leberecht von Blücher, introduced by General Field Marshal von der Goltz, edited by Heinrich Conrad (Munich: G. Müller, ) His collected writings and letters (together with those of Yorck and Gneisenau) appeared in 1932: Gesammelte Schriften und Briefe / Blücher, Yorck, Gneisenau, compiled and edited by Edmund Th. Kauer (Berlin-Sch?neberg: Oestergaard, ) Ancestry Family and descendants Blücher was married twice: in 1773 to Karoline Amalie von Mehling (1756-1791) and, after her death, in 1795 to Amalie von Colomb (1772-1850), sister of General Peter von Colomb. While this second marriage was without issue, by his first marriage Blücher had seven children, of whom two sons and a daughter survived infancy, Franz Ferdinand Joachim (1778-1829), Major General in the Prussian army, wounded in battle in 1813 and thereafter mentally ill; Friedrich Gebhardt Lebrecht (1780-1834); Bernhardine Friederike (1786-1870). The marshal's grandson, Count Gebhard Bernhard von Blücher (1799-1875), was created Prince Blücher of Wahlstatt (Serene Highness) in Prussia, a hereditary title in primogeniture, the other members of his branch bearing the title count or countess. In 1832, he bought Raduň Castle in the Opava District and in 1847 the lands at Wahlstatt, Legnickie Pole, all of which remained in the family until the flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland and Czechoslovakia in 1945, which forced the family into exile in their mansion Havilland Hall in Guernsey, acquired by the 4th prince and his English wife, Evelyn, Princess Blücher. Later the family moved to Eurasburg, Bavaria. The present head of the House of Blücher von Wahlstatt is Nicolaus, 8th Prince Blücher of Wahlstatt (born 1932), the heir apparent is his son, hereditary count Lukas (born 1956). Battles/wars Seven Years' War Pomeranian War Prussian invasion of Holland French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars Battle of Jena-Auerstedt Battle of Prenzlau Battle of Lübeck Battle of Lützen (1813) Battle of Bautzen German Campaign of 1813 Autumn Campaign Battle of the Katzbach Battle of M?ckern Battle of Leipzig Campaign in north-east France (1814) Battle of Brienne Battle of La Rothière Six Days' Campaign Battle of Champaubert Battle of Vauchamps Battle of Laon Battle of Paris Waterloo campaign Battle of Ligny Battle of Waterloo Occupation of Paris Awards Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross Pour le Merite Order of St. George Military Order of William Military Order of Maria Theresa Honours He received the following orders and decorations: Kingdom of Prussia: Pour le Merite, 4 June 1789 Knight of the Black Eagle, April 1807 Knight of the Red Eagle Iron Cross, 1st Class; Grand Cross, 1813; with Star, 1815 Russian Empire: Knight of St. George, 1st Class, 8 October 1813 Knight of St. Andrew, 11 October 1813 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 11 October 1813 Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class Sword of Honour "for Bravery" Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1813 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 4 July 1815 Kingdom of Hanover: Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1816 Electorate of Hesse: Grand Cross of the Golden Lion, 11 December 1815 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 8 July 1815 Spain: Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, 3 July 1811 Sweden: Knight of the Seraphim, 28 April 1814 United Kingdom: Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 18 August 1815 Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order, 1814 Legacy Museum The Rhineland town of Kaub has a museum dedicated to Blücher, commemorating in particular his crossing the Rhine with the Prussian and Russian armies, on New Year's night 1813-1814, in pursuit of the French. Statues After Blücher's death, statues were erected to his memory at Berlin, Breslau, Rostock, and Kaub (where his troops crossed the Rhine in pursuit of Napoleon's forces in 1813). Blücher is honoured with a bust in the Walhalla temple near Regensburg. Locomotive and ships In gratitude for Blücher's service, George Stephenson, the pioneering British locomotive engineer, named a locomotive after him. The Blucher was named after him, after the original ship was captured by the British and the new owners named it for him. Three ships of the German navy have been named in honour of Blücher. The first to be so named was the corvette SMS Blücher, built at Kiel's Norddeutsche Schiffbau AG (later renamed the Krupp-Germaniawerft) and launched 20 March 1877. Taken out of service after a boiler explosion in 1907, she ended her days as a coal freighter in Vigo, Spain. On 11 April 1908, the Panzerkreuzer SMS Blücher was launched from the Imperial Shipyard in Kiel. This ship was sunk on 24 January 1915 in the First World War at the Battle of Dogger Bank. The Second World War German heavy cruiser Blücher was completed in September 1939, and pronounced ready for service on 5 April 1940 after completing a series of sea trials and training exercises. The vessel was sunk four days later near Oslo during the invasion of Norway. Film portrayals Blücher was played by German actor Otto Gebühr in the 1929 film Waterloo. In 1932, he was the subject of the biographical film Marshal Forwards, in which he was played by Paul Wegener. It was part of a group of Prussian films released during the era. He was portrayed by Soviet actor Sergo Zakariadze, in the 1970 Soviet-Italian film Waterloo. Various Blücher also has a boarding house named after him at Berkshire based Wellington College. The Blucher, as it is known, is a boys' house renowned for sporting and academic prowess. A popular German idiom, geht ran wie Blücher ("charge like Blücher"), means that someone is taking very direct and aggressive action, in war or otherwise, refers to Blücher. The full German saying, now obsolete, relates to the Battle of the Katzbach in 1813: "Der geht ran wie Blücher an der Katzbach!" ("He's advancing like Blücher at Katzbach!"), referring to Blücher and describing vigorous, forceful behavior. Vasily Blyukher's last name was given to his family by a landlord in honor of Gebhard. Near Twickenham Stadium is the Prince Blucher pub. Name: Karl Philipp Biography: Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg Allegiance:Habsburg Monarchy，Austrian Empire Rank: Generalfeldmarschall Karl Philipp, Fürst zu Schwarzenberg (or Charles Philip, Prince of Schwarzenberg; 18/19 April 1771 - 15 October 1820) was an Austrian field marshal. He fought in the Battle of Wagram (1809) but the Austrians lost decisively against Napoleon. He had to fight for Napoleon in the Battle of Gorodechno (1812) against the Russians and won. He defeated Napoleon decisively in the Battle of Leipzig (1813). He joined the Battle of Paris (1814) that forced Napoleon to abdicate. Family Karl Philipp was born 18/19 April 1771 in Vienna, the son of Johann Nepomuk Anton of Schwarzenberg and Marie Eleonore Countess of ?ttingen-Wallerstein. He was one of thirteen siblings, seven of whom did not reach adulthood. Imperial service Karl Philipp entered the imperial cavalry in 1788, fought in 1789 under Lacy and Loudon against the Turks, distinguished himself by his bravery, and became a major in 1792. In the French campaign of 1793 he served in the advanced guard of the army commanded by Prince Josias of Coburg, and at Le Cateau-Cambresis in 1794 his impetuous charge at the head of his regiment, vigorously supported by twelve British squadrons, broke a whole corps of the French, killed and wounded 3,000 men, and captured 32 of the enemy's guns. He was immediately decorated with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. After taking part in the battles of Amberg and Würzburg in 1796 during the French Revolutionary Wars, he was raised to the rank of general-major, and, in 1799, he subsequently was promoted to Feldmarschall-Leutnant. At the Battle of Hohenlinden (3 December 1800) he led a division in the right wing. During the retreat, his promptitude and courage saved the right wing of the Austrian army from destruction, and the Archduke Charles of Austria afterwards entrusted him with the command of the rearguard. In 1804 Prince Karl Philipp was created Fürst zu Schwarzenberg in a title identical to, but separate from, that of his brother, Joseph, Prince of Schwarzenberg . In the war of 1805 he held command of a division under Mack, and when Napoleon surrounded Ulm in October, Schwarzenberg was one of the band of cavalry, under the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este, which cut its way through the hostile lines. In the same year he received the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa and in 1809 he was awarded the Order of the Golden Fleece. He took part in the Battle of Wagram (July 1809), leading a cavalry division in the Reserve Corps and was soon afterwards promoted to general of cavalry. Napoleon held Schwarzenberg in great esteem, and at his request the prince took command of the Austrian auxiliary corps in the Russian campaign of 1812. The Austrian general won some minor victories against the Russians at Gorodetschna and Wolkowisk. Napoleon said in his memoirs, that Schwarzenberg instead of supporting Minsk retreated to Warsaw and abandoned the French army thus allowing Tschitschagow to seize Minsk. Afterwards, under instructions from Napoleon, he remained for some months inactive at Pultusk. In 1813, when Austria, after many hesitations, took the side of the allies against Napoleon, Schwarzenberg, recently promoted to Feldmarschall, was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied Grand Army of Bohemia. As such, he was the senior of the allied generals who conducted the campaign of 1813-1814. Under his command, the allied army was mauled by Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden on 26-27 August and driven back into Bohemia. However, his army defeated pursuing French forces at the Second Battle of Kulm (17 September 1813). Returning to the fray, he led the Allied army north again and played a major role in Napoleon's decisive defeat at the Battle of Leipzig on 16-18 October. During the invasion of France in 1814 he attacked through Switzerland and beat a French force at the Battle of Bar-sur-Aube on 27 February 1814. He repelled an attack by Napoleon in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube on 20-21 March and overcame the last barrier before Paris by winning the Battle of Fère-Champenoise on 25 March. His capture of the French capital on 31 March after the Battle of Paris resulted in the overthrow of Napoleon. The next year, during the Hundred Days when Napoleon escaped from Elba and regained the French throne, in the hostilities that followed Schwarzenberg commanded the Army of the Upper Rhine (an Austrian-allied army of about a quarter of a million men). But shortly afterwards, having lost his sister Caroline, to whom he was deeply attached, he fell ill. A stroke disabled him in 1817, and in 1820, when revisiting Leipzig, the scene of the "Battle of the Nations" that he had directed seven years before, he suffered a second stroke. He died there on 15 October. Personality In 1806-1809 Schwarzenberg served as the Austrian ambassador to Russia. After the signing of Treaty of Sch?nbrunn (14 October 1809), he was sent to Paris as ambassador to negotiate the 1810 marriage between Napoleon and the Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria. The prince gave a ball in honour of the bride on 1 July 1810, which ended in a fire that killed many of the guests, including his own sister-in-law, wife of his older brother, Joseph. In 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia, a traditional ally of Austria. The Austrians were forced by Napoleon to send Schwarzenberg commanding a corps to the Grande Armee. He had to show enough commitment to please Napoleon without angering Russia. In the end he just failed to protect the Grande Arme from a flank attack at the Berezina. But in late November his soldiers withdrew into winter quarters at Byalistok under a verbal agreement with the Russians. 7,000 of his soldiers were killed in battle and 4,000 died of disease and exposure of some 30,000 who had entered Russia, in a disastrous campaign where Napoleon lost 500.000 of 600.000 men. He won against Napoleon although the three monarchs of the Coalition powers were present at the Battle of Leipzig (1813), with Emperor Alexander I of Russia at the head of the three alongside King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Francis I of Austria, and a substantial staff supported the Coalition commanders. Alexander was also the supreme commander of the Coalition forces in the eastern front of the war, while Prince Karl von Schwarzenberg of Austria was the commander-in-chief of all Coalition forces in the German theatre. Marriage and descendants Main article: House of Schwarzenberg The Prince married the Countess Maria Anna von Hohenfeld (20 May 1767-1848), who was the widow of Prince Anton Esterhazy. They had three sons: Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg (1800-70), his eldest son, had an adventurous career as a soldier, and described his wanderings and campaigns in several interesting works, of which the best known is his Wanderungen eines Lanzknechtes (1844-1845). He took part as an Austrian officer in the campaigns of Galicia 1846, Italy 1848 and Hungary 1848, and as an amateur in the French conquest of Algeria, the Carlist Wars in Spain and the Swiss civil war of the Sonderbund. He became a major-general in the Austrian army in 1849, and died after many years of well-filled leisure in 1870. Karl II Borrom?us Philipp (1802-1858), the second son, was a Feldzeugmeister, and Governor of Transylvania (1851-1858). Edmund Leopold Friedrich (1803-73), his third son, was a Field marshal in the Austrian army. Of Schwarzenberg's nephews, Felix Schwarzenberg, the statesman, was also notable, and Friedrich Johann Josef Coelestin (1809-1885) was a cardinal and a prominent figure in papal and Austrian history. Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars Battle of Le Cateau (1794) Battle of Amberg (1796) Battle of Würzburg (1796) Battle of Hohenlinden (1800) War of the Fifth Coalition Battle of Wagram (1809) French invasion of Russia Battle of Gorodechno (1812) War of the Sixth Coalition Battle of Dresden (1813) Battle of Kulm (1813) Battle of Leipzig (1813) First Battle of Bar-sur-Aube (1814) Second Battle of Bar-sur-Aube (1814) Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube (1814) Battle of Fère-Champenoise (1814) Battle of Paris (1814) Awards Order of the Golden Fleece Military Order of Maria Theresa Military Order of Max Joseph Legion of Honour Order of the Holy Spirit Order of the Bath Military William Order Honours Habsburg Monarchy: Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 25 May 1794; Commander, 1806; Grand Cross, 1813 Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1809 Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1810 France: French Empire: Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, 1811 Kingdom of France: Knight of the Holy Spirit, 1816、 Russian Empire: Knight of St. George, 1st Class, 8 October 1813 Knight of St. Andrew, 11 October 1813 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 11 October 1813 Sweden: Grand Cross of the Sword, 1st Class, 20 February 1814 Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1814 Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph, 1815 Kingdom of Sardinia: Knight of the Annunciation, 4 January 1815 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 30 April 1815 United Kingdom: Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 18 August 1815 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 27 August 1815 Kingdom of Hanover: Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1816 Name: John VI Biography: John VI of Portugal(13 May 1767 - 10 March 1826) Position: King of Portugal，King of Brazil，Emperor of Brazil (titular) House:Braganza Religion:Roman Catholicism John's policies led to far-reaching economic changes, beginning with the opening of the ports and the abolition of the Portuguese commercial monopolies, with the United Kingdom being the great beneficiary. On the one hand, traders based in Brazil had to face strong foreign competition; on the other, it encouraged the creation of new manufacturing and other economic activities that were previously banned, poor or nonexistent in Brazil. At the same time, he created such high-level administrative bodies as the War Ministry, the Foreign Ministry, and the Ministry of Marine and Overseas; the Councils of State and of Finance, the Supreme Military Council, the Military Archive, the Bureaus of Justice and of Conscience and Orders, the Casa de Suplica??o (Supreme Court), the Intendency General of Police, the first Bank of Brazil the Royal Board of Commerce, Agriculture, Factories and Navigation, and the General Postal Administration, as well as bringing Brazilians into administrative and staff positions, which helped diminish tensions between the natives and the Portuguese. He also encouraged agricultural production, especially cotton, rice and sugar cane, opened roads and encouraged the development of inland waterways, stimulating the movement of people, goods and products between regions. One of the last representatives of absolute monarchy in Europe, he lived during a turbulent period; his reign never saw a lasting peace. Throughout his period of rule, major powers, such as Spain, France and Great Britain, continually intervened in Portuguese affairs. Forced to flee to South America across the Atlantic Ocean into Brazil when troops of the Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, he found himself faced there with liberal revolts; he was compelled to return to Europe amid new conflicts. His marriage was no less conflictual, as his wife, Carlota Joaquina of Spain, repeatedly conspired against her husband in favor of personal interests or those of her native Spain. He lost Brazil when his son Pedro declared independence, and his other son Miguel (later Miguel I of Portugal) led a rebellion that sought to depose him. According to recent scholarly research, his death may well have been caused by arsenic poisoning. Notwithstanding these tribulations he left a lasting mark, especially in Brazil, where he helped to create numerous institutions and services that laid a foundation for national autonomy, and he is considered by many historians to be a true mastermind of the modern Brazilian state. John VI (Portuguese: Jo?o VI; 13 May 1767 - 10 March 1826), nicknamed "the Clement", was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1816 to 1825. Although the United Kingdom of Portugal, over which he ruled, ceased to exist de facto beginning in 1822, he remained its monarch de jure between 1822 and 1825. After the recognition of the independence of Brazil under the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro of 1825, he continued as King of Portugal until his death in 1826. Under the same treaty, he also became titular Emperor of Brazil for life, while his son, Pedro I of Brazil, was both de facto and de jure the monarch of the newly independent country. Born in Lisbon in 1767, the son of Maria I and Peter III of Portugal, he was originally an infante (prince, but not heir to the throne) of Portugal. He only became heir to the throne when his older brother Jose, Prince of Brazil, died of smallpox in 1788 at the age of 27. Before his accession to the Portuguese throne, John VI bore the titles Duke of Braganza and Duke of Beja, as well as Prince of Brazil. From 1799, he served as prince regent of Portugal (and later, from 1815, as prince regent of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves), due to the mental illness of his mother, Queen Maria I. In 1816, he succeeded his mother as monarch of the Portuguese Empire, with no real change in his authority, since he already possessed absolute powers as regent. Regency Meanwhile, the queen showed increasing signs of mental instability. On 10 February 1792, seventeen doctors signed a document declaring her unable to manage the kingdom, with no prospect for her condition to improve. John was reluctant to take the reins of power, rejecting the idea of a formal regency. This opened the way for elements of the nobility to form a de facto government via a Council. Rumors circulated that John exhibited symptoms of the same insanity, and that he might be prevented from ruling. According to longstanding laws that guided the institution of regency, were the regent to die or become incapable for any reason, and having children of less than fourteen years (which was John's situation at the time), government would be exercised by the guardians of those children or, if guardians had not been formally named, by the wife of the regent. In John's case, that would have been a Spanish infanta. Fear, suspicion and intrigue engulfed the entire institutional framework of the nation. At the same time, the French Revolution perplexed and horrified the reigning houses of Europe. The execution of the French former king Louis XVI on 21 January 1793 by the revolutionaries precipitated an international response. On 15 July, Portugal signed a treaty with Spain, and on 26 September allied itself with Great Britain. Both treaties pledged mutual aid against revolutionary France and brought six thousand Portuguese soldiers into the War of the Pyrenees (1793-1795), a campaign that began with an advance to Roussillon in France and ended in defeat with the French conquest of northeastern Spain. This created a delicate diplomatic problem, as Portugal could not make peace with France without damaging an alliance with Britain that involved several overseas interests. The Portuguese thus sought a neutrality that proved fragile and tense. After the defeat, Spain abandoned its alliance with Portugal and allied with France under the Peace of Basel. With Britain too powerful for France to attack directly, France set its sights on Portugal. In 1799, John officially assumed the reins of government as prince regent in the name of his widowed mother; that same year, Napoleon Bonaparte staged his coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire in France and coerced Spain into issuing an ultimatum to force the Portuguese to break with Great Britain and submit the country to the interests of Napoleon. With John's refusal, neutrality became unviable. Spain and France invaded in 1801, setting off the War of the Oranges; a defeated Portugal signed the Treaty of Badajoz and the subsequent Treaty of Madrid, under which it ceded territory to Spain, in particular Olivenza, and made concessions to the French over certain colonial territories. With conflicting interests among all the countries involved, the war was marked by ambiguous movements and secret agreements. Portugal, as the weakest player, could not avoid continued struggle. At the same time, John had to face an enemy at home. His wife, Carlota Joaquina, loyal to Spanish interests, initiated an intrigue with the objective of deposing her husband and taking power herself, an attempt that failed in 1805. This resulted in the Princess's exile from court; she resided at Queluz Palace, while the regent took up residency at Mafra Palace. Flight to Brazil Main article: Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil The prince regent played a desperate game with France for time. For as long as he could, he pretended an apparent submission to France, to the point of suggesting to King George III of the United Kingdom the declaration of a fictitious state of war between their countries, but he did not obey the dictates of Napoleon's Continental System (a blockade against Great Britain). A new secret treaty with the British guaranteed him help in case of an eventual flight of the royal family. The accord greatly favored the British and preserved their influence over the country, as British merchants continued to make vast profits in trade with the Portuguese intercontinental empire. It fell to Portugal to choose between an alliance with France or with Britain, and the hesitancy to decide firmly placed Portugal at risk of war with not merely one of these powers, but with both. In October 1807, news arrived that a French army was approaching, and on 16 November, a British squadron arrived in the port of Lisbon with a force of seven thousand men with orders either to escort the royal family to Brazil or, if the government surrendered to France, to attack and conquer the Portuguese capital. The court was divided between Francophiles and Anglophiles, and after anguished consideration under pressure from both sides, John decided to accept British protection and leave for Brazil. The invading army led by Jean-Andoche Junot advanced with some difficulty, arriving at the gates of Lisbon only on 30 November 1807. By this time, the prince regent, accompanied by the entire royal family and a large following of nobles, state functionaries and servants, had already embarked, leaving the government under a regency with the recommendation that the army not engage in hostilities with the invader. The hasty departure during a rainstorm caused havoc in Lisbon as an astonished population could not believe that their prince had abandoned them. According to the account of Jose Acúrsio das Neves, the departure brought forth deep emotion on the part of the prince regent: He wanted to speak and could not; he wanted to move and, convulsed, did not succeed in taking a step; he walked over an abyss, and envisioned a future dark and as uncertain as the ocean to which he was about to deliver himself. Country, capital, kingdom, vassals, he was about to leave all of these suddenly, with little hope of setting eyes on them again, and all were thorns that pierced his heart. To explain himself to the people, John ordered that posters be put up along the streets stating that his departure was unavoidable despite all efforts made to assure the integrity and peace of the kingdom. The posters recommended that everyone remain calm, orderly and not resist the invaders, so that blood not be shed in vain. Because of the rush to depart, the Prince Regent John, Queen Maria, Prince Pedro, Prince of Beira (later Pedro I of Brazil and Pedro IV of Portugal), and the Infante Miguel (later Miguel I of Portugal) were all in a single ship. This was an imprudent decision given the dangers of a transatlantic voyage in that era, since it placed at risk the succession of the crown in case of shipwreck. Carlota Joaquina and the infantas were on two other ships. The number of people who embarked with John remains a matter of controversy; in the 19th century there was talk of up to 30 thousand emigrants; more recent estimates vary between five hundred and fifteen thousand, the latter being close to the maximum capacity of the squadron of fifteen ships, including their crews. Still, the ships were overcrowded. According to Pedreira e Costa, taking into account all of the variables, the most likely numbers fall between four and seven thousand passengers plus the crews. Many families were separated, and even high officials failed to secure a place on the ships and were left behind. The voyage was not a tranquil one. Several ships were in precarious condition, and overcrowding created humiliating conditions for the nobility, the majority of whom had to sleep huddled in the open in the poops. Hygienic conditions were bad, including an epidemic of head lice. Many had failed to bring changes of clothing. Several people fell ill. Supplies were scarce, causing rationing. The flotilla spent ten days nearly becalmed in the equatorial zone under a scorching heat that caused moods to turn quite sour. The flotilla also faced two storms and was eventually dispersed near Madeira. In the middle of the voyage, Prince John changed his plans and decided to head for Salvador, Bahia, probably for political reasons. He wanted to please the inhabitants of the colony's first capital, which had given many signs of discontent with the loss of its old status. The ships carrying his wife and the infantas held to the original destination of Rio de Janeiro. Colonial Transformation Throughout his stay in Brazil, John formalized the creation of a huge number of institutions and public services and boosted the economy, culture and other areas of national life. All these measures were taken principally because of the practical needs of administering a large empire in a territory previously lacking of these resources, because the predominant idea continued to be that Brazil would remain a colony, given that it was expected that the court would return to its old metropolis once the European political situation returned to normal. However, these advances became the basis for Brazil's future autonomy. This is not to say that all was amenities and progress. A series of political crises began shortly after his arrival with the invasion of Cayenne in French Guiana in 1809 in retaliation for the French invasion of Portugal, serious economic problems, and an unfovorable trade agreement negotiated in 1810 with the British government, which in practice flooded the small internal market with useless trinkets and disadvantaged exports and the creation of new national industries. Laurentino Gomes writes that John granted more hereditary titles in his first eight years in Brazil than had been granted in the previous three hundred years of the Portuguese monarchy, not even counting more than five thousand insignia and commendations of the honorific orders of Portugal. When Napoleon was defeated in 1815, the European powers held the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the political map of the continent. Portugal participated in these negotiations, but given British overtures contrary to the interests of the House of Braganza, Portugal's ambassador to the Congress, the Count of Palmela, counseled the regent to remain in Brazil, as did the powerful Prince Talleyrand, in order to strengthen the ties between metropolis and colony, including the suggestion to elevate Brazil to the condition of a kingdom united to Portugal. The representative of the United Kingdom also ended up supporting the idea, which resulted in the effective foundation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on 16 December 1815, a juridical institution rapidly recognized by other nations. Road to ruleJohn's mother Queen Maria died 20 March 1816, opening the road for the regent to assume the throne. Though he began to govern as king on that date, he was not immediately consecrated as king; he was acclaimed only on 6 February 1818, with grand festivities. Meanwhile, several political matters came to the fore. The ambitious Queen Carlota Joaquina had begun to conspire against Portuguese interests while still in Europe, and shortly after her arrival in Brazil, she established understandings with both Spaniards and with nationalists of the Río de la Plata region (now Argentina and Uruguay) to try to secure a monarchy of her own, perhaps as a regent of Spain, perhaps as queen of a new monarchy created from Spanish colonies in South America, perhaps by deposing her husband. This made any meaningful marriage to John impossible, despite his show of patience, and only the force of convention had them appear together in public. While Dona Carlota gained many sympathizers, her plots uniformly failed. Despite that, she managed to influence her husband to involve himself more directly in Spanish colonial politics. These efforts led to the capture of Montevideo in 1817 and the annexation of Cisplatina Province in 1821.During the same period, problems arose in finding a wife for John's heir apparent, the future Pedro I of Brazil. Europe at the time considered Brazil distant, backward and unsafe, so it was not a simple task to find suitable candidates. After a year of seeking, the ambassador Pedro Jose Joaquim Vito de Meneses Coutinho, 6th Marquis of Marialva, finally secured an alliance with one of Europe's most powerful royal houses, the Habsburgs, emperors of Austria, after seducing the Austrian court with numerous lies, a display of pomp, and the distribution of gold bars and diamonds among the nobility. Dom Pedro married archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of emperor Francis I, in 1817. The emperor and his minister Metternich considered the alliance "an advantageous pact between Europe and the New World," strengthening the monarchical regime in both hemispheres and granting Austria a new sphere of influence.Meanwhile, the situation in Portugal was by no means tranquil. Absent its monarch and devastated by the Peninsular War and the consequent mass hunger and enormous exodus of emigrants, the country became a de facto British protectorate upon the final expulsion of the French. It was administered by William Carr Beresford, who took a high hand in his dealings with the Portuguese government. From the time John ascended the throne, the Portuguese pressed for his return, initiated liberal rebellions, and formed secret societies with the objective of bringing into session the Portuguese Cortes, which had not met since 1698. Similar liberal agitation occurred in Brazil. In 1817, the Pernambucan Revolt broke out in Recife, a republican movement that established a provisional government in Pernambuco and spread into other Brazilian states; it was put down severely. Back in Portugal, the Liberal Revolution of 1820 broke out in Porto on 24 August 1820. A governing junta was set up, with repercussions in Lisbon. It met as the General Extraordinary and Constituent Cortes (Cortes Gerais Extraordinárias e Constituintes), formed a government and convened elections for deputies without bothering to consult King John. The movement gained support from the Island of Madeira, the Azores and reached the captaincy of Gr?o-Pará and Bahia in Brazil. It led even to an uprising by the military garrison of Rio de Janeiro itself. On 30 January 1821, the Cortes met in Lisbon and decreed the formation of a Council of Regency to exercise power in the name of King John. It freed many political prisoners and demanded the king's immediate return. On 20 April, King John convoked a meeting in Rio to choose deputies to the Constituent Cortes, but the following day, protests in the plaza were put down violently. In Brazil, the general opinion was that the king's return to Portugal could mean loss of the autonomy Brazil had gained and a return to its prior colonial status. Under pressure, John tried to find a middle way by sending his son Prince Pedro to Lisbon to grant a constitution and establish the basis of a new government. The prince, however, already leaning toward liberal ideas, refused. The crisis had gone too far and there was no turning back. John named Pedro regent for Brazil in his name and left for Lisbon on 25 April 1821 after a stay of thirteen years in Brazil, a country he would always miss. Reign The ships bringing John and his court arrived in Lisbon on 3 July. His return was orchestrated in such a manner as not to imply that the king had been coerced, but in fact a new political environment had already been established. A constitution had been drafted, and the king was required to swear loyalty to it on 1 October 1822. It called for him to surrender various prerogatives. Dona Carlota refused to follow her husband in agreeing to this, and thus was dispossessed of her political rights and deposed of her title as queen. Meanwhile, the king lost out in Brazil as well. His son Pedro, opting to stay in that country, led a revolt that proclaimed Brazilian independence on 1822-09-07; as part of this action, he assumed the title of emperor of Brazil. Tradition says that before journeying to Portugal, John had anticipated future events and had said to his son: "Pedro, Brazil will soon be separated from Portugal: if so, put the crown on your head before some adventurer grabs it." According to the memoirs of the Count of Palmela, Brazilian independence had come about through common accord between the king and the prince. In any event, later correspondence between the two shows the prince's concern not to disturb his father. However, Portugal did not officially recognize Brazilian independence at this time.The liberal constitution to which the king had sworn loyalty was in effect only for a few months. Not everyone in Portugal supported liberalism, and an absolutist movement arose. On 23 February 1823, in Trás-os-Montes, Francisco Silveira, Count of Amarante, proclaimed an absolute monarchy; this did not immediately have an effect, and new agitations followed. On 27 May, the infante Dom Miguel, instigated by his mother Dona Carlota, led another revolt known as the Vilafrancada, with the intent of restoring absolutism. John changed the game by supporting his son to avoid his own deposition (which was desired by the party of the queen) and appeared in public on his birthday alongside his son, who wore a uniform of the National Guard, a military corps that had been disbanded by the liberals, receiving the applause of the militia. The king personally went to Vila Franca to better administer the uprising, ultimately returning to Lisbon in triumph. The political climate was undecided, and even the staunchest defenders of liberalism feared to take a strong stand on its behalf. Before its dissolution, the Cortes protested against any change in the recently approved constitution, but the absolute regime was restored, the queen's rights re-established, and the king acclaimed for a second time on 5 June. John repressed demonstrations against this restoration, deported some of the liberals and arrested others, ordered the restoration of judiciary and institutions more in line with the new political orientation and created a commission to draft a basis for a new charter to replace the constitution. Final years At the end of his reign, King John ordered the creation of a free port in Lisbon, but the measure was not implemented. He ordered further inquiry into the death of his former friend the Marquis of Loule, but final judgment was never rendered. On 5 June he granted amnesty to those involved in the Porto uprising, except for nine officers who were exiled. On the same day, the old constitution of the kingdom came back into force, and the Cortes reconvened to prepare a new text. The change of constitution faced several obstacles, mainly from Spain and from supporters of the queen.Portugal's biggest problems at this time, however, related to the independence of Brazil, which had been the country's largest source of wealth. The loss of Brazil had a great negative impact on the Portuguese economy. An expedition to reconquer the former colony was even considered, but the idea was soon abandoned. Difficult negotiations and consultations undertaken in Europe in Rio de Janeiro with British diplomatic mediation resulted in the final recognition of the independence on 29 August 1825. At the same time, the king freed all the Brazilians who were prisoners and authorized trade between both nations. It was agreed that Pedro govern Brazil as a sovereign with the title of Emperor, while John kept for himself the honor of Titular Emperor of Brazil; from this time, he signed official documents as "His Majesty the Emperor and King John VI" ("Sua Majestade o Imperador e Rei Dom Jo?o VI"). Brazil was required to pay certain funds that it had borrowed from Portugal. Nothing in the treaty spoke of the succession of the two crowns, but Pedro, still acting as the Prince Royal of Portugal and Algarve, implicitly remained heir to the Portuguese throne. On 4 March 1826, John returned from the Hieronymites Monastery where he had lunched and retired to Bemposta Palace feeling poorly. He was racked for several days by symptoms including vomiting and convulsions. He appeared to be getting better, but by way of prudence designated his daughter, the infanta Isabel Maria, as regent. On the night of 9 March, he took a turn for the worse and died at approximately 5 a.m. on 10 March. The infanta immediately assumed the internal government of Portugal, and Pedro was recognized as the legitimate heir as Dom Pedro IV of Portugal. Doctors could not definitively determine a cause of death, but it was suspected that he had been poisoned. His body was embalmed and buried in the mausoleum of the kings of Portugal, the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza, in the Monastery of S?o Vicente de Fora. In the 1990s, a team of investigators exhumed the Chinese ceramic pot that contained his bowels. Fragments of his heart were rehydrated and submitted to an analysis that detected enough arsenic to kill two people, confirming longstanding suspicions of assassination by poison. Legacy In the course of his few years living in Brazil, John ordered the creation of a series of institutions, projects and services that brought the country immense economic, administrative, juridical, scientific, cultural, artistic and other benefits, although not all went successfully, and some were downright dysfunctional or unnecessary, as Hipólito Jose da Costa mordantly observed. Among these, he was responsible for establishing the Imprensa Regia (the country's first publishing house), the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden the Arsenal de Marinha, the Fábrica de Pólvora (gunpowder factory), Rio's fire department, Brazil's merchant marine, and the charity hospital known as the Casa dos Expostos. He also established various educational programs in Rio, Pernambuco, Bahia and other places, teaching such subjects as dogmatic and moral theology, integral calculus, mechanics, hydrodynamics, chemistry, arithmetic, geometry, French, English, botany and agriculture, among others. He instigated the foundation of various societies and academies for scientific, literary and artistic studies, such as the Junta Vacínica (administering the smallpox vaccine), the Royal Bahiense Society of Men of Letters, the Academic Institute of Sciences and Fine Arts, the Fluminense Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Escola Anat?mica, Cirúrgica e Medica do Rio de Janeiro, the Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design, the Academia dos Guardas-Marinhas, the Academia Militar, the National Library of Brazil, the Royal Museum (now National Museum of Brazil), the Teatro Real de S?o Jo?o (now Teatro Jo?o Caetano), as well as recruiting internationally famous soloists and patronizing other musicians of the Royal Chapel, including Father Jose Maurício, the leading Brazilian composer of his time, supporting also the coming of the Miss?o Artística Francesa, which resulted in the establishment of the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios, predecessor of the present-day Escola Nacional de Belas Artes of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, of fundamental importance the renewal of teaching and art production in Brazil. Titles, styles, and honours Titles and styles Main article: List of titles and honours of the Portuguese Crown 13 May 1767 - 11 September 1788: His Highness Infante John of Portugal 11 September 1788 - 20 March 1816: His Royal Highness The Prince of Brazil, Duke of Braganza 20 March 1816 - 7 September 1822: His Most Faithful Majesty The King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves 7 September 1822 - 10 March 1826: His Most Faithful Majesty The King of Portugal and the Algarves The official styling from his accession was: By the Grace of God, John VI, King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc. When Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil, references to the former united kingdom were finally removed from the royal title; under the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, King John VI became titular Emperor of Brazil and, from 15 November 1825 onwards he adopted the style: By the Grace of God, John VI, Emperor of Brazil, King of Portugal and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc. Honours National orders and decorations Grand Master of the Three Military Orders of Christ, Aviz and St. James, 5 July 1809 Grand Master of the Order of the Tower and Sword, 5 July 1809 Founder and Grand Master of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Vi?osa, 6 February 1818 Grand Prior of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in Portugal, 13 January 1825 Foreign orders and decorations Spain: Knight of the Golden Fleece, with Collar, 3 May 1785 Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, 1 January 1796 Grand Cross of Isabella the Catholic, 22 February 1816 Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Ferdinand, 26 May 1824 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion, October 1825 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 27 July 1824 Russian Empire: Knight of St. Andrew, 16 February 1824 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 16 February 1824 Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, 16 February 1824 Austrian Empire: Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 6 November 1817 Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold, 6 November 1817 Knight of the Iron Crown, 1st Class, 6 November 1817 Kingdom of Prussia: Knight of the Black Eagle, 30 August 1825 United Kingdom: Stranger Knight of the Garter, 19 September 1823 France: France: French Empire: Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, September 1803 Kingdom of France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 3 March 1817 Knight of the Holy Spirit, with Collar, 23 September 1823 Knight of St. Michael, 23 September 1823 Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Louis Name: Hill Biography: Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill(11 August 1772 - 10 December 1842) Allegiance: United Kingdom Branch/service: British Army Rank: General Commands held:II Corps General Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill, GCB, GCH (11 August 1772 - 10 December 1842) was a British Army officer who served in the Napoleonic Wars as a brigade, division and corps commander. He was deeply loved by his soldiers and called "Daddy" Hill.He became Commander-in-Chief of the British Army in 1828. His brothers Thomas, Robert and Clement also followed his military careers and were present at the Battle of Waterloo-- The three of them served as adjutants or assistant officers at all levels under Hill's command. Background and early career Hill was born on 11 August 1772 at Prees Hall in Prees, Shropshire. He was the second son and fourth child of Sir John Hill, 3rd Baronet, a landowner, and Mary, co-heir and daughter of John Chambre of Petton, Shropshire. Educated at The King's School in Chester, Hill was commissioned into the 38th Foot in 1790. He was promoted to lieutenant on 27 January 1791. On 16 March 1791, after a period of leave, he was appointed to the 53rd Regiment of Foot. He was asked to raise an independent company and given the rank of captain on 30 March 1793. He served at the Siege of Toulon in Autumn 1793 as aide-de-camp to General O'Hara from where he carried the dispatches to London. He then transferred to one of Major General Cornelius Cuyler's independent companies on 16 November 1793. In 1794 he assisted Thomas Graham in raising the 90th Foot for which he was promoted to major on 27 May 1794 and to lieutenant-colonel on 26 July 1794. He was promoted to colonel on 1 January 1800. In 1801 he commanded the 90th Foot when they landed at Aboukir Bay in Egypt as part of a force under Sir Ralph Abercromby: Hill was seriously wounded in the action when a musket ball hit his head. In the ensuing weeks Hill helped drive the French forces out of Egypt. Hill became a brigadier in 1803 and a major-general on 2 November 1805. The Peninsula Hill commanded a brigade at the Battle of Roli?a and also at the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808. He participated in Sir John Moore's 1808-1809 campaign in Spain, commanding a brigade at the Battle of Corunna. While serving under Wellington at the Second Battle of Porto, units of Hill's brigade launched an impromptu assault across the Douro River that ultimately routed Marshal Nicolas Soult's French corps from Oporto. Hill commanded the 2nd Division at the Battle of Talavera. The night before the battle, Marshal Claude Victor mounted a surprise attack, swept aside two battalions of the King's German Legion and seized a key elevation. As Hill later recounted, "I was sure it was the old Buffs, as usual, making some blunder." Nevertheless, he led a reserve brigade forward in the dark. In the short clash that followed, Hill was briefly grabbed and nearly captured by a Frenchman, but his troops recovered the summit. This is the first occasion on which Hill supposedly swore. Still leading the 2nd Division during Marshal Andre Massena's 1810 invasion of Portugal, Hill fought at the Battle of Bussaco. In autumn 1811, Wellington placed Hill in independent command of 16,000 men watching Badajoz. On 28 October he led a successful raid on the French at the Battle of Arroyo dos Molinos. On 21 January 1812 he was appointed to the honorary position of Governor of Blackness Castle and on 22 February 1812 he was appointed a KB. He was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Tower and Sword on 4 May 1812. In May 1812, after the capture of Badajoz, Hill led a second raid that destroyed a key bridge in the Battle of Almaraz. While Wellington won the Battle of Salamanca, Hill protected Badajoz with an independent 18,000-man corps, including the British 2nd Division, John Hamilton's Portuguese division and William Erskine's 2nd Cavalry Division. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 30 December 1811. After the British capture of Madrid, Hill had responsibility for an army of 30,000 men. Hill commanded the Right Column during the campaign and decisive British victory at the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813. Still in corps command, he fought in the Battle of the Pyrenees. At Vitoria and in Wellington's invasion of southern France, Hill's corps usually consisted of William Stewart's 2nd Division, the Portuguese Division (under John Hamilton, Francisco Silveira or Carlos Le Cor) and Pablo Morillo's Spanish Division. For his leadership in these battles he was awarded a medal and two clasps on 7 October 1813. He led the Right Corps at the Battle of Nivelle on 10 November 1813. On 13 December 1813, during the Battle of the Nive, Hill performed what may have been his finest work in his defence of St-Pierre d'Irube. With his 14,000 men and 10 guns isolated on the east bank of the Nive by a broken bridge, Hill held off the attacks of Marshal Nicolas Soult's 30,000 soldiers and 22 guns. He fought the battle with great skill and "was seen at every point of danger, and repeatedly led up rallied regiments in person to save what seemed like a lost battle ... He was even heard to swear." Later, he fought at the Orthez and Toulouse. Wellington said, "The best of Hill is that I always know where to find him." He was appointed Governor of Hull on 13 July 1814. Nicknamed "Daddy Hill", he looked after his troops and was adored by his men. On one occasion, he provided a wounded officer who arrived at his headquarters with a lunch basket. Another time, a sergeant delivered a letter to Hill. Expecting nothing but a nod of thanks, the man was astonished when the general arranged for his supper and a place for him to stay for the night. The next day, Hill gave him food and a pound for the rest of his journey. He was also Tory Member of Parliament (MP) for Shrewsbury from 1812 to 1814, when he was raised to his peerage as Baron Hill of Almaraz and of Hawkestone in the county of Salop. although military duties made him unable to attend the House of Commons prior to his elevation to the Lords. The peerage brought with it a ￡2,000 pension. Hill was also colonel of the 3rd Garrison Battalion from 14 January 1809, colonel of the 94th Regiment of Foot from 23 September 1809, colonel of the 72nd Regiment of Foot from 29 April 1815 and colonel of the Royal Regiment of Horse Guards from 19 November 1830. Waterloo and later career At the Battle of Waterloo Hill commanded the II Corps. He led the charge of Sir Frederick Adam's brigade against the Imperial Guard towards the end of the battle. For some time it was thought that he had fallen in the melee. He escaped unwounded, and after the battle wrote to his sister, "I verily believe there never was so tremendous a battle fought as that at Waterloo." Thereafter he continued with the army in France until its withdrawal in 1818. He received several awards from allied nations after the battle. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 4 January 1815 and on 21 August 1815 he was made Knight Commander of the Order of Maria Theresa of Austria and Knight of St George of Russia. On 27 August 1815 the Dutch King William I made him a Commander of the exclusive Military Order of William. At the Coronation of George IV in 1821, Lord Hill bore the Standard of England in the procession from Westminster Hall to Westminster Abbey. From 1828 to 1842, he succeeded the Duke of Wellington as Commander-in-Chief of the Forces. He was also appointed Governor of Plymouth on 18 June 1830 and became Viscount Hill of Almaraz on 22 September 1842. A keen foxhunter, Hill was master of the North Shropshire Foxhounds until 1823. The pack exists to this day and hunts the north of the County, including the grounds of his birthplace, Hawkstone Hall. He later shared the Mastership with Sir Bellingham-Graham and Sir Edward Smythe, the hounds at this time being kennelled two miles south-east of Hawkstone Hall. Hill also formed the Hawkstone Otter Hunt around 1800, which was maintained and hunted by successive Lords. He served as treasurer of the Salop Infirmary at Shrewsbury in 1825, laying the foundation stone of a major rebuild of the hospital in 1827. He died at Hardwicke Grange, Hadnall, Shropshire on 10 December 1842. He is buried in the churchyard at Hadnall. Family Hill never married and on his death the baronetcy passed in remainder to Rowland Hill, 2nd Viscount Hill, the son of his deceased brother, John. Battles/wars Napoleonic Wars Peninsular War Awards Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (Portugal) Knight Commander of the Military William Order (Netherlands) Name: Dalton Biography: John Dalton(6 September 1766 - 27 July 1844) Nationality:British Known for:Atomic theory, Law of Multiple Proportions, Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures, Daltonism Awards :Royal Medal (1826) John Dalton FRS (/?d??lt?n/; 6 September 1766 - 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, physicist and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry, and for his research into colour blindness, sometimes referred to as Daltonism in his honour. Dalton was the first scientist to use the term atom for the smallest particle of matter, which originated from the Greek word 'atomos', meaning "cannot be divided further". Early life John Dalton was born into a Quaker family from Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, in Cumberland, England. His father was a weaver. He received his early education from his father and from Quaker John Fletcher, who ran a private school in the nearby village of Pardshaw Hall. Dalton's family was too poor to support him for long and he began to earn his living, from the age of ten, in the service of wealthy local Quaker Elihu Robinson. Early career When he was 15, Dalton joined his older brother Jonathan in running a Quaker school in Kendal, Westmorland, about 45 miles (72 km) from his home. Around the age of 23, Dalton may have considered studying law or medicine, but his relatives did not encourage him, perhaps because being a Dissenter, he was barred from attending English universities. He acquired much scientific knowledge from informal instruction by John Gough, a blind philosopher who was gifted in the sciences and arts. At 27, he was appointed teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at the "Manchester Academy" in Manchester, a dissenting academy (the lineal predecessor, following a number of changes of location, of Harris Manchester College, Oxford). He remained for seven years when the college's worsening financial situation led to his resignation. Dalton began a new career as a private tutor in the same two subjects. Scientific work Meteorology Dalton's early life was influenced by a prominent Quaker, Elihu Robinson, a competent meteorologist and instrument maker, from Eaglesfield, Cumbria, who interested him in problems of mathematics and meteorology. During his years in Kendal, Dalton contributed solutions to problems and answered questions on various subjects in The Ladies' Diary and the Gentleman's Diary. In 1787 at age 21 he began his meteorological diary in which, during the succeeding 57 years, he entered more than 200,000 observations. He rediscovered George Hadley's theory of atmospheric circulation (now known as the Hadley cell) around this time. In 1793 Dalton's first publication, Meteorological Observations and Essays, contained the seeds of several of his later discoveries but despite the originality of his treatment, little attention was paid to them by other scholars. A second work by Dalton, Elements of English Grammar (or A new system of grammatical instruction: for the use of schools and academies), was published in 1801. Measuring mountains After leaving the Lake District, Dalton returned annually to spend his holidays studying meteorology, something which involved a lot of hill-walking. Until the advent of aeroplanes and weather balloons, the only way to make measurements of temperature and humidity at altitude was to climb a mountain. Dalton estimated the height using a barometer. The Ordnance Survey did not publish maps for the Lake District until the 1860s. Before then, Dalton was one of the few authorities on the heights of the region's mountains. He was often accompanied by Jonathan Otley, who also made a study of the heights of the local peaks, using Dalton's figures as a comparison to check his work. Otley published his information in his map of 1818. Otley became both an assistant and a friend to Dalton. Colour blindness In 1794, shortly after his arrival in Manchester, Dalton was elected a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, the "Lit & Phil", and a few weeks later he communicated his first paper on "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours", in which he postulated that shortage in colour perception was caused by discoloration of the liquid medium of the eyeball. As both he and his brother were colour blind, he recognised that the condition must be hereditary. Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his lifetime, the thorough and methodical nature of his research into his visual problem was so broadly recognised that Daltonism became a common term for colour blindness. Examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton had a less common kind of colour blindness, deuteroanopia, in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing (rather than functioning with a mutated form of pigment, as in the most common type of colour blindness, deuteroanomaly). Besides the blue and purple of the optical spectrum he was only able to recognise one colour, yellow, or, as he said in a paper, That part of the image which others call red, appears to me little more than a shade, or defect of light; after that the orange, yellow and green seem one colour, which descends pretty uniformly from an intense to a rare yellow, making what I should call different shades of yellow. Gas laws In 1800, Dalton became secretary of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and in the following year he presented an important series of lectures, entitled "Experimental Essays" on the constitution of mixed gases; the pressure of steam and other vapours at different temperatures in a vacuum and in air; on evaporation; and on the thermal expansion of gases. The four essays, presented between 2 and 30 October 1801, were published in the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester in 1802. The second essay opens with the remark, There can scarcely be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind, into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted upon the unmixed gases further. After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure of steam at various points between 0 and 100 °C (32 and 212 °F), Dalton concluded from observations of the vapour pressure of six different liquids, that the variation of vapour pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any given pressure. In the fourth essay he remarks, I see no sufficient reason why we may not conclude, that all elastic fluids under the same pressure expand equally by heat—and that for any given expansion of mercury, the corresponding expansion of air is proportionally something less, the higher the temperature. ... It seems, therefore, that general laws respecting the absolute quantity and the nature of heat, are more likely to be derived from elastic fluids than from other substances. He enunciated Gay-Lussac's law, published in 1802 by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (Gay-Lussac credited the discovery to unpublished work from the 1780s by Jacques Charles). In the two or three years following the lectures, Dalton published several papers on similar topics. "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and other Liquids" (read as a lecture on 21 October 1803, first published in 1805) contained his law of partial pressures now known as Dalton's law. Atomic theory The most important of all Dalton's investigations are concerned with the atomic theory in chemistry. While his name is inseparably associated with this theory, the origin of Dalton's atomic theory is not fully understood. The theory may have been suggested to him either by researches on ethylene (olefiant gas) and methane (carburetted hydrogen) or by analysis of nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote) and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both views resting on the authority of Thomas Thomson. From 1814 to 1819, Irish chemist William Higgins claimed that Dalton had plagiarised his ideas, but Higgins' theory did not address relative atomic mass. However, recent evidence suggests that Dalton's development of thought may have been influenced by the ideas of another Irish chemist Bryan Higgins, who was William's uncle. Bryan believed that an atom was a heavy central particle surrounded by an atmosphere of caloric, the supposed substance of heat at the time. The size of the atom was determined by the diameter of the caloric atmosphere. Based on the evidence, Dalton was aware of Bryan's theory and adopted very similar ideas and language, but he never acknowledged Bryan's anticipation of his caloric model. However, the essential novelty of Dalton's atomic theory is that he provided a method of calculating relative atomic weights for the chemical elements, something that neither Bryan nor William Higgins did; his priority for that crucial step is uncontested. A study of Dalton's laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, concluded that so far from Dalton being led by his search for an explanation of the law of multiple proportions to the idea that chemical combination consists in the interaction of atoms of definite and characteristic weight, the idea of atoms arose in his mind as a purely physical concept, forced on him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere and other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be found at the end of his paper "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and other Liquids" already mentioned. There he says: Why does not water admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike? This question I have duly considered, and though I am not able to satisfy myself completely I am nearly persuaded that the circumstance depends on the weight and number of the ultimate particles of the several gases. He then proposes relative weights for the atoms of a few elements, without going into further detail. However, a recent study of Dalton’s laboratory notebook entries concludes he developed the chemical atomic theory in 1803 to reconcile Henry Cavendish’s and Antoine Lavoisier’s analytical data on the composition of nitric acid, not to explain the solubility of gases in water. The main points of Dalton's atomic theory, as it eventually developed, are: Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and other properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and other properties. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created or destroyed. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated or rearranged. In his first extended published discussion of the atomic theory (1808), Dalton proposed an additional (and controversial) "rule of greatest simplicity". This rule could not be independently confirmed, but some such assumption was necessary in order to propose formulas for a few simple molecules, upon which the calculation of atomic weights depended. This rule dictated that if the atoms of two different elements were known to form only a single compound, like hydrogen and oxygen forming water or hydrogen and nitrogen forming ammonia, the molecules of that compound shall be assumed to consist of one atom of each element. For elements that combined in multiple ratios, such as the then-known two oxides of carbon or the three oxides of nitrogen, their combinations were assumed to be the simplest ones possible. For example, if two such combinations are known, one must consist of an atom of each element, and the other must consist of one atom of one element and two atoms of the other. This was merely an assumption, derived from faith in the simplicity of nature. No evidence was then available to scientists to deduce how many atoms of each element combine to form molecules. But this or some other such rule was absolutely necessary to any incipient theory, since one needed an assumed molecular formula in order to calculate relative atomic weights. Dalton's "rule of greatest simplicity" caused him to assume that the formula for water was OH and ammonia was NH, quite different from our modern understanding (H2O, NH3). On the other hand, his simplicity rule led him to propose the correct modern formulas for the two oxides of carbon (CO and CO2). Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Dalton's atomic theory, the principles of the theory survived. Atomic weights Dalton published his first table of relative atomic weights containing six elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorus), relative to the weight of an atom of hydrogen conventionally taken as 1. Since these were only relative weights, they do not have a unit of weight attached to them. Dalton provided no indication in this paper how he had arrived at these numbers, but in his laboratory notebook, dated 6 September 1803, is a list in which he set out the relative weights of the atoms of a number of elements, derived from analysis of water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc. by chemists of the time. The extension of this idea to substances in general necessarily led him to the law of multiple proportions, and the comparison with experiment brilliantly confirmed his deduction. In the paper "On the Proportion of the Several Gases in the Atmosphere", read by him in November 1802, the law of multiple proportions appears to be anticipated in the words: The elements of oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas or with twice that portion, but with no intermediate quantity. But there is reason to suspect that this sentence may have been added some time after the reading of the paper, which was not published until 1805. Compounds were listed as binary, ternary, quaternary, etc. (molecules composed of two, three, four, etc. atoms) in the New System of Chemical Philosophy depending on the number of atoms a compound had in its simplest, empirical form. Dalton hypothesised the structure of compounds can be represented in whole number ratios. So, one atom of element X combining with one atom of element Y is a binary compound. Furthermore, one atom of element X combining with two atoms of element Y or vice versa, is a ternary compound. Many of the first compounds listed in the New System of Chemical Philosophy correspond to modern views, although many others do not. Dalton used his own symbols to visually represent the atomic structure of compounds. They were depicted in the New System of Chemical Philosophy, where he listed 21 elements and 17 simple molecules. Other investigations Dalton published papers on such diverse topics as rain and dew and the origin of springs (hydrosphere); on heat, the colour of the sky, steam and the reflection and refraction of light; and on the grammatical subjects of the auxiliary verbs and participles of the English language. Experimental approach As an investigator, Dalton was often content with rough and inaccurate instruments, even though better ones were obtainable. Sir Humphry Davy described him as "a very coarse experimenter", who "almost always found the results he required, trusting to his head rather than his hands." On the other hand, historians who have replicated some of his crucial experiments have confirmed Dalton's skill and precision. In the preface to the second part of Volume I of his New System, he says he had so often been misled by taking for granted the results of others that he determined to write "as little as possible but what I can attest by my own experience", but this independence he carried so far that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus he distrusted, and probably never fully accepted, Gay-Lussac's conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases. He held unconventional views on chlorine. Even after its elementary character had been settled by Davy, he persisted in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, even when they had been superseded by the more accurate determinations of other chemists. He always objected to the chemical notation devised by J?ns Jakob Berzelius, although most thought that it was much simpler and more convenient than his own cumbersome system of circular symbols. Other publications For Rees's Cyclop?dia Dalton contributed articles on Chemistry and Meteorology, but the topics are not known. He contributed 117 Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester from 1817 until his death in 1844 while president of that organisation. Of these the earlier are the most important. In one of them, read in 1814, he explains the principles of volumetric analysis, in which he was one of the earliest researchers. In 1840 a paper on phosphates and arsenates, often regarded as a weaker work, was refused by the Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it himself. He took the same course soon afterwards with four other papers, two of which ("On the quantity of acids, bases and salts in different varieties of salts" and "On a new and easy method of analysing sugar") contain his discovery, regarded by him as second in importance only to atomic theory, that certain anhydrates, when dissolved in water, cause no increase in its volume, his inference being that the salt enters into the pores of the water. Public life Even before he had propounded the atomic theory, Dalton had attained a considerable scientific reputation. In 1803, he was chosen to give a series of lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution in London, and he delivered another series of lectures there in 1809-1810. Some witnesses reported that he was deficient in the qualities that make an attractive lecturer, being harsh and indistinct in voice, ineffective in the treatment of his subject, and singularly wanting in the language and power of illustration. In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy asked him to offer himself as a candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society, but Dalton declined, possibly for financial reasons. In 1822 he was proposed without his knowledge, and on election paid the usual fee. Six years previously he had been made a corresponding member of the French Academie des Sciences, and in 1830 he was elected as one of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy. In 1833, Earl Grey's government conferred on him a pension of ￡150, raised in 1836 to ￡300. Dalton was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1834. A young James Prescott Joule, who later studied and published (1843) on the nature of heat and its relationship to mechanical work, was a pupil of Dalton in his last years. Personal life Dalton never married and had only a few close friends. As a Quaker, he lived a modest and unassuming personal life. For the 26 years prior to his death, Dalton lived in a room in the home of the Rev W. Johns, a published botanist, and his wife, in George Street, Manchester. Dalton and Johns died in the same year (1844). Dalton's daily round of laboratory work and tutoring in Manchester was broken only by annual excursions to the Lake District and occasional visits to London. In 1822 he paid a short visit to Paris, where he met many distinguished resident men of science. He attended several of the earlier meetings of the British Association at York, Oxford, Dublin and Bristol. Disability and death Dalton suffered a minor stroke in 1837, and a second in 1838 left him with a speech impairment, although he remained able to perform experiments. In May 1844 he had another stroke; on 26 July he recorded with trembling hand his last meteorological observation. On 27 July, in Manchester, Dalton fell from his bed and was found lifeless by his attendant. Dalton was accorded a civic funeral with full honours. His body lay in state in Manchester Town Hall for four days and more than 40,000 people filed past his coffin. The funeral procession included representatives of the city's major civic, commercial, and scientific bodies. He was buried in Manchester in Ardwick Cemetery; the cemetery is now a playing field, but pictures of the original grave may be found in published materials. Legacy Much of Dalton's written work, collected by the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, was damaged during bombing on 24 December 1940. It prompted Isaac Asimov to say, "John Dalton's records, carefully preserved for a century, were destroyed during the World War II bombing of Manchester. It is not only the living who are killed in war". The damaged papers are in the John Rylands Library. A bust of Dalton, by Chantrey, paid for by public subscription was placed in the entrance hall of the Royal Manchester Institution. Chantrey's large statue of Dalton, erected while Dalton was alive was placed in Manchester Town Hall in 1877. He "is probably the only scientist who got a statue in his lifetime". The Manchester-based Swiss phrenologist and sculptor William Bally made a cast of the interior of Dalton's cranium and of a cyst therein, having arrived at the Manchester Royal Infirmary too late to make a caste of the head and face. A cast of the head was made, by a Mr Politi, whose arrival at the scene preceded that of Bally. John Dalton Street connects Deansgate and Albert Square in the centre of Manchester. The John Dalton building at Manchester Metropolitan University is occupied by the Faculty of Science and Engineering. Outside it stands William Theed's statue of Dalton, erected in Piccadilly in 1855, and moved there in 1966. A blue plaque commemorates the site of his laboratory at 36 George Street in Manchester. The University of Manchester established two Dalton Chemical Scholarships, two Dalton Mathematical Scholarships, and a Dalton Prize for Natural History. A hall of residence is named Dalton Hall. The Dalton Medal has been awarded only twelve times by the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. A lunar crater was named after Dalton. "Daltonism" is a lesser-known synonym of colour-blindness and, in some languages, variations on this have persisted in common usage: for example, 'daltonien' is the French adjectival equivalent of 'colour-blind', and 'daltónico' is the Spanish. The inorganic section of the UK's Royal Society of Chemistry is named the Dalton Division, and the society's academic journal for inorganic chemistry is called Dalton Transactions. In honour of Dalton's work, many chemists and biochemists use the unit of mass dalton (symbol Da), also known as the unified atomic mass unit, equal to 1/12 the mass of a neutral atom of carbon-12). The dalton is officially accepted for use with the SI. Quaker schools have named buildings after Dalton: for example, a schoolhouse in the primary sector of Ackworth School, is called Dalton. Dalton Township in southern Ontario was named after him. In 2001 the name was lost when the township was absorbed into the City of Kawartha Lakes but in 2002 the Dalton name was affixed to a new park, Dalton Digby Wildlands Provincial Park. The standard author abbreviation Jn.Dalton is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. Works Dalton, John (1834). Meteorological Observations and Essays (2 ed.). Manchester: Harrison and Crosfield. Retrieved 24 December 2007. Dalton, John (1893). Foundations of the Atomic Theory. Edinburgh: William F. Clay. Retrieved 24 December 2007.- Alembic Club reprint with some of Dalton's papers, along with some by William Hyde Wollaston and Thomas Thomson Dalton, John (1808). A new system of chemical philosophy. London. ISBN 978-1-153-05671-7. Retrieved 8 July 2008. John Dalton Papers at John Rylands Library, Manchester. Dalton, John (1808-1827). A New System of Chemical Philosophy (all images freely available for download in a variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections at digital.sciencehistory.org). Dalton, John (1794). Extraordinary Facts Relating to the Vision of Colours: With Observations. Science History Institute Digital Collections. See also Dalton (unit) Dalton Minimum - a period of low solar activity Daltonism Democritus Pneumatic chemistry Notes Dalton believed that his vitreous humour possessed an abnormal blue tint, causing his anomalous colour perception, and he gave instructions for his eyes to be examined on his death, to test this hypothesis. His wishes were duly carried out, but no blue colouration was found, and Dalton's hypothesis was refuted. The shrivelled remains of one eye have survived to this day, and now belong to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society." Name: Caroline Biography: Caroline Herschel(16 March 1750 - 9 January 1848) Nationality: Electorate of Hanover Known for:Discovery of several comets Awards:Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828) Prussian Gold Medal for Science (1846) Fields:Astronomy Caroline Lucretia Herschel (/?h??r??l, ?h??r-/; 16 March 1750 - 9 January 1848) was a German astronomer, whose most significant contributions to astronomy were the discoveries of several comets, including the periodic comet 35P/Herschel-Rigollet, which bears her name. She was the younger sister of astronomer William Herschel, with whom she worked throughout her career. She was the first woman to receive a salary as a scientist. She was the first woman in England to hold a government position. She was the first woman to publish scientific findings in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, to be awarded a Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828), and to be named an Honorary Member of the Royal Astronomical Society (1835, with Mary Somerville). She was also named an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (1838). The King of Prussia presented her with a Gold Medal for Science on the occasion of her 96th birthday (1846). Early life Caroline Lucretia Herschel was born in the town of Hanover on 16 March 1750. She was the eighth child and fourth daughter of Issak Herschel, a self-taught oboist, and his wife, Anna Ilse Moritzen. The Herschel family originated from Pirna in Saxony near Dresden. Issak became a bandmaster in the Hanoverian Foot Guards, whom he first joined in 1731, and was away with his regiment for substantial periods. He became ill after the Battle of Dettingen (part of the War of the Austrian Succession) in 1743 and never recovered fully; he suffered a weak constitution, chronic pain, and asthma for the remainder of his life. The oldest of their daughters, Sophia, was sixteen years older, and the only surviving girl besides Caroline. She married when Caroline was five, meaning that the younger girl was tasked with much of the household drudgery. Caroline and the other children received a cursory education, learning to read and write and little more. Her father attempted to educate her at home, but his efforts were mostly successful with the boys. At the age of ten, Caroline was struck with typhus, which stunted her growth, such that she never grew taller than 4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m). She suffered vision loss in her left eye as a result of her illness. Her family assumed that she would never marry and her mother felt it was best for her to train to be a house servant rather than becoming educated in accordance with her father's wishes. Her father sometimes took advantage of her mother's absence by tutoring her individually, or including her in her brother's lessons, such as violin. Caroline was briefly allowed to learn dress-making. Though she learned to do needlework from a neighbour, her efforts were stymied by long hours of household chores. To prevent her from becoming a governess and earning her independence that way, she was forbidden to learn French or more advanced needlework than what she could pick up from neighbours. Following her father's death, her brothers William and Alexander proposed that she join them in Bath, England to have a trial period as a singer for musician brother William's church performances. Caroline eventually left Hanover on 16 August 1772 after her brother's intervention with their recalcitrant mother. On the journey to England, she was first introduced to astronomy by way of the constellations and opticians' shops. In Bath, she took on the responsibilities of running William's household, and began learning to sing. William had established himself as an organist and music teacher at 19 New King Street, Bath (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy). He was also the choirmaster of the Octagon Chapel. William was busy with his musical career and became fairly busy organising public concerts. Caroline did not blend in with the local society and made few friends, but was finally able to indulge her desire to learn, and took regular singing, English, and arithmetic lessons from her brother, and dance lessons from a local teacher. She also learned to play the harpsichord, and eventually became an integral part in William's musical performances at small gatherings. She became the principal singer at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival after a performance of Handel's Messiah in April 1778, where she was the first soloist. She declined to sing for any conductor but William, and after that performance, her career as a singer began to decline. Caroline was subsequently replaced as a performer by distinguished soloists from outside the area because William wished to spend less time in rehearsals to focus on astronomy. Transition to astronomy When William became increasingly interested in astronomy, transforming himself from a musician to an astronomer, Caroline again supported his efforts. She said somewhat bitterly, in her Memoir, "I did nothing for my brother but what a well-trained puppy dog would have done, that is to say, I did what he commanded me." Ultimately, though, she became interested in astronomy and enjoyed her work. In the 1770s, as William became more interested in astronomy, he started to build his own telescopes from lenses he had ground, unhappy with the quality of lenses he was able to purchase. Caroline would feed him and read to him as he worked, despite her desire to burnish her career as a professional singer. She became a significant astronomer in her own right as a result of her collaboration with him. The Herschels moved to a new house in March 1781 after their millinery business failed, and Caroline was guarding the leftover stock on 13 March, the night that William discovered the planet Uranus. Though he mistook it for a comet, his discovery proved the superiority of his new telescope. Caroline and William gave their last musical performance in 1782, when her brother accepted the private office of court astronomer to King George III; the last few months of their musical career had been a shambles and were critically panned. Astronomical career First discoveries and catalogue William's interest in astronomy started as a hobby to pass time at night. At breakfast the next day he would give an impromptu lecture on what he had learned the night before. Caroline became as interested as William, stating that she was "much hindered in my practice by my help being continually wanted in the execution of the various astronomical contrivances." William became known for his work on high performance telescopes, and Caroline found herself supporting his efforts. Caroline spent many hours polishing mirrors and mounting telescopes in order to maximize the amount of light captured. She learned to copy astronomical catalogues and other publications that William had borrowed. She also learned to record, reduce, and organize her brother's astronomical observations. She recognized that this work demanded speed, precision and accuracy. Caroline was asked to move from the high culture of Bath to the relative backwater of Datchet in 1782, a small town near Windsor Castle where William would be on hand to entertain royal guests. He presumed that Caroline would become his assistant, a role she did not initially accept. She was unhappy with the accommodations they had taken; the house they rented for three years had a leaky ceiling and Caroline described it as "the ruins of a place". She was also aghast at the prices in the city and the fact that their domestic servant was imprisoned for theft at the time of her arrival. While William worked on a catalogue of 3,000 stars, studied double stars, and attempted to discover the cause of Mira's and Algol's variability, Caroline was asked to "sweep" the sky, meticulously moving through the sky in strips to search for interesting objects. She was unhappy with this task at the beginning of her work, longing for the culture of Bath and feeling isolated and lonely, but gradually developed a love for the work. On 28 August 1782 Caroline initiated her first record book. She inscribed the first three opening pages: "This is what I call the Bills & Rec.ds of my Comets", "Comets and Letters", and "Books of Observations". This, along with two subsequent books, currently belong to the Herschel trove at the Royal Astronomical Society in London. On 26 February 1783, Caroline made her first discovery: she had found a nebula that was not included in the Messier catalogue. That same night, she independently discovered Messier 110 (NGC 205), the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy. William then began to search himself for nebulae, sensing that there were many discoveries to be made. Caroline was relegated to a ladder on William's 20-foot reflector, attempting impossible measurements of double stars. William quickly realized his method of searching for nebulae was inefficient and he required an assistant to keep records. Naturally, he turned to Caroline. "But it was not til the last two months of the same year before I felt the least encouragement for spending the starlight nights on a grass-plot covered with dew or hoar frost without a human being near enough to be within call." In the summer of 1783, William finished building a comet-searching telescope for Caroline, which she began to use immediately. Beginning in October 1783, the Herschels used a 20-foot reflecting telescope to search for nebulae. Initially, William attempted to both observe and record objects, but this too was inefficient and he again turned to Caroline. She sat by a window inside, William shouted his observations, and Caroline recorded. This was not a simple clerical task, however, because she would have to use John Flamsteed's catalogue to identify the star William used as a reference point for the nebulae. Because Flamsteed's catalogue was organized by constellation, it was less useful to the Herschels, so Caroline created her own catalogue organized by north polar distance. The following morning, Caroline would go over her notes and write up formal observations, which she called "minding the heavens." Comets During 1786-97 she discovered eight comets, the first on 1 August 1786 while her brother was away and she was using his telescope. She had unquestioned priority as discoverer of five of the comets and rediscovered Comet Encke in 1795. Five of her comets were published in Philosophical Transactions. A packet of paper bearing the superscription, "This is what I call the Bills and Receipts of my Comets" contains some data connected with the discovery of each of these objects. William was summoned to Windsor Castle to demonstrate Caroline's comet to the royal family. William recorded this phenomenon, himself, terming it "My Sister's Comet." Caroline Herschel is often credited as the first woman to discover a comet; however, Maria Kirch discovered a comet in the early 1700s, but is often overlooked because at the time, the discovery was attributed to her husband, Gottfried Kirch. She wrote a letter to the Astronomer Royal to announce the discovery of her second comet. The third comet was discovered on 7 January 1790, and the fourth one on 17 April 1790. She announced both of these to Sir Joseph Banks, and all were discovered with her 1783 telescope. In 1791, Caroline began to use a 9-inch telescope for her comet-searching, and discovered three more comets with this instrument. Her fifth comet was discovered on 15 December 1791 and the sixth on 7 October 1795. Caroline wrote in her journal during this time "My brother wrote an account of it to Sir J. Banks, Dr. Maskelyne, and to several astronomical correspondents" for the discovery of her fifth comet. Two years later, her eighth and last comet was discovered on 6 August 1797, the only comet she discovered without optical aid. She announced this discovery by sending a letter to Banks. In 1787, she was granted an annual salary of ￡50 (equivalent to ￡6,400 in 2021) by George III for her work as William's assistant. Caroline's appointment made her the first woman in England honored with an official government position, and the first woman to be paid for her work in astronomy. In 1797 William's observations had shown that there were a great many discrepancies in the star catalogue published by John Flamsteed, which was difficult to use because it had been published as two volumes, the catalogue proper and a volume of original observations, and contained many errors. William realised that he needed a proper cross-index to properly explore these differences but was reluctant to devote time to it at the expense of his more interesting astronomical activities. He therefore recommended to Caroline that she undertake the task, which ultimately took 20 months. The resulting Catalogue of Stars, Taken from Mr. Flamsteed's Observations Contained in the Second Volume of the Historia Coelestis, and Not Inserted in the British Catalogue was published by the Royal Society in 1798 and contained an index of every observation of every star made by Flamsteed, a list of errata, and a list of more than 560 stars that had not been included. In 1825, Caroline donated the works of Flamsteed to the Royal Academy of G?ttingen. Relationship with William Throughout her writings, she repeatedly made it clear that she desired to earn an independent wage and be able to support herself. When the crown began paying her for her assistance to her brother in 1787, she became the first woman—at a time when even men rarely received wages for scientific enterprises—to receive a salary for services to science. Her pension was ￡50 a year, and it was the first money that Caroline had ever earned in her own right. When William married a rich widow, Mary Pitt (nee Baldwin) in 1788, the union caused tension in the brother-sister relationship. Caroline has been referred to as a bitter, jealous woman who worshipped her brother and resented those who invaded their domestic lives. In his book The Age of Wonder, Richard Holmes is more sympathetic to Caroline's position, noting that the change was in many respects negative for Caroline. With the arrival of William's wife, Caroline lost her managerial and social responsibilities in the household and accompanying status. She also moved from the house to external lodgings, returning daily to work with her brother. She no longer held the keys to the observatory and workroom, where she had done much of her own work. Because she destroyed her journals from 1788 to 1798, her feelings about the period are not entirely known. In August 1799, Caroline was independently recognized for her work, when she spent a week in Greenwich as a guest of the royal family. Barthelemy Faujas de Saint-Fond indicated she and her brother continued working well during this period. When her brother and his family were away from home, she often returned there to take care of it for them. In later life, she and Lady Herschel exchanged affectionate letters, and she became deeply attached to her nephew, astronomer John Herschel. William's marriage likely led to Caroline's becoming more independent of her brother and more a figure in her own right. Caroline made many discoveries independently of William and continued to work solo on many of the astronomical projects which contributed to her rise to fame. New General Catalogue In 1802, the Royal Society published Caroline's catalogue in its Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A under William's name. This listed around 500 new nebulae and clusters to the already known 2,000. Toward the end of Caroline's life, she arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances so that her nephew, John Herschel, could re-examine them systematically. The list was eventually enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue. Many non-stellar objects are still identified by their NGC number. Later life and legacy After her brother died in 1822, Caroline was grief-stricken and moved back to Hanover, Germany, continuing her astronomical studies to verify and confirm William's findings and producing a catalogue of nebulae to assist her nephew John Herschel in his work. However, her observations were hampered by the architecture in Hanover, and she spent most of her time working on the catalogue. In 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society presented her with their Gold Medal for this work—no woman would be awarded it again until Vera Rubin in 1996. Upon William's death, her nephew, John Herschel, took over observing at Slough. Caroline had given him his first introduction into astronomy, when she showed him the constellations in Flamsteed's Atlas. Caroline added her final entry to her observing book on 31 January 1824 about the Great Comet of 1823, which had already been discovered on 29 December 1823. Throughout the twilight of her life, Caroline remained physically active and healthy, and regularly socialized with other scientific luminaries. She spent her last years writing her memoirs and lamenting her body's limitations, which kept her from making any more original discoveries. Caroline Herschel died peacefully in Hanover on 9 January 1848. She is buried at 35 Marienstrasse in Hanover at the cemetery of the Gartengemeinde, next to her parents and with a lock of William's hair. Her tombstone inscription reads, "The eyes of her who is glorified here below turned to the starry heavens." With her brother, she discovered over 2,400 astronomical objects over twenty years. The asteroid 281 Lucretia (discovered 1888) was named after Caroline's second given name, and the crater C. Herschel on the Moon is named after her. Adrienne Rich's 1968 poem "Planetarium" celebrates Caroline Herschel's life and scientific achievements. The artwork The Dinner Party, which celebrates historical women who have made extraordinary contributions, features a place setting for Caroline Herschel. Google honoured her with a Google Doodle on her 266th birthday (16 March 2016). Honours Herschel was honoured by the King of Prussia and the Royal Astronomical Society. The gold medal from the Astronomical Society was awarded to her in 1828 "for her recent reduction, to January, 1800, of the Nebul? discovered by her illustrious brother, which may be considered as the completion of a series of exertions probably unparalleled either in magnitude or importance in the annals of astronomical labour." She completed this work after her brother's death and her move to Hanover. The Royal Astronomical Society elected her an Honorary Member in 1835, along with Mary Somerville; they were the first women members. She was also elected as an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin in 1838. In 1846, at the age of 96, she was awarded a Gold Medal for Science by the King of Prussia, conveyed to her by Alexander von Humboldt, "in recognition of the valuable services rendered to Astronomy by you, as the fellow-worker of your immortal brother, Sir William Herschel, by discoveries, observations, and laborious calculations". Asteroid 281 Lucretia is named in her honor. The open clusters NGC 2360 (Caroline's Cluster) and NGC 7789 (Caroline's Rose) are named in her honor. On 6 November 2020, a satellite named after her (?uSat 10 or "Caroline", COSPAR 2020-079B) was launched into space. Name: Watt Biography: James Watt(30 January 1736 (19 January 1736 OS) - 25 August 1819) Nationality:Scottish Citizenship:British Fields:mechanical engineering Institutions:University of Glasgow,Boulton and Watt As one author states, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine "converted it from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution". Known for;Watt steam engine,Separate condenser,Parallel motion,Sun and planet gear (with William Murdoch),Centrifugal governor,Indicator diagram (with John Southern) James Watt FRS FRSE (/w?t/; 30 January 1736 (19 January 1736 OS) - 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world. While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder. Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water.Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful and Watt became a wealthy man. In his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work.He developed the concept of horsepower, and the SI unit of power, the watt, was named after him.James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, the eldest of the five surviving children of Agnes Muirhead (1703-1755) and James Watt (1698-1782). His mother came from a distinguished family, was well educated and said to be of forceful character, while his father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the Greenock's chief baillie in 1751. Watts parents were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters, however despite a religious upbringing he later became a deist. Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt (1642-1734), was a teacher of mathematics, surveying and navigation and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Initially Watt was educated at home by his mother, later going on to attend Greenock Grammar School. There he exhibited an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin and Greek failed to interest him. He is said to have suffered prolonged bouts of ill-health as a child and from frequent headaches all his life. After leaving school Watt worked in the workshops of his father's businesses, demonstrating considerable dexterity and skill in creating engineering models. After his father suffered some unsuccessful business ventures Watt left Greenock to seek employment in Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker. When he was 18 his mother died and his father's health began to fail. Watt travelled to London and was able to obtain a period of training as an instrument maker for a year (1755/56), then returned to Scotland, settling in the major commercial city of Glasgow intent on setting up his own instrument-making business. He was still very young and having not had a full apprenticeship did not have the usual connections via a former master to establish himself as a journeyman instrument maker. Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated. These instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently, three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, became Watt's friends. At first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. He made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. It is sometimes falsely stated that he struggled to establish himself in Glasgow due to opposition from the Trades House, but this myth has been thoroughly debunked by the historian Harry Lumsden. The records from this period are lost but it is known that he was able to work and trade completely normally as a skilled metal worker so the Incorporation of Hammermen must have been satisfied that he met their requirements for membership. It is also known that other people in the metal trades were pursued for working without being members of the Incorporation well into the 19th century, so the rules were definitely being enforced when Watt was trading freely throughout the city. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and toys. This partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. Craig died in 1765. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, which lasted into the twentieth century. In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret (Peggy) Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood: James Jr. (1769-1848) and Margaret (1767-1796). His wife died in childbirth in 1772. In 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children: Gregory (1777-1804), who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet (1779-1794). Ann died in 1832. Between 1777 and 1790 he lived in Regent Place, Birmingham. There is a popular story that Watt was inspired to invent the steam engine by seeing a kettle boiling, the steam forcing the lid to rise and thus showing Watt the power of steam. This story is told in many forms; in some Watt is a young lad, in others he is older, sometimes it's his mother's kettle, sometimes his aunt's. Watt did not actually invent the steam engine, as the story implies, but dramatically improved the efficiency of the existing Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser. This is difficult to explain to someone not familiar with concepts of heat and thermal efficiency. It appears that the story was created, possibly by Watt's son James Watt Jr., and persists because it is easy for children to understand and remember. In this light it can be seen as akin to the story of Isaac Newton and the falling apple and his discovery of gravity. Although it is often dismissed as a myth, the story of Watt and the kettle has a basis in fact. In trying to understand the thermodynamics of heat and steam James Watt carried out many laboratory experiments and his diaries record that in conducting these he used a kettle as a boiler to generate steam. In 1759 Watt's friend, John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of motive power. The design of the Newcomen engine, in use for almost 50 years for pumping water from mines, had hardly changed from its first implementation. Watt began to experiment with steam, though he had never seen an operating steam engine. He tried constructing a model; it failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject. He came to realise the importance of latent heat—the thermal energy released or absorbed during a constant-temperature process—in understanding the engine, which, unknown to Watt, his friend Joseph Black had previously discovered some years before. Understanding of the steam engine was in a very primitive state, for the science of thermodynamics would not be formalised for nearly another 100 years. In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a model Newcomen engine belonging to the university. Even after repair, the engine barely worked. After much experimentation, Watt demonstrated that about three-quarters of the thermal energy of the steam was being consumed in heating the engine cylinder on every cycle. This energy was wasted because later in the cycle cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure. Thus by repeatedly heating and cooling the cylinder, the engine wasted most of its thermal energy rather than converting it into mechanical energy. Watt's critical insight, arrived at in May 1765, was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam by surrounding it with a "steam jacket." Thus very little energy was absorbed by the cylinder on each cycle, making more available to perform useful work. Watt had a working model later that same year. Despite a potentially workable design, there were still substantial difficulties in constructing a full-scale engine. This required more capital, some of which came from Black. More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership. Roebuck lived at Kinneil House in Bo'ness, during which time Watt worked at perfecting his steam engine in a cottage adjacent to the house. The shell of the cottage, and a very large part of one of his projects, still exist to the rear. The principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder. Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than modern machinists, and were unable to produce the components with sufficient precision. Much capital was spent in pursuing a patent on Watt's invention. Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment—first as a surveyor, then as a civil engineer—for eight years. Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Manufactory works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights. An extension of the patent to 1800 was successfully obtained in 1775. Through Boulton, Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world. The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson, who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales. Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership, Boulton and Watt, which lasted for the next twenty-five years. First engines Main articles: Watt steam engine, Watt's linkage, and Watt's curve In 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises. These first engines were used to power pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft. The design was commercially successful, and for the next five years Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall for pumping water out of mines. These early engines were not manufactured by Boulton and Watt, but were made by others according to drawings made by Watt, who served in the role of consulting engineer. The erection of the engine and its shakedown was supervised by Watt, at first, and then by men in the firm's employ. These were large machines. The first, for example, had a cylinder with a diameter of some 50 inches and an overall height of about 24 feet, and required the construction of a dedicated building to house it. Boulton and Watt charged an annual payment, equal to one third of the value of the coal saved in comparison to a Newcomen engine performing the same work. The field of application for the invention was greatly widened when Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling. Although a crank seemed the obvious solution to the conversion Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard, and associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser. Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781. Over the next six years, he made a number of other improvements and modifications to the steam engine. A double acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on the two sides of the piston was one. He described methods for working the steam "expansively" (i.e., using steam at pressures well above atmospheric). A compound engine, which connected two or more engines was described. Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782. Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented. One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret. Another important invention, one which Watt was most proud of, was the parallel motion which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc. This was patented in 1784. A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor, patented in 1788, to keep it from "running away" were very important. These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to five times as efficient in its use of fuel as the Newcomen engine. Because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive stage of development, and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt restricted his use of high pressure steam - all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric pressure. Patent trials Edward Bull started constructing engines for Boulton and Watt in Cornwall in 1781. By 1792 he had started making engines of his own design, but which contained a separate condenser, and so infringed Watt's patents. Two brothers, Jabez Carter Hornblower and Jonathan Hornblower Jnr also started to build engines about the same time. Others began to modify Newcomen engines by adding a condenser, and the mine owners in Cornwall became convinced that Watt's patent could not be enforced. They started to withhold payments due to Boulton and Watt, which by 1795 had fallen. Of the total ￡21,000 (equivalent to ￡2,190,000 as of 2019) owed, only ￡2,500 had been received. Watt was forced to go to court to enforce his claims. He first sued Bull in 1793. The jury found for Watt, but the question of whether or not the original specification of the patent was valid was left to another trial. In the meantime, injunctions were issued against the infringers, forcing their payments of the royalties to be placed in escrow. The trial on determining the validity of the specifications which was held in the following year was inconclusive, but the injunctions remained in force and the infringers, except for Jonathan Hornblower, all began to settle their cases. Hornblower was soon brought to trial and the verdict of the four judges (in 1799) was decisively in favour of Watt. Their friend John Wilkinson, who had solved the problem of boring an accurate cylinder, was a particularly grievous case. He had erected about twenty engines without Boulton's and Watts' knowledge. They finally agreed to settle the infringement in 1796. Boulton and Watt never collected all that was owed them, but the disputes were all settled directly between the parties or through arbitration. These trials were extremely costly in both money and time, but ultimately were successful for the firm. Copying machine Before 1780 there was no good method for making copies of letters or drawings. The only method sometimes used was a mechanical one using linked multiple pens. Watt at first experimented with improving this method, but soon gave up on this approach because it was so cumbersome. He instead decided to try to physically transfer some ink from the front of the original to the back of another sheet, moistened with a solvent, and pressed to the original. The second sheet had to be thin, so that the ink could be seen through it when the copy was held up to the light, thus reproducing the original exactly. Watt started to develop the process in 1779, and made many experiments to formulate the ink, select the thin paper, to devise a method for wetting the special thin paper, and to make a press suitable for applying the correct pressure to effect the transfer. All of these required much experimentation, but he soon had enough success to patent the process a year later. Watt formed another partnership with Boulton (who provided financing) and James Keir (to manage the business) in a firm called James Watt and Co. The perfection of the invention required much more development work before it could be routinely used by others, but this was carried out over the next few years. Boulton and Watt gave up their shares to their sons in 1794. It became a commercial success and was widely used in offices even into the twentieth century. From an early age Watt was very interested in chemistry. In late 1786, while in Paris, he witnessed an experiment by Berthollet in which he reacted hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide to produce chlorine. He had already found that an aqueous solution of chlorine could bleach textiles, and had published his findings, which aroused great interest among many potential rivals. When Watt returned to Britain, he began experiments along these lines with hopes of finding a commercially viable process. He discovered that a mixture of salt, manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid could produce chlorine, which Watt believed might be a cheaper method. He passed the chlorine into a weak solution of alkali, and obtained a turbid solution that appeared to have good bleaching properties. He soon communicated these results to James McGrigor, his father-in-law, who was a bleacher in Glasgow. Otherwise he tried to keep his method a secret. With McGrigor and his wife Annie, he started to scale up the process, and in March 1788, McGrigor was able to bleach 1500 yards of cloth to his satisfaction. About this time Berthollet discovered the salt and sulphuric acid process, and published it so it became public knowledge. Many others began to experiment with improving the process, which still had many shortcomings, not the least of which was the problem of transporting the liquid product. Watt's rivals soon overtook him in developing the process, and he dropped out of the race. It was not until 1799, when Charles Tennant patented a process for producing solid bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) that it became a commercial success. By 1794 Watt had been chosen by Thomas Beddoes to manufacture apparatus to produce, clean and store gases for use in the new Pneumatic Institution at Hotwells in Bristol. Watt continued to experiment with various gases for several years, but by 1797 the medical uses for the "factitious airs" had come to a dead end. Watt combined theoretical knowledge of science with the ability to apply it practically. Humphry Davy said of him "Those who consider James Watt only as a great practical mechanic form a very erroneous idea of his character; he was equally distinguished as a natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences, and that peculiar characteristic of genius, the union of them for practical application". He was greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution. He was an important member of the Lunar Society, and was a much sought-after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons. His personal relationships with his friends and partners were always congenial and long-lasting. Watt was a prolific correspondent. During his years in Cornwall, he wrote long letters to Boulton several times per week. He was averse to publishing his results in, for example, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society however, and instead preferred to communicate his ideas in patents. He was an excellent draughtsman. He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to use the steam engine. In a letter to William Small in 1772, Watt confessed that "he would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain." Until he retired, he was always much concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier. His health was often poor and he suffered frequent nervous headaches and depression. Soho Foundry At first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customers property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory. Gradually the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines. The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of 41 engines. Later years Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr.. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered. Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement. Within his home in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions. Among other things, he invented and constructed several machines for copying sculptures and medallions which worked very well, but which he never patented. One of the first sculptures he produced with the machine was a small head of his old professor friend Adam Smith. He maintained his interest in civil engineering and was a consultant on several significant projects. He proposed, for example, a method for constructing a flexible pipe to be used for pumping water under the Clyde at Glasgow. He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in mid-Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved. In 1816 he took a trip on the paddle-steamer Comet, a product of his inventions, to revisit his home town of Greenock. He died on 25 August 1819 at his home "Heathfield Hall" near Handsworth in Staffordshire (now part of Birmingham) at the age of 83. He was buried on 2 September in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Handsworth. The church has since been extended and his grave is now inside the church. On 16 July 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller (d. 1773). They had two children, Margaret (1767-1796) and James (1769-1848). In 1791 their daughter married James Miller; their son did not marry. In September 1773 while Watt was working in the Scottish Highlands he learned that his wife, who was pregnant with their third child, was seriously ill. He immediately returned home but found that she had died and their child was stillborn. In 1775 he married Ann MacGregor (d.1832). {{Freemason}ry} He was Initiated into Scottish {{Freemason}ry} in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No.77, in 1763. The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810. A Masonic Lodge was named after him in his home town of Glasgow - Lodge James Watt, No.1215. William Murdoch joined Boulton and Watt in 1777. At first he worked in the pattern shop in Soho, but soon he was erecting engines in Cornwall. He became an important part of the firm and made many contributions to its success. A very able man, he made several important inventions on his own. John Griffiths, who wrote a biography of him in 1992, has argued that Watt's discouragement of Murdoch's work with high pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development: Watt rightly believed that boilers of the time would be unsafe at higher pressures. Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by Murdoch. The patent was never contested by Murdoch, however, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794. Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76. Honours Watt was much honoured in his own time. In 1784 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam in 1787. In 1789 he was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. In 1806 he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow. The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814. The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or "SI").On 29 May 2009 the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new ￡50 note. The design is the first to feature a dual portrait on a Bank of England note, and presents the two industrialists side by side with images of Watt's steam engine and Boulton's Soho Manufactory. Quotes attributed to each of the men are inscribed on the note: "I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER" (Boulton) and "I can think of nothing else but this machine" (Watt). The inclusion of Watt is the second time that a Scot has featured on a Bank of England note (the first was Adam Smith on the 2007 issue ￡20 note). In September 2011 it was announced that the notes would enter circulation on 2 November.In 2011 he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame.Watt was buried in the grounds of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham. Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried inside the church.The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left, locked and untouched, until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J. P. Muirhead. Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine. A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing. When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety. It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed. The workshop remained intact, and preserved, and in March 2011 was put on public display as part of a new permanent Science Museum exhibition, "James Watt and our world".The approximate location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue. Several locations and street names in Greenock recall him, most notably the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College). Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule. Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh, as well as several others in Birmingham, where he is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour. The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs. Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world's first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th-century financier to King James, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University. Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him. Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men. The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering. The huge painting James Watt contemplating the steam engine by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland.There is a statue of James Watt in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester and City Square, Leeds.A colossal statue of Watt by Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St. Paul's Cathedral. On the cenotaph the inscription reads, in part, "JAMES WATT ... ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD." A bust of Watt is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling Name: L.Philippe Biography: Louis Philippe I(6 October 1773 - 26 August 1850) Position: Duke of Orleans First Prince of the Blood, Pretender of French kingdomship in the era of the Revolution and Restoration, King of the French House:Orleans Religion:Roman Catholicism He sympathized with the revolution in the early days of the Revolution and joined the Jacobin Club. At the same time, he commanded the revolutionary army in the front line and even became a division commander. After learning that Louis XVI was executed, he followed Dumouriez and joined the Austrian camp in hopes of recovery the Constitution of 1791; after hearing that his father, who was originally the Grand master of Grand Orient de France was guillotined by terror politics because of his actions, Philip completely broke with the Republic and first went to exile in Switzerland and hid there,teaching in the mountains--to not been discovered by the people of the Republic or the orthodox royalists. It can be said to survive in the cracks. Then in 1795, he went to Scandinavia and Finland to visit; in the last four years of the 90s, he went. In the United States for three years, He have made extensive friendships with the upper class; afterwards, He wanted to reunite with my mother in exile in Spain, but was obstructed by the Atlantic war between Britain and France. He spent a year in Cuba, Havana, Canada, and New York. Prince Edward Kent established a deep friendship; finally settled in London in 1800 for fifteen years; after the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, he returned to France and reconciled with Louis XVIII on behalf of the Orleans family (because his father had approved the revolution and execution Louis XVI), at the same time very cleverly profiting for himself, and supporting the liberals; in the end, after the fall of the Bourbon dynasty, he was favored by the bourgeoisie to ascend to the throne, ruled in an unpretentious manner, and compared himself to the "civic king" After surviving seven assassination attempts, once the former imperial marshals around him were killed and Philip was unscathed; finally, when the February Revolution stepped down in 1848, thinking of various lessons learned, he quickly pretended to leave Paris and fled. Back in London, unlike Louis XVI who tried to fly to Varenna by luxury transportation, he took a regular taxi named "Mr. His life reflects the compromise between various doctrines and revolutions. He himself is the product of the reconciliation of various contradictions, and he himself seems to firmly believe that he is the incarnation of this idea. Louis Philippe (6 October 1773 - 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848, the last King and penultimate monarch of France. As Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres, he distinguished himself commanding troops during the Revolutionary Wars, but broke with the Republic over its decision to execute King Louis XVI. He fled to Switzerland in 1793 after being connected with a plot to restore France's monarchy. His father Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orleans (Philippe egalite) fell under suspicion and was executed, and Louis Philippe remained in exile for 21 years until the Bourbon Restoration. He was proclaimed king in 1830 after his fifth cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate by the July Revolution. The reign of Louis Philippe is known as the July Monarchy and was dominated by wealthy industrialists and bankers. He followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of French statesman Fran?ois Guizot during the period 1840-48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the French conquest of Algeria. His popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out the remainder of his life in exile in the United Kingdom. His supporters were known as Orleanists, as opposed to Legitimists, who supported the main line of the House of Bourbon, and Bonapartists, who supported the Bonaparte family, which includes (but is not limited to) Napoleon I and Napoleon III. Louis Philippe was born in the Palais Royal, the residence of the Orleans family in Paris, to Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres (Duke of Orleans, upon the death of his father Louis Philippe I), and Louise Marie Adela?de de Bourbon. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood, which entitled him the use of the style "Serene Highness". His mother was an extremely wealthy heiress who was descended from Louis XIV of France through a legitimized line. Louis Philippe was the eldest of three sons and a daughter, a family that was to have erratic fortunes from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Bourbon Restoration. The elder branch of the House of Bourbon, to which the kings of France belonged, deeply distrusted the intentions of the cadet branch, which would succeed to the throne of France should the senior branch die out. Louis Philippe's father was exiled from the royal court, and the Orleans confined themselves to studies of the literature and sciences emerging from the Enlightenment. Education Louis Philippe was tutored by the Countess of Genlis, beginning in 1782. She instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought; it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. When Louis Philippe's grandfather died in 1785, his father succeeded him as Duke of Orleans and Louis Philippe succeeded his father as Duke of Chartres. In 1788, with the Revolution looming, the young Louis Philippe showed his liberal sympathies when he helped break down the door of a prison cell in Mont Saint-Michel, during a visit there with the Countess of Genlis. From October 1788 to October 1789, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Revolution (1789-1793) Louis Philippe grew up in a period that changed Europe as a whole and, following his father's strong support for the Revolution, he involved himself completely in those changes. In his diary, he reports that he himself took the initiative to join the Jacobin Club, a move that his father supported. Military service In June 1791, Louis Philippe got his first opportunity to become involved in the affairs of France. In 1785, he had been given the hereditary appointment of Colonel of the Chartres Dragoons (renamed 14th Dragoons in 1791). With war imminent in 1791, all proprietary colonels were ordered to join their regiments. Louis Philippe showed himself to be a model officer, and he demonstrated his personal bravery in two famous instances. First, three days after Louis XVI's flight to Varennes, a quarrel between two local priests and one of the new constitutional vicars became heated, and a crowd surrounded the inn where the priests were staying, demanding blood. The young colonel broke through the crowd and extricated the two priests, who then fled. At a river crossing on the same day, another crowd threatened to harm the priests. Louis Philippe put himself between a peasant armed with a carbine and the priests, saving their lives. The next day, Louis Philippe dived into a river to save a drowning local engineer. For this action, he received a civic crown from the local municipality. His regiment was moved north to Flanders at the end of 1791 after the 27 August 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz. Louis Philippe served under his father's crony, Armand Louis de Gontaut the Duke of Biron, along with several officers who later gained distinction afterwards. These included Colonel Berthier and Lieutenant Colonel Alexandre de Beauharnais (husband of the future Empress Josephine). After war was declared by the Kingdom of France on the Habsburg Monarchy on 20 April 1792, Louis Philippe saw his first exchanges of fire of the French Revolutionary Wars within the invaded by France Austrian Netherlands at Boussu, Wallonia, on about 28 April 1792, and then at Quaregnon, Wallonia, on about 29 April 1792, and then at Quievrain, Wallonia, near Jemappes, Wallonia, on about 30 April 1792, where he was instrumental in rallying a unit of retreating soldiers after the victorious Battle of Quievrain (1792) only two days earlier on 28 April 1792. Biron wrote to War Minister de Grave, praising the young colonel, who was then promoted to brigadier, commanding a brigade of cavalry in Lückner's Army of the North. In the Army of the North, Louis Philippe served with four future Marshals of France: Macdonald, Mortier (who would later be killed in an assassination attempt on Louis Philippe), Davout and Oudinot. Dumouriez was appointed to command the Army of the North in August 1792. Louis Philippe commanded a division under him in the Valmy campaign. At the 20 September 1792 Battle of Valmy, Louis Philippe was ordered to place a battery of artillery on the crest of the hill of Valmy. The battle was apparently inconclusive, but the Austrian-Prussian army, short of supplies, was forced back across the Rhine. Once again, Louis Philippe was praised in a letter by Dumouriez after the battle. Louis Philippe was then recalled to Paris to give an account of the Battle at Valmy to the French government. There he had a rather trying interview with Danton, the Minister of Justice, which he later fondly re-told to his children. While in Paris, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. In October he returned to the Army of the North, where Dumouriez had begun a march into the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium). Louis Philippe again commanded a division. On 6 November 1792, Dumouriez chose to attack an Austrian force in a strong position on the heights of Cuesmes and Jemappes to the west of Mons. Louis Philippe's division sustained heavy casualties as it attacked through a wood, retreating in disorder. Louis Philippe rallied a group of units, dubbing them "the battalion of Mons" and pushed forward along with other French units, finally overwhelming the outnumbered Austrians. Events in Paris undermined the budding military career of Louis Philippe. The incompetence of Jean-Nicolas Pache, the new Girondist appointee of 3 October 1792, left the Army of the North almost without supplies. Soon thousands of troops were deserting the army. Louis Philippe was alienated by the more radical policies of the Republic. After the National Convention decided to put the deposed King to death - Louis Philippe's father, by then known as Philippe egalite, voted in favour of that act - Louis Philippe began to consider leaving France. Louis Philippe was willing to stay in France to fulfill his duties in the army, but he was implicated in the plot Dumouriez had planned to ally with the Austrians, march his army on Paris, and restore the Constitution of 1791. Dumouriez had met with Louis Philippe on 22 March 1793 and urged his subordinate to join in the attempt. With the French government falling into the Reign of Terror about the time of the creation of the Revolutionary Tribunal earlier in March 1793, he decided to leave France to save his life. On 4 April, Dumouriez and Louis Philippe left for the Austrian camp. They were intercepted by Lieutenant-Colonel Louis-Nicolas Davout, who had served at Jemappes with Louis Philippe. As Dumouriez ordered the Colonel back to the camp, some of his soldiers cried out against the General, now declared a traitor by the National Convention. Shots rang out as they fled towards the Austrian camp. The next day, Dumouriez again tried to rally soldiers against the convention; however, he found that the artillery had declared itself in favour of the Republic, leaving him and Louis Philippe with no choice but to go into exile. At the age of nineteen, and already a Lieutenant General, Louis Philippe left France; it was some twenty-one years before he again set foot on French soil. Exile (1793-1815) The reaction in Paris to Louis Philippe's involvement in Dumouriez's treason inevitably resulted in misfortunes for the Orleans family. Philippe egalite spoke in the National Convention, condemning his son for his actions, asserting that he would not spare his son, much akin to the Roman consul Brutus and his sons. However, letters from Louis Philippe to his father were discovered in transit and were read out to the Convention. Philippe egalite was then put under continuous surveillance. Shortly thereafter, the Girondists moved to arrest him and the two younger brothers of Louis Philippe, Louis-Charles and Antoine Philippe; the latter had been serving in the Army of Italy. The three were interned in Fort Saint-Jean in Marseille. Meanwhile, Louis Philippe was forced to live in the shadows, avoiding both pro-Republican revolutionaries and Legitimist French emigre centres in various parts of Europe and also in the Austrian army. He first moved to Switzerland under an assumed name, and met up with the Countess of Genlis and his sister Adela?de at Schaffhausen. From there they went to Zürich, where the Swiss authorities decreed that to protect Swiss neutrality, Louis Philippe would have to leave the city. They went to Zug, where Louis Philippe was discovered by a group of emigres. It became quite apparent that for the women to settle peacefully anywhere, they would have to separate from Louis Philippe. He then left with his faithful valet Baudouin for the heights of the Alps, and then to Basel, where he sold all but one of his horses. Now moving from town to town throughout Switzerland, he and Baudouin found themselves very much exposed to all the distresses of extended travelling. They were refused entry to a monastery by monks who believed them to be young vagabonds. Another time, he woke up after spending a night in a barn to find himself at the far end of a musket, confronted by a man attempting to keep away thieves. Throughout this period, he never stayed in one place more than 48 hours. Finally, in October 1793, Louis Philippe was appointed a teacher of geography, history, mathematics and modern languages, at a boys' boarding school. The school, owned by a Monsieur Jost, was in Reichenau, a village on the upper Rhine in the then independent Grisons league state, now part of Switzerland. His salary was 1,400 francs and he taught under the name Monsieur Chabos. He had been at the school for a month when he heard the news from Paris: his father had been guillotined on 6 November 1793 after a trial before the Revolutionary Tribunal. Travels After Louis Philippe left Reichenau, he separated the now sixteen-year-old Adela?de from the Countess of Genlis, who had fallen out with Louis Philippe. Adela?de went to live with her great-aunt the Princess of Conti at Fribourg, then to Bavaria and Hungary and, finally, to her mother, who was exiled in Spain. Louis Philippe travelled extensively. He visited Scandinavia in 1795 and then moved on to Finland. For about a year, he stayed in Muonio, a remote village in the valley of the Tornio river in Lapland. He lived in the rectory under the name Müller, as a guest of the local Lutheran vicar. While visiting Muonio, he supposedly fathered a child with Beata Caisa Wahlborn (1766-1830) called Erik Kolstr?m (1796-1879). Louis Philippe also visited the United States for four years, staying in Philadelphia (where his brothers Antoine and Louis Charles were in exile), New York City (where he most likely stayed at the Somerindyck family estate on Broadway and 75th Street with other exiled princes), and Boston. In Boston, he taught French for a time and lived in lodgings over what is now the Union Oyster House, Boston's oldest restaurant. During his time in the United States, Louis Philippe met with American politicians and people of high society, including George Clinton, John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and George Washington. His visit to Cape Cod in 1797 coincided with the division of the town of Eastham into two towns, one of which took the name of Orleans, possibly in his honour. During their sojourn, the Orleans princes travelled throughout the country, as far south as Nashville and as far north as Maine. The brothers were even held in Philadelphia briefly during an outbreak of yellow fever. Louis Philippe is also thought to have met Isaac Snow of Orleans, Massachusetts, who had escaped to France from a British prison hulk during the American Revolutionary War. In 1839, while reflecting on his visit to the United States, Louis Philippe explained in a letter to Guizot that his three years there had a large influence on his political beliefs and judgments when he became king. In Boston, Louis Philippe learned of the coup of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797) and of the exile of his mother to Spain. He and his brothers then decided to return to Europe. They went to New Orleans, planning to sail to Havana and thence to Spain. This, however, was a troubled journey, as Spain and Great Britain were then at war. While in colonial Louisiana in 1798, they were entertained by Julien Poydras in the town of Pointe Coupee, as well as by the Marigny de Mandeville family in New Orleans. They sailed for Havana in an American corvette, but the ship was stopped in the Gulf of Mexico by a British warship. The British seized the three brothers, but took them to Havana anyway. Unable to find passage to Europe, the three brothers spent a year in Cuba, until they were unexpectedly expelled by the Spanish authorities. They sailed via the Bahamas to Nova Scotia where they were received by the Duke of Kent, son of King George III and (later) father of Queen Victoria. Louis Philippe struck up a lasting friendship with the British royal. Eventually, the brothers sailed back to New York, and in January 1800, they arrived in England, where they stayed for the next fifteen years. During these years, Louis Philippe taught mathematics and geography at the now-defunct Great Ealing School, reckoned, in its nineteenth-century heyday, to be 'the best private school in England'. Marriage In 1808, Louis Philippe proposed to Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King George III of the United Kingdom. His Catholicism and the opposition of her mother Queen Charlotte meant the Princess reluctantly declined the offer. In 1809, Louis Philippe married Princess Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily, daughter of King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Maria Carolina of Austria. The ceremony was celebrated in Palermo 25 November 1809. The marriage was considered controversial, because she was the niece of Marie Antoinette, while he was the son of Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orleans who was considered to have played a part in the execution of her aunt. Her mother was opposed to the match for the same reason. She had been very close to her younger sister and devastated by her execution, but she had given her consent after he had convinced her that he was determined to compensate for the mistakes of his father, and after having agreed to answer all her questions regarding his father. Bourbon Restoration (1815-1830) See also: Bourbon Restoration in France After the abdication of Napoleon, Louis Philippe, known as Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, returned to France during the reign of his fifth cousin Louis XVIII, at the time of the Bourbon Restoration. Louis Philippe had reconciled the Orleans family with Louis XVIII in exile, and was once more to be found in the elaborate royal court. However, his resentment at the treatment of his family, the cadet branch of the House of Bourbon under the Ancien Regime, caused friction between him and Louis XVIII, and he openly sided with the liberal opposition. Louis Philippe was on far friendlier terms with Louis XVIII's brother and successor, Charles X, who acceded to the throne in 1824, and with whom he socialized. However, his opposition to the policies of Villèle and later of Jules de Polignac caused him to be viewed as a constant threat to the stability of Charles' government. This soon proved to be to his advantage. King of the French (1830-1848) Main article: July Monarchy In 1830, the July Revolution overthrew Charles X, who abdicated in favour of his 10-year-old grandson, Henri, Duke of Bordeaux. Charles X named Louis Philippe Lieutenant general du royaume, and charged him to announce his desire to have his grandson succeed him to the popularly elected Chamber of Deputies. Louis Philippe did not do this, in order to increase his own chances of succession. As a consequence, because the chamber was aware of Louis Philippe's liberal policies and of his popularity with the masses, they proclaimed Louis Philippe as the new French king, displacing the senior branch of the House of Bourbon. For the prior eleven days Louis Philippe had been acting as the regent for the young Henri, his fifth cousin twice removed. Charles X and his family, including his grandson, went into exile in Britain. The young ex-king, the Duke of Bordeaux, who, in exile, took the title of comte de Chambord, later became the pretender to the throne of France and was supported by the Legitimists. Louis-Philippe was sworn in as King Louis-Philippe I on 9 August 1830. Upon his accession to the throne, Louis Philippe assumed the title of King of the French - a title already adopted by Louis XVI in the short-lived Constitution of 1791. Linking the monarchy to a people instead of a territory (as the previous designation King of France and of Navarre) was aimed at undercutting the legitimist claims of Charles X and his family. By an ordinance he signed on 13 August 1830, the new king defined the manner in which his children, as well as his "beloved" sister, would continue to bear the surname "d'Orleans" and the arms of Orleans, declared that his eldest son, as Prince Royal (not Dauphin), would bear the title Duke of Orleans, that the younger sons would continue to have their previous titles, and that his sister and daughters would only be styled Princesses of Orleans, not of France. His ascension to the title of King of the French was seen as a betrayal by Emperor Nicholas I of Russia, and it ended their friendship. In 1832, his daughter, Princess Louise-Marie, married the first ruler of Belgium, Leopold I, King of the Belgians. Their descendants include all subsequent Kings of the Belgians, as well as Empress Carlota of Mexico. Rule Louis Philippe ruled in an unpretentious fashion, avoiding the pomp and lavish spending of his predecessors. Despite this outward appearance of simplicity, his support came from the wealthy bourgeoisie. At first, he was much loved and called the "Citizen King" and the "bourgeois monarch", but his popularity suffered as his government was perceived as increasingly conservative and monarchical, despite his decision to have Napoleon's remains returned to France. Under his management, the conditions of the working classes deteriorated, and the income gap widened considerably. An industrial and agricultural depression in 1846 led to the 1848 Revolutions, and Louis Philippe's abdication. The dissonance between his positive early reputation and his late unpopularity was epitomized by Victor Hugo in Les Miserables as an oxymoron describing his reign as "Prince Equality", in which Hugo states: bear in his own person the contradiction of the Restoration and the Revolution, to have that disquieting side of the revolutionary which becomes reassuring in governing power ... He had been proscribed, a wanderer, poor. He had lived by his own labor. In Switzerland, this heir to the richest princely domains in France had sold an old horse in order to obtain bread. At Reichenau, he gave lessons in mathematics, while his sister Adelaide did wool work and sewed. These souvenirs connected with a king rendered the bourgeoisie enthusiastic. He had, with his own hands, demolished the iron cage of Mont-Saint-Michel, built by Louis XI, and used by Louis XV. He was the companion of Dumouriez, he was the friend of Lafayette; he had belonged to the Jacobins' club; Mirabeau had slapped him on the shoulder; Danton had said to him: "Young man!" What is there against him? That throne. Take away Louis Philippe the king, there remains the man. And the man is good. He is good at times even to the point of being admirable. Often, in the midst of his gravest souvenirs, after a day of conflict with the whole diplomacy of the continent, he returned at night to his apartments, and there, exhausted with fatigue, overwhelmed with sleep, what did he do? He took a death sentence and passed the night in revising a criminal suit, considering it something to hold his own against Europe, but that it was a still greater matter to rescue a man from the executioner. —?Victor Hugo Assassination attempt Louis Philippe survived seven assassination attempts. Abdication and death (1848-50) On 24 February 1848, during the February 1848 Revolution, King Louis Philippe abdicated in favour of his nine-year-old grandson, Philippe, comte de Paris. Fearful of what had happened to the deposed Louis XVI, Louis Philippe quickly left Paris under disguise. Unlike Louis, who attempted to escape France in extravagant transportation, he instead rode in an ordinary cab under the name of "Mr. Smith." He fled to England and spent his final years incognito as the 'Comte de Neuilly'. The National Assembly of France initially planned to accept young Philippe as king, but the strong current of public opinion rejected that. On 26 February, the Second Republic was proclaimed. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president on 10 December 1848; on 2 December 1851, he declared himself president for life and then Emperor Napoleon III in 1852. Louis Philippe and his family remained in exile in Great Britain in Claremont, Surrey, though a plaque on Angel Hill, Bury St Edmunds, claims that he spent some time there, possibly due to a friendship with the Marquess of Bristol, who lived nearby at Ickworth House. The royal couple spent some time by the sea at St. Leonards and later at the Marquess's home in Brighton. Louis Philippe died at Claremont on 26 August 1850. He was first buried at St. Charles Borromeo Chapel in Weybridge, Surrey. In 1876, his remains and those of his wife were taken to France and buried at the Chapelle royale de Dreux, the Orleans family necropolis his mother had built in 1816, and which he had enlarged and embellished after her death. Clash of the pretenders The clashes of 1830 and 1848 between the Legitimists and the Orleanists over who was the rightful monarch were resumed in the 1870s. After the fall of the Second Empire, a monarchist-dominated National Assembly offered a throne to the Legitimist pretender, Henri de France, comte de Chambord, as Henri V. As he was childless, his heir was (except to the most extreme Legitimists) Louis Philippe's grandson, Philippe d'Orleans, comte de Paris. Thus the comte de Chambord's death would have united the House of Bourbon and House of Orleans. However, the comte de Chambord refused to take the throne unless the Tricolor flag of the Revolution was replaced with the fleur-de-lis flag of the Ancien Regime. This the National Assembly was unwilling to do. The Third Republic was established, though many intended for it to be temporary, and replaced by a constitutional monarchy after the death of the comte de Chambord. However, the comte de Chambord lived longer than expected. By the time of his death in 1883, support for the monarchy had declined, and public opinion sided with a continuation of the Third Republic, as the form of government that, according to Adolphe Thiers, "divides us least". Some suggested a monarchical restoration under a later comte de Paris after the fall of the Vichy regime but this was not seriously considered. Many of the few remaining French monarchists regard the descendants of Louis Philippe's grandson, who use the title Count of Paris, as the rightful pretenders to the French throne; others, the Legitimists, consider Don Luis-Alfonso de Borbón, Duke of Anjou (to his supporters, "Louis XX"), to be the rightful heir. Head of the Royal House of Bourbon, Louis is descended in the male line from Philippe, Duke of Anjou, the second grandson of the Sun-King, Louis XIV. Philippe (King Philip V of Spain), however, had renounced his rights to the throne of France to prevent the much-feared union of France and Spain. The two sides challenged each other in the French Republic's law courts in 1897 and again nearly a century later. In the latter case, "Henri, comte de Paris, duc de France", challenged the right of the Spanish-born pretender to use the title "Duke of Anjou". The French courts threw out his claim, deciding that the French Republic's legal system has no jurisdiction over the matter. Honours National Knight of the Holy Spirit, 2 February 1789 Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 3 July 1816; Grand Master, 9 August 1830 Grand Cross of St. Louis, 10 July 1816 Grand Master of the Order of the Cross of July, 13 December 1830 Foreign Belgium: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold, 10 March 1833 Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 30 April 1846 Ernestine duchies: Grand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order, March 1840 Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Military William Order, 22 March 1842 Spain: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 21 February 1834 Beylik of Tunis: Husainid Family Order Two Sicilies: Knight of St. Januarius Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit United Kingdom: Knight of the Garter, 11 October 1844 Name: Duke of York Biography: Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany Names:Frederick Augustus House:Hanover Allegiance: Kingdom of Great Britain，United Kingdom Branch/service: British Army Rank: Field Marshal Unit:Life Guards Commands held:Commander-in-Chief of the Forces(as Commander-in-Chief during the Napoleonic Wars, he oversaw the reorganisation of the British Army, establishing vital structural, administrative and recruiting reforms for which he is credited with having done "more for the army than any one man has done for it in the whole of its history.") Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany KG GCB GCH (Frederick Augustus; 16 August 1763 - 5 January 1827) was the second son of George III, King of the United Kingdom and Hanover, and his consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. A soldier by profession, from 1764 to 1803 he was Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück in the Holy Roman Empire. From the death of his father in 1820 until his own death in 1827 he was the heir presumptive to his elder brother, George IV, in both the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Hanover. Frederick was thrust into the British Army at a very early age and was appointed to high command at the age of thirty, when he was given command of a notoriously ineffectual campaign during the War of the First Coalition, a continental war following the French Revolution. Later, as Commander-in-Chief during the Napoleonic Wars, he oversaw the reorganisation of the British Army, establishing vital structural, administrative and recruiting reforms for which he is credited with having done "more for the army than any one man has done for it in the whole of its history." Early life Prince Frederick Augustus, or the Duke of York as he became in later life, belonged to the House of Hanover. He was born on 16 August 1763, at St. James's Palace, London. His father was the reigning British monarch, King George III. His mother was Queen Charlotte (nee Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz). He was christened on 14 September 1763 at St James's, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker — his godparents were his great-uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (for whom the Earl Gower, Lord Chamberlain, stood proxy), his uncle the Duke of York (for whom the Earl of Huntingdon, Groom of the Stool, stood proxy) and his great-aunt the Princess Amelia. On 27 February 1764, when Prince Frederick was six months old, he became Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück upon the death of Clemens August of Bavaria. The Peace of Westphalia stipulated that the city of Osnabrück would alternate between Catholic and Protestant rulers, with the Protestant bishops to be elected from the cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg. The bishopric of Osnabrück came with a substantial income, which he retained until the city was incorporated into Hanover in 1803 during the German mediatization. He was invested as Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath on 30 December 1767 and as a Knight of the Order of the Garter on 19 June 1771. Military career George III decided that his second son would pursue an army career and had him gazetted colonel on 4 November 1780. From 1781 to 1787, Prince Frederick lived in Hanover, where he studied (along with his younger brothers, Prince Edward, Prince Ernest, Prince Augustus and Prince Adolphus) at the University of G?ttingen. He was appointed colonel of the 2nd Horse Grenadier Guards (now 2nd Life Guards) on 26 March 1782 before being promoted to major-general on 20 November 1782. Promoted to lieutenant general on 27 October 1784, he was appointed colonel of the Coldstream Guards on 28 October 1784. He was created Duke of York and Albany and Earl of Ulster on 27 November 1784 and became a member of the Privy Council. On his return to Great Britain, the Duke took his seat in the House of Lords, where, on 15 December 1788 during the Regency crisis, he opposed William Pitt's Regency Bill in a speech which was supposed to have been influenced by the Prince of Wales. On 26 May 1789 he took part in a duel with Colonel Charles Lennox, who had insulted him; Lennox missed, and Prince Frederick refused to return fire. Flanders Main article: Flanders Campaign On 12 April 1793 Frederick was promoted to full general. That year, he was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of Coburg's army destined for the invasion of France. Frederick and his command fought in the Flanders Campaign under extremely trying conditions. He won several notable engagements, such as the Siege of Valenciennes in July 1793, but was defeated at the Battle of Hondschoote in September 1793. In the 1794 campaign he gained a notable success at the Battle of Beaumont in April and another at the Battle of Willems in May but was defeated at the Battle of Tourcoing later that month. The British army was evacuated through Bremen in April 1795. Commander-in-Chief See also: Recruitment in the British Army § Reform After his return to Britain, his father George III promoted him to the rank of field marshal on 18 February 1795. On 3 April 1795, George appointed him effective Commander-in-Chief in succession to Lord Amherst although the title was not confirmed until three years later. He was also colonel of the 60th Regiment of Foot from 19 August 1797. On appointment as Commander-in-Chief he immediately declared, reflecting on the Flanders Campaign of 1793-94, "that no officer should ever be subject to the same disadvantages under which he had laboured". His second field command was with the army sent for the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland in August 1799. On 7 September 1799, he was given the honorary title of Captain-General. Sir Ralph Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell, in charge of the vanguard, had succeeded in capturing some Dutch warships in Den Helder. However, following the Duke's arrival with the main body of the army, a number of disasters befell the allied forces, including shortage of supplies. On 17 October 1799, the Duke signed the Convention of Alkmaar, by which the allied expedition withdrew after giving up its prisoners. 1799 also saw Fort Frederick in South Africa named after him. Frederick's military setbacks of 1799 were inevitable given his lack of moral seniority as a field commander, the poor state of the British army at the time, and conflicting military objectives of the protagonists. After this ineffectual campaign, Frederick was mocked, perhaps unfairly, in the rhyme "The Grand Old Duke of York": The grand old Duke of York, He had ten thousand men. He marched them up to the top of the hill And he marched them down again. And when they were up, they were up. And when they were down, they were down. And when they were only halfway up, They were neither up nor down. Frederick's experience in the Dutch campaign made a strong impression on him. That campaign, and the Flanders campaign, had demonstrated the numerous weaknesses of the British army after years of neglect. Frederick as Commander-in-Chief of the British army carried through a massive programme of reform. He was the person most responsible for the reforms that created the force which served in the Peninsular War. He was also in charge of the preparations against Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom in 1803. In the opinion of Sir John Fortescue, Frederick did "more for the army than any one man has done for it in the whole of its history". In 1801 Frederick actively supported the foundation of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, which promoted the professional, merit-based training of future commissioned officers. On 14 September 1805 he was given the honorary title of Warden of Windsor Forest. Frederick resigned as Commander-in-Chief on 25 March 1809, as the result of a scandal caused by the activities of his latest mistress, Mary Anne Clarke. Clarke was accused of illicitly selling army commissions under Frederick's aegis. A select committee of the House of Commons enquired into the matter. Parliament eventually acquitted Frederick of receiving bribes by 278 votes to 196. He nevertheless resigned because of the high tally against him. Two years later, it was revealed that Clarke had received payment for furniture from Frederick's disgraced chief accuser, Gwyllym Wardle, and the Prince Regent reappointed the exonerated Frederick as Commander-in-Chief on 29 May 1811. The Duke's relationship with Mary Anne Clarke is used by Mary Anne's descendant, Daphne du Maurier, in her historical novel Mary Anne. Frederick maintained a country residence at Oatlands near Weybridge, Surrey but he was seldom there, preferring to immerse himself in his administrative work at Horse Guards (the British army's headquarters) and, after hours, in London's high life, with its gaming tables: Frederick was perpetually in debt because of his excessive gambling on cards and racehorses. Following the unexpected death of his niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, in 1817, Frederick became second in line to the throne, with a serious chance of inheriting it. In 1820, he became heir presumptive with the death of his father, George III. Death Frederick died of dropsy and apparent cardio-vascular disease at the home of the Duke of Rutland on Arlington Street, London, in 1827. After lying in state at the Chapel Royal in London, Frederick's remains were interred in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. Family Frederick married his cousin Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia, the daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg, at Charlottenburg, Berlin on 29 September 1791 and again on 23 November 1791 at Buckingham Palace. The marriage was not a happy one and the couple soon separated. Frederica retired to Oatlands, where she lived until her death in 1820. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles 16 August 1763 - 27 November 1784: His Royal Highness The Prince Frederick 27 November 1784 - 5 January 1827: His Royal Highness The Duke of York and Albany His full style, recited at his funeral, was "Most High, Most Mighty, and Illustrious Prince, Frederick Duke of York and of Albany, Earl of Ulster, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, First and Principal Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order". Honours His honours were as follows: KG: Royal Knight of the Order of the Garter, 19 June 1771 GCB: Knight Grand Cross (military) of the Order of the Bath, 2 January 1815 GCH: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 12 August 1815 Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle of Prussia, 11 April 1814 Knight of the Order of the St-Esprit of France, 21 April 1814 Knight of the Order of St. Andrew of Russia, 9 June 1814 Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky of Russia, 9 June 1814 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III of Spain, 21 August 1814 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa of Austria, 1814 Legacy Fredericton, the capital of the Canadian province of New Brunswick, was named after Prince Frederick. The city was originally named "Frederick's Town". Also in Canada, Duke of York Bay was named in his honour, since it was discovered on his birthday, 16 August. In Western Australia, York County and the towns of York and Albany were named after Prince Frederick. Albany was originally named "Frederick Town". The towering Duke of York Column on Waterloo Place, just off The Mall, London was completed in 1834 as a memorial to Prince Frederick. The 72nd Regiment of Foot was given the title Duke of Albany's Own Highlanders in 1823 and, in 1881, became 1st Battalion Seaforth Highlanders (Ross-shire Buffs, The Duke of Albany's). The first British fortification in southern Africa, Fort Frederick, Port Elizabeth, a city in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, was built in 1799 to prevent French assistance for rebellious Boers in the short-lived republic of Graaff-Reinet. Name: Jenner Biography: Edward Jenner (17 May 1749 - 26 January 1823) Known for:Smallpox vaccine，Vaccination Fields:Medicine/surgery, natural history Edward Jenner, FRS FRCPE (17 May 1749 - 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who pioneered the concept of vaccines including creating the smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox. In the West, Jenner is often called "the father of immunology", and his work is said to have "saved more lives than the work of any other human". In Jenner's time, smallpox killed around 10% of the population, with the number as high as 20% in towns and cities where infection spread more easily. In 1821, he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. A member of the Royal Society, in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo. In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Early life Edward Jenner was born on 6 May 1749 (17 May New Style) in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England as the eighth of nine children. His father, the Reverend Stephen Jenner, was the vicar of Berkeley, so Jenner received a strong basic education. When he was young, he went to school in Wotton-under-Edge at Katherine Lady Berkeley's School and in Cirencester. During this time, he was inoculated (by variolation) for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health. At the age of 14, he was apprenticed for seven years to Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, where he gained most of the experience needed to become a surgeon himself. In 1770, aged 21, Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's Hospital, London. William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, well known in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), "Don't think; try." Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a successful family doctor and surgeon, practising on dedicated premises at Berkeley. Jenner and others formed the Fleece Medical Society or Gloucestershire Medical Society, so called because it met in the parlour of the Fleece Inn, Rodborough, Gloucestershire. Members dined together and read papers on medical subjects. Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia, and cardiac valvular disease and commented on cowpox. He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol. He became a master mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith and Friendship #449. From 1812-1813, he served as worshipful master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith and Friendship. Zoology Edward Jenner was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following his publication of a careful study of the previously misunderstood life of the nested cuckoo, a study that combined observation, experiment, and dissection. Edward Jenner described how the newly hatched cuckoo pushed its host's eggs and fledgling chicks out of the nest (contrary to existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it). Having observed this behaviour, Jenner demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it - the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back, not present after 12 days of life, that enables it to cup eggs and other chicks. The adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task. Jenner's findings were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1788. "The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back from the scapula downwards is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodgement to the egg of the Hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young Cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest. When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general." Jenner's nephew assisted in the study. He was born on 30 June 1737. Jenner's understanding of the cuckoo's behaviour was not entirely believed until the artist Jemima Blackburn, a keen observer of birdlife, saw a blind nestling pushing out a host's egg. Her description and illustration of this were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of On the Origin of Species. Jenner's interest in Zoology played a large role in his first experiment with inoculation. Not only did he have a profound understanding of human anatomy due to his medical training, but he also understood animal biology and its role in human-animal trans-species boundaries in disease transmission. At the time, there was no way of knowing how important this connection would be to the history and discovery of vaccinations. We see this connection now; many present-day vaccinations include animal parts from cows, rabbits, and chicken eggs, which can be attributed to the work of Jenner and his cowpox/smallpox vaccination. Marriage and human medicine Jenner married Catherine Kingscote (died 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788. He might have met her while he and other fellows were experimenting with balloons. Jenner's trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, Gloucestershire, owned by Catherine's father Anthony Kingscote. They had three children: Edward Robert (1789-1810), Robert Fitzharding (1792-1854) and Catherine (1794-1833). He earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792. He is credited with advancing the understanding of angina pectoris. In his correspondence with Heberden, he wrote: "How much the heart must suffer from the coronary arteries not being able to perform their functions". Invention of the vaccine Inoculation was already pioneered in Asian medicine and was a standard practice but involved serious risks, one of which was the fear that those inoculated would then transfer the disease to those around them due to their becoming carriers of the disease. In 1721, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had imported variolation to Britain after having observed it in Constantinople. While Johnnie Notions had great success with his self-devised inoculation (and was reputed not to have lost a single patient), his method's practice was limited to the Shetland Isles. Voltaire wrote that at this time 60% of the population caught smallpox and 20% of the population died of it. Voltaire also states that the Circassians used the inoculation from times immemorial, and the custom may have been borrowed by the Turks from the Circassians. In 1766, Daniel Bernoulli analysed smallpox morbidity and mortality data to demonstrate the efficacy of inoculation. By 1768, English physician John Fewster had realised that prior infection with cowpox rendered a person immune to smallpox. In the years following 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested in humans a cowpox vaccine against smallpox. For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty successfully vaccinated and presumably induced immunity with cowpox in his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work that the procedure became widely understood. Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success. A similar observation was later made in France by Jacques Antoine Rabaut-Pommier in 1780. Noting the common observation that milkmaids were generally immune to smallpox, Jenner postulated that the pus in the blisters that milkmaids received from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox. On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy who was the son of Jenner's gardener. He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom, whose hide now hangs on the wall of the St. George's Medical School library (now in Tooting). Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenner's first paper on vaccination. Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a fever and some uneasiness, but no full-blown infection. Later, he injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time. No disease followed. The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection. Donald Hopkins has written, "Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved that they were immune to smallpox. Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle." Jenner successfully tested his hypothesis on 23 additional subjects. Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, which did not publish the initial paper. After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases, including his 11-month-old son Robert. Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolation - the use of smallpox to induce immunity - and provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge (see Vaccination Act). The success of his discovery soon spread around Europe and was used en masse in the Spanish Balmis Expedition (1803-1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao, China, led by Dr. Francisco Javier de Balmis with the aim of giving thousands the smallpox vaccine. The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote: "I don’t imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this". Napoleon, who at the time was at war with Britain, had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at the request of Jenner, he released two English prisoners of war and permitted their return home. Napoleon remarked he could not "refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind". Jenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented him from continuing his ordinary medical practice. He was supported by his colleagues and the King in petitioning Parliament, and was granted ￡10,000 in 1802 for his work on vaccination. In 1807, he was granted another ￡20,000 after the Royal College of Physicians confirmed the widespread efficacy of vaccination. Later life Jenner was later elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1802, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1804, and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806. In 1803 in London, he became president of the Jennerian Society, concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. The Jennerian ceased operations in 1809. Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its founding in 1805 (now the Royal Society of Medicine) and presented several papers there. In 1808, with government aid, the National Vaccine Establishment was founded, but Jenner felt dishonoured by the men selected to run it and resigned his directorship. Returning to London in 1811, Jenner observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by previous vaccination. In 1821, he was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. He continued to investigate natural history, and in 1823, the last year of his life, he presented his "Observations on the Migration of Birds" to the Royal Society. Death Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed. He did not recover and died the next day of an apparent stroke, his second, on 26 January 1823, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault at the Church of St Mary, Berkeley. Religious views Neither fanatic nor lax, Jenner was a Christian who in his personal correspondence showed himself quite spiritual; he treasured the Bible. Some days before his death, he stated to a friend: "I am not surprised that men are not grateful to me; but I wonder that they are not grateful to God for the good which He has made me the instrument of conveying to my fellow creatures". However, his contemporary Rabbi Israel Lipschitz in his classic commentary on the Mishnah, the Tiferes Yisrael, wrote that Jenner was one of the "righteous of the nations", deserving a lofty place in the World to Come, for having saved millions of people from smallpox. Legacy In 1980, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease. This was the result of coordinated public health efforts, but vaccination was an essential component. Although the disease was declared eradicated, some pus samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta in the US, and in State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia. Jenner's vaccine laid the foundation for contemporary discoveries in immunology. In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. The lunar crater Jenner is named in his honour. Jenner was recognized in the TV show The Walking Dead. In "TS-19", a CDC scientist is named Edwin Jenner. Monuments and buildings Jenner's house in the village of Berkeley, Gloucestershire, is now a small museum, housing, among other things, the horns of the cow, Blossom. A statue of Jenner by Robert William Sievier was erected in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral. Another statue was erected in Trafalgar Square and later moved to Kensington Gardens. Near the Gloucestershire village of Uley, Downham Hill is locally known as "Smallpox Hill" for its possible role in Jenner's studies of the disease. London's St. George's Hospital Medical School has a Jenner Pavilion, where his bust may be found. A group of villages in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, United States, was named in Jenner's honour by early 19th-century English settlers, including Jenners, Jenner Township, Jenner Crossroads, and Jennerstown, Pennsylvania Jennersville, Pennsylvania, is located in Chester County. The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research is an infectious disease vaccine research centre, also the Jenner Institute part of the University of Oxford. A section at Gloucestershire Royal Hospital is known as the Edward Jenner Unit; it is where blood is drawn. A ward at Northwick Park Hospital is called Jenner Ward. Jenner Gardens at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, opposite one of the scientist's former offices, is a small garden and cemetery. A statue of Jenner was erected at the Tokyo National Museum in 1896 to commemorate the centenary of Jenner's discovery of vaccination. A monument outside the walls of the upper town of Boulogne sur Mer, France. A street in Stoke Newington, north London: Jenner Road, N1651.55867°N 0.06761°W Built around 1970, The Jenner Health Centre, 201 Stanstead Road, Forest Hill, London, SE23 1HU Edward Jenner's name is featured on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the Keppel Street building when it was constructed in 1926. Minor planet 5168 Jenner is named in his honour. Publications 1798 An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variol? Vaccin? 1799 Further Observations on the Variol? Vaccin?, or Cow-Pox. 1800 A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variol? Vaccin? 40pgs 1801 The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation Name: Kutuzov Biography: Mikhail Kutuzov Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: Generalfeldmarschall Commands held:Commander in Chief of Austro-Russian force in the Third Coalition, Commander in Chief of Imperial Russian Army in Patriotic war of 1812 Prince Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov (Russian: Князь Михаи?л Илларио?нович Голени?щев-Куту?зов; German: Mikhail Illarion Golenishchev-Kutuzov Graf von Smolensk; 16 September 1745 - 28 April 1813) was a Field Marshal of the Russian Empire. He served as a military officer and a diplomat under the reign of three Romanov Tsars: Catherine II, Paul I and Alexander I. Kutuzov was shot in the head twice while fighting the Turks (1774 and 1788) and survived the serious injuries seemingly against all odds. He defeated Napoleon as commander-in-chief using attrition warfare in the Patriotic war of 1812. Alexander I wrote that Europe will remember him as one of the famous commanders and that Russia will never forget his worthiness. Early career Mikhail Kutuzov was born in Saint Petersburg on 16 September 1745. His father, Lieutenant-General Illarion Matveevich Kutuzov, had served for 30 years with the Corps of Engineers, had seen action against the Turks and served under Peter the Great. Mikhail Kutuzov's mother came from the noble family of Beklemishev. Given his father's distinguished service and his mother's high birth, Kutuzov had contact with the imperial Romanov family from an early age. In 1757, at the age of 12, Kutuzov entered an elite military-engineering school as a cadet private. He quickly became popular with his peers and teachers alike, proving himself to be highly intelligent, and showed bravery in his school's numerous horse-races. Kutuzov studied military and civil subjects there, learned to speak French, German and English fluently, and later studied Polish, Swedish, and Turkish; his linguistic skills served him well throughout his career. In October 1759, he became a corporal. In 1760, he became a mathematics instructor at the school. In 1762, Kutuzov, by then a captain, became part of the Astrakhan Infantry Regiment, which was commanded by Colonel Alexander Suvorov. Kutuzov studied Suvorov's style of command and learned how to be a good commander in battle. Suvorov believed that an effective order should be simple, direct, and concise, and that a commander should care deeply about the health and training of his soldiers. Kutuzov also adopted Suvorov's conviction that a commander should lead his troops from the front (instead of from the rear) to provide an example of bravery for the troops to follow. Suvorov also taught Kutuzov the importance of developing close relationships with those under his command. Kutuzov followed this advice to the benefit of his career. This advice contributed to Kutuzov's appointment as Commander-in-Chief in 1812. Late in 1762, Kutuzov became aide-de-camp to the military governor of Reval, the Prince of Holstein-Beck, in which role he showed himself to be a capable politician. In 1768 Kutuzov fought in Poland, after the Polish szlachta—the Polish noble class—rebelled against Russian influence. In this conflict, Kutuzov captured several strong defensive positions, thereby proving his skill on the battlefield. In October 1768, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Russian Empress Catherine the Great. Two years later, Kutuzov, now a major, joined the army of the soon-to-be-famous Count Pyotr Rumyantsev in the south to fight against the Turks. Though Kutuzov served valiantly in this campaign, he did not receive any medals, as another officer reported to Rumyantsev that Kutuzov mocked Rumyantsev behind his back. Rumyantsev had Lieutenant-Colonel Kutuzov transferred into Prince Vasily Dolgorukov-Krymsky's Russian Second Army fighting the Turks and the Tatars in the Crimea. During this campaign Kutuzov learned how to use the deadly Cossack light cavalry, another skill which would prove useful in the defence of Russia against Napoleon's invading armies in 1812. In 1774 he was ordered to storm the well-defended town of Alushta on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula. When his troops' advance faltered, Kutuzov grabbed the fallen regimental standard and led the attack. While charging forward, he was shot in the left temple—an almost certainly fatal wound at the time. The bullet went right through his head and exited near the right eye. However, Kutuzov slowly recovered, though frequently overcome by sharp pains and dizziness, and his right eye remained permanently twisted. He left the army later that year due to his wound. Kutuzov's pain did not subside, and so he decided to travel to Western Europe for better medical care. He arrived in Berlin in 1774, where he spent much time with King Frederick the Great of Prussia, who took great interest in Kutuzov. They spent long periods of time discussing tactics, weaponry, and uniforms. Kutuzov then travelled to Leyden, Holland and to London in England for further treatment. In London Kutuzov first learned of the American Revolutionary War. He would later study the evolution of American general George Washington's attrition campaign against the British. The American experience reinforced the lesson that Rumyantsev had already taught Kutuzov; that one does not need to win battles in order to win a war. Kutuzov returned to the Russian Army in 1776 and again served under Suvorov—in the Crimea—for the next six years. He learned that letting the common soldier use his natural intellect and initiative made for a more effective army. Suvorov also taught him how to use mobility in order to exploit the constantly changing situation on the battlefield. By 1782 Kutuzov had been promoted to brigadier general as Suvorov recognised Kutuzov's potential as a shrewd and intelligent leader. Indeed, Suvorov wrote that he would not even have to tell Kutuzov what needed to be done in order for him to carry out his objective. In 1787 Kutuzov was again wounded in the left temple, in almost exactly the same place as before, and again doctors feared for his life. However, Kutuzov recovered, though his right eye was even more twisted than before and he had even worse head-pains. In 1784 he became a major general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under Suvorov, whose disciple he became, he won considerable distinction in the Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792), at the taking of Ochakov, Odessa, Bender, and Izmail, and in the battles of Rymnik (1789) and Mashin (July 1791). He became a lieutenant-general (March 1791) and successively occupied the positions of ambassador at Istanbul, commander of Russian forces in Finland, commandant of the corps of cadets at Saint Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and governor-general of Saint Petersburg (1801-1802). Kutuzov was a favourite of Tsar Paul I (reigned 1796-1801), and after that emperor's murder he was temporarily out of favour with the new monarch Alexander I, though he remained loyal. Napoleonic Wars In 1805, Kutuzov commanded the Russian corps to oppose Napoleon's advance on Vienna, but the Austrians were quickly defeated at Ulm in mid-October before they could meet up with their Russian allies. Kutuzov was present at the battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. On the eve of battle, Kutuzov tried to convince the Allied generals of the necessity of waiting for reinforcements before facing Napoleon. Alexander believed that waiting to engage Napoleon's forces would be seen as cowardly. Kutuzov quickly realised that he no longer had any power with Alexander and the Austrian chief of staff General-Major Franz von Weyrother. When he asked Alexander where he planned to move a unit of troops, he was told "That's none of your business." Though Alexander's orders made it clear that the Russians should move off the strategic Pratzen Plateau, Kutuzov stalled for as long as possible as he recognised the advantage that Napoleon would gain from this high ground. Finally, Alexander forced Kutuzov to abandon the Plateau. Napoleon quickly seized the ridge and broke the Allied lines with his artillery which now commanded the battlefield from the Pratzen Plateau. The battle was lost, and over 25,000 Russians were killed. Kutuzov was put in charge of organising the army's retreat across Hungary and back into Russia as Alexander was overcome by grief. Kutuzov was then put in charge of the Russian army operating against the Turks in the Russo-Turkish War, 1806-1812. Understanding that his armies would be badly needed in the upcoming war with the French, he hastily brought the prolonged war to a victorious end and concluded the propitious Treaty of Bucharest, which stipulated the incorporation of Bessarabia into the Russian Empire. The Patriotic War (1812) Main article: French invasion of Russia When Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (then Minister of War), with his army being outnumbered 2:1, chose to follow the scorched earth principle and retreat rather than to risk a major battle. His strategy aroused grudges among most of the generals and soldiers. As Alexander after the Battle of Smolensk had to choose a new general, there was only one choice: Kutuzov. He was popular among the troops mainly because he was Russian (most of the generals commanding Russian troops at that time were foreign), he was brave, had proven himself in battle, strongly believed in the Russian Orthodox Church, and he looked out for the troops' well-being. The nobles and clergy also regarded Kutuzov highly. Therefore, when Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief on the 17th and joined the army on 29 August 1812, Russians supported his appointment. Only Alexander, repulsed by Kutuzov's physique and irrationally holding him responsible for the defeat at Austerlitz, did not celebrate Kutuzov's commission. Within a week Kutuzov decided to give major battle on the approaches to Moscow. He withdrew the troops still further to the east, deploying them for the upcoming battle. Two huge armies clashed near Borodino on 7 September 1812, involving nearly a quarter of a million soldiers, ratio about 1.1 French to 1 Russian soldier. The result of the battle of Borodino was a kind of Pyrrhic victory for Napoleon, with near a third of the French army killed or wounded. Although the Russian losses were nearly 50% higher, the Russian army had not been destroyed. After a council at the village of Fili, Kutuzov withdrew to the rich south of Moscow in order to reinforce his Russian army and to wait there for Napoleon's retreat. This came at the price of losing Moscow, whose population was evacuated. When Napoleon finally left Moscow Kutuzov blocked Napoleon's way through Kaluga into the richer, unspoilt southern regions of Russia in the Battle of Maloyaroslavets, ratio 1:1. Napoleon decided to avoid a decisive battle and marched via Mozhaisk to Smolensk into a higher probability of starvation, as it was the devastated route of his advance. The old general "escorted" Napoleon on the more southern roads but attacked him at the Battle of Vyazma, at the Battle of Krasnoi, ratio 1 French soldier to 1.4 Russian, and at the Battle of Berezina, ratio 1:1.75. In parallel Cossack bands and peasants assaulted isolated French units during their whole retreat. With Kutusov's strategy of attrition warfare, on 14 December the remainder of the French main army left Russia. The only remaining troops were the flanking forces (43,000 under Schwarzenberg, 23,000 under Macdonald), about 1,000 men of the Guard and about 40,000 stragglers, about 110,000, all that were left of the 612,000 (including reinforcements)that had entered Russia. Alexander I awarded Kutuzov the rank of general-field marshal on September 11th 1812 for his role in the Battle of Borodino. He later awarded Kutuzov the victory title of His Serene Highness Knyaz Golenischev-Kutuzov-Smolensky (Светлейший князь Голенищев-Кутузов-Смоленский) on December 18th 1812, for his victory at the Battle of Krasnoi at Smolensk in November 1812. Death and legacy Early in 1813, Kutuzov fell ill, and he died on 28 April 1813 at Bunzlau, Silesia, then in the Kingdom of Prussia, now Boles?awiec, Poland. Memorials have been erected to him there, at the Poklonnaya Hill in Moscow and in front of the Kazan Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, where he is buried, by Boris Orlovsky. He had five daughters; his only son died of smallpox as an infant. As he had no male heir, his estates passed to the Tolstoy family, as his eldest daughter, Praskovia, had married Count Matvei Fyodorovich Tolstoy. Today, Kutuzov is still held in high regard, alongside Barclay and his mentor Suvorov. Alexander Pushkin addressed the Field Marshal in the famous elegy on Kutuzov's sepulchre. The novelist Leo Tolstoy clearly idolised Kutuzov. In his influential 1869 novel War and Peace, the elderly, sick Kutuzov plays a major role in the war sections. He is portrayed as a gentle spiritual man, far removed from the cold arrogance of Napoleon, but with a much clearer vision of the true nature of warfare. Tolstoy wrote of Kutuzov's insight and the national sentiment, "... this sentiment elevated Kutuzov to the high pinnacle of humanity from which he, the general-in-chief, employed all his efforts, not to kill and exterminate men, but to save and have pity on them." During World War II (known as "The Great Patriotic War" in Russia), the Soviet government established the Order of Kutuzov which, among several other decorations, was preserved in Russia upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union, thus remaining among the highest military awards in Russia, only second to the Order of Zhukov. Also, during World War II, one of the key strategic operations of the Red Army, the Orel Strategic Offensive Operation "Kutuzov" was named after the Field Marshal (Russian: Орловская Стратегическая Наступательная Операция Кутузов) (12 July - 18 August 1943). No less than ten Russian towns have been named "Kutuzovo" in honour of the general. Notable among them is the former German town of Schirwindt (now Kutuzovo in the Krasnoznamensky District of the Kaliningrad Oblast) - the first town in Germany proper that was reached by Soviet infantry. A Sverdlov-class cruiser named for Kutuzov was commissioned in the Soviet Navy in 1954. It is now preserved, thanks to the efforts of Evgeny Primakov as a museum ship in Novorossiysk. From May 1813 to 2020, at least 24 ships were identified in United Kingdom, USA, Russian Empire, Soviet Union and Russia, named after Kutuzov. The monument to Kutuzov in the city of Brody in Western Ukraine was demolished in February 2014 as part of the Euromaidan demonstrations. Due to decommunization policies the street named after Kutuzov in (Ukraine's capital) Kyiv was renamed after Oleksa Almaziv and a lane dedicated to his legacy was renamed after Yevhen Hutsalo (both) in 2016. Aeroflot named one of its planes after Kutuzov. Praise and criticism Napoleon: ...the sly old fox from the north... Leo Tolstoy: ...a simple, modest and therefore truly great figure... Suvorov: ...he is crafty. And shrewd. No one will fool him... Jean Colin: ...Napoleon's audacity succeeded at Austerlitz, but only because Kutuzov was ignored... Alexander I: ...a hatcher of intrigues and an immoral and thoroughly dangerous character... Barclay de Tolly: ...get the answer in writing. One has to be careful with Kutuzov... Clausewitz: ...a true Russian, a slightly reduced Suvorov... General Bennigsen: ...he, Bennigsen, would be a far better leader for the army... Alexander's sister: ... the inaction of his army is the result of his laziness... Wilson: ...Kutuzov was utterly lazy, incompetent and perhaps even a friend of the French... Richard K. Riehn: ..Napoleon was the master of the short run, Kutuzov understood the long... Personality All citations taken from "The Fox of the North" unless otherwise stated. He was handsome, strong, an excellent horseman and highly intelligent. He became proficient in mathematics, fortifications and engineering. He was well-informed in theology, philosophy, law, and social sciences. He spoke Russian, French, German, Polish, Swedish, English and Turkish. He was popular, entertaining, brave, quick-witted and efficient. He displayed courage and decisiveness in the attack. Kutuzov owned more than 3,000 serfs. He visited Berlin and discussed tactics with Frederick the Great. He studied in London the attrition warfare of the American colonies against the United Kingdom. He became ambassador in Constantinople and survived his visit of the sultan's harem. He was a happy grandfather. After his appointment in 1812 he went into a cathedral, bent his knees grunting from his rheumatism, and prayed. He was a member of the Moscow {Freemason} lodges "Sphinx" and "Three Banners." He was described to Napoleon as a cool and selfish calculator, dilatory, vindictive, artful, pliable, patient, preparing an implacable war with caressing attention. Kutuzov reported to Alexander I that he had won the Battle of Borodino. The partisan leader Denis Davydov reported to him in filthy peasant clothing. He supported Aleksandr Figner despite his barbarism and even increased the guerilla warfare. He appreciated the value of armed peasant groups. He sobbed "Russia is saved" when he was informed that Napoleon had left Moscow. Kutuzow said to Robert Thomas Wilson, here simplified: "I am by no means sure that the total destruction of the Emperor Napoleon and his army would be such a benefit to Russia; his succession would fall to the United Kingdom whose domination would then be intolerable." Name: William Pitt Biography: William Pitt the Younger Position: Prime Minister of Great Britain，Chancellor of the Exchequer，Member of Parliament for Cambridge University，Member of Parliament for Appleby Nationality:British Political party :Tory Alma mater:Pembroke College, Cambridge William Pitt the Younger (28 May 1759 - 23 January 1806) was a prominent British Tory statesman of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. He became the youngest prime minister of Great Britain in 1783 at the age of 24 and the first prime minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland as of January 1801. He left office in March 1801, but served as prime minister again from 1804 until his death in 1806. He was also Chancellor of the Exchequer for all of his time as prime minister. He is known as "the Younger" to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, who is customarily referred to as "William Pitt the Elder" (or less commonly, simply "Chatham") and had previously served as prime minister. Pitt's prime ministerial tenure, which came during the reign of King George III, was dominated by major political events in Europe, including the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Pitt, although often referred to as a Tory, or "new Tory", called himself an "independent Whig" and was generally opposed to the development of a strict partisan political system. Pitt was regarded as an outstanding administrator who worked for efficiency and reform, bringing in a new generation of outstanding administrators. He increased taxes to pay for the great war against France and cracked down on radicalism. To engage the threat of Irish support for France, he engineered the Acts of Union 1800 and tried (but failed) to secure Catholic emancipation as part of the Union. He created the "new Toryism", which revived the Tory Party and enabled it to stay in power for the next quarter-century. The historian Asa Briggs argues that his personality did not endear itself to the British mind, for Pitt was too solitary and too colourless, and too often exuded an attitude of superiority. His greatness came in the war with France. Pitt reacted to become what Lord Minto called "the Atlas of our reeling globe". William Wilberforce said, "For personal purity, disinterestedness and love of this country, I have never known his equal." Historian Charles Petrie concludes that he was one of the greatest Prime Ministers "if on no other ground than that he enabled the country to pass from the old order to the new without any violent upheaval ... He understood the new Britain." For this he is ranked highly amongst all British Prime Ministers in multiple surveys. Impact of the War of American Independence Losing the war and the Thirteen Colonies was a shock to the British system. The war revealed the limitations of Britain's fiscal-military state when it had powerful enemies and no allies, depended on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication, and was faced for the first time since the 17th century by both Protestant and Catholic foes. The defeat heightened dissension and escalated political antagonism to the King's ministers. Inside parliament, the primary concern changed from fears of an over-mighty monarch to the issues of representation, parliamentary reform, and government retrenchment. Reformers sought to destroy what they saw as widespread institutional corruption. The result was a crisis from 1776 to 1783. The peace in 1783 left France financially prostrate, while the British economy boomed due to the return of American business. That crisis ended in 1784 as a result of the King's shrewdness in outwitting Fox and renewed confidence in the system engendered by the leadership of Pitt. Historians conclude that the loss of the American colonies enabled Britain to deal with the French Revolution with more unity and organisation than would otherwise have been the case. Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific, and later Africa with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of the Second British Empire. Rise to power The Fox-North Coalition fell in December 1783, after Fox had introduced Edmund Burke's bill to reform the East India Company to gain the patronage he so greatly lacked while the King refused to support him. Fox stated the bill was necessary to save the company from bankruptcy. Pitt responded that: "Necessity is the plea for every infringement of human freedom. It is the argument of tyrants; it is the creed of slaves." The King was opposed to the bill; when it passed in the House of Commons, he secured its defeat in the House of Lords by threatening to regard anyone who voted for it as his enemy. Following the bill's failure in the Upper House, George III dismissed the coalition government and finally entrusted the premiership to William Pitt, after having offered the position to him three times previously. A constitutional crisis arose when the King dismissed the Fox-North coalition government and named Pitt to replace it. Though faced with a hostile majority in Parliament, Pitt was able to solidify his position within a few months. Some historians argue that his success was inevitable given the decisive importance of monarchical power; others argue that the King gambled on Pitt and that both would have failed but for a run of good fortune. Pitt, at the age of 24, became Great Britain's youngest Prime Minister ever. The contemporary satire The Rolliad ridiculed him for his youth: Above the rest, majestically great, Behold the infant Atlas of the state, The matchless miracle of modern days, In whom Britannia to the world displays A sight to make surrounding nations stare; A kingdom trusted to a school-boy's care. Many saw Pitt as a stop-gap appointment until some more senior statesman took on the role. However, although it was widely predicted that the new "mince-pie administration" would not outlast the Christmas season, it survived for seventeen years. First government Further information: First Pitt ministry India His administration secure, Pitt could begin to enact his agenda. His first major piece of legislation as prime minister was the India Act 1784, which re-organised the British East India Company and kept a watch over corruption. The India Act created a new Board of Control to oversee the affairs of the East India Company. It differed from Fox's failed India Bill 1783 and specified that the board would be appointed by the king. Pitt was appointed, along with Lord Sydney, who was appointed President. The act centralised British rule in India by reducing the power of the governors of Bombay and Madras and by increasing that of Governor-General Charles Cornwallis. Further augmentations and clarifications of the governor-general's authority were made in 1786, presumably by Lord Sydney, and presumably as a result of the company's setting up of Penang with their own superintendent (governor), Captain Francis Light, in 1786. Parliamentary reform In domestic politics, Pitt concerned himself with the cause of parliamentary reform. In 1785, he introduced a bill to remove the representation of thirty-six rotten boroughs, and to extend, in a small way, the electoral franchise to more individuals. Pitt's support for the bill, however, was not strong enough to prevent its defeat in the House of Commons. The bill of 1785 was the last parliamentary reform proposal introduced by Pitt to British legislators. Australian penal colony Convicts were originally transported to the Thirteen Colonies in North America, but after the American War of Independence ended in 1783, the newly formed United States refused to accept further convicts. Pitt's government took the decision to settle what is now Australia and found the penal colony in August 1786. The First Fleet of 11 vessels carried over a thousand settlers, including 778 convicts. The Colony of New South Wales was formally proclaimed by Governor Arthur Phillip on 7 February 1788 at Sydney. Finances Another important domestic issue with which Pitt had to concern himself was the national debt, which had doubled to ￡243 million during the American war. Every year, a third of the budget of ￡24 million went to pay interest. Pitt sought to reduce the national debt by imposing new taxes. In 1786, he instituted a sinking fund so that ￡1 million a year was added to a fund so that it could accumulate interest; eventually, the money in the fund was to be used to pay off the national debt. By 1792, the debt had fallen to ￡170 million. Pitt always paid careful attention to financial issues. A fifth of Britain's imports were smuggled in without paying taxes. He made it easier for honest merchants to import goods by lowering tariffs on easily smuggled items such as tea, wine, spirits, and tobacco. This policy raised customs revenues by nearly ￡2 million a year. Gold reserves, income tax In 1797, Pitt was forced to protect the kingdom's gold reserves by preventing individuals from exchanging banknotes for gold. Great Britain would continue to use paper money for over two decades. Pitt was also forced to introduce Great Britain's first-ever income tax. The new tax helped offset losses in indirect tax revenue, which had been caused by a decline in trade. Foreign affairs Pitt sought European alliances to restrict French influence, forming the Triple Alliance with Prussia and Holland in 1788. During the Nootka Sound Controversy in 1790, Pitt took advantage of the alliance to force Spain to give up its claim to exclusive control over the western coast of North and South America. The Alliance, however, failed to produce any other important benefits for Great Britain. Pitt was alarmed at Russian expansion in the 1780s at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. The relations between Russia and Britain were disturbed during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-92 by Pitt's subscription to the view of the Prussian government that the Triple Alliance could not with impunity allow the balance of power in Eastern Europe to be disturbed. In peace talks with the Ottomans, Russia refused to return the key Ochakov fortress. Pitt wanted to threaten military retaliation. However Russia's ambassador Semyon Vorontsov organised Pitt's enemies and launched a public opinion campaign. Pitt had become alarmed at the opposition to his Russian policy in parliament, Burke and Fox both uttering powerful speeches against the restoration of Ochakov to the Turks. Pitt won the vote so narrowly that he gave up. The outbreak of the French Revolution and its attendant wars temporarily united Britain and Russia in an ideological alliance against French republicanism. The King's condition In 1788, Pitt faced a major crisis when the King fell victim to a mysterious illness, a form of mental disorder that incapacitated him. If the sovereign was incapable of fulfilling his constitutional duties, Parliament would need to appoint a regent to rule in his place. All factions agreed that the only viable candidate was the King's eldest son, George, Prince of Wales. The Prince, however, was a supporter of Charles James Fox. Had the Prince come to power, he would almost surely have dismissed Pitt. He did not have such an opportunity, however, as Parliament spent months debating legal technicalities relating to the regency. Fortunately for Pitt, the King recovered in February 1789, just after a Regency Bill had been introduced and passed in the House of Commons. The general elections of 1790 resulted in a majority for the government, and Pitt continued as prime minister. In 1791, he proceeded to address one of the problems facing the growing British Empire: the future of British Canada. By the Constitutional Act of 1791, the province of Quebec was divided into two separate provinces: the predominantly French Lower Canada and the predominantly English Upper Canada. In August 1792, coincident with the capture of Louis XVI by the French revolutionaries, George III appointed Pitt as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, a position whose incumbent was responsible for the coastal defences of the realm. The King had in 1791 offered him a Knighthood of the Garter, but he suggested the honour go to his elder brother, the second Earl of Chatham. French Revolution Main article: French Revolutionary Wars An early favourable response to the French Revolution encouraged many in Great Britain to reopen the issue of parliamentary reform, which had been dormant since Pitt's reform bill was defeated in 1785. The reformers, however, were quickly labelled as radicals and associates of the French revolutionaries. Subsequently, in 1794, Pitt's administration tried three of them for treason but lost. Parliament began to enact repressive legislation in order to silence the reformers. Individuals who published seditious material were punished, and, in 1794, the writ of habeas corpus was suspended. Other repressive measures included the Seditious Meetings Act, which restricted the right of individuals to assemble publicly, and the Combination Acts, which restricted the formation of societies or organisations that favoured political reforms. Problems manning the Royal Navy also led to Pitt to introduce the Quota System in 1795 in addition to the existing system of impressment. The war with France was extremely expensive, straining Great Britain's finances. Unlike in the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars, at this point Britain had only a very small standing army, and thus contributed to the war effort mainly through sea power and by supplying funds to other coalition members facing France. Ideological struggles Throughout the 1790s, the war against France was presented as an ideological struggle between French republicanism vs. British monarchism with the British government seeking to mobilise public opinion in support of the war. The Pitt government waged a vigorous propaganda campaign contrasting the ordered society of Britain dominated by the aristocracy and the gentry vs. the "anarchy" of the French revolution and always sought to associate British "radicals" with the revolution in France. Though the Pitt government did drastically reduce civil liberties and created a nationwide spy network with ordinary people being encouraged to denounce any "radicals" that may have been in their midst, the historian Eric Evans argued the picture of Pitt's "reign of terror" as portrayed by the Marxist historian E.P. Thompson is incorrect, stating there is much evidence of a "popular conservative movement" that rallied in defence of King and Country. Evans wrote that there were about 200 prosecutions of "radicals" suspected of sympathy with the French revolution in British courts in the 1790s, which was much less than the prosecutions of suspected Jacobites after the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. However, the spy network maintained by the government was efficient. In Jane Austen's novel Northanger Abbey, which was written in the 1790s, but not published until 1817, one of the characters' remarks that it is not possible for a family to keep secrets in these modern times when spies for the government were lurking everywhere. This comment captures well the tense, paranoid atmosphere of the 1790s, when people were being encouraged to report "radicals" to the authorities. Haiti In 1793, Pitt decided to take advantage of the Haitian Revolution to seize St. Domingue, the richest French colony in the world, believing this would strike a great blow at France while bringing St. Domingue into the British Empire and ensuring that the slaves in the British West Indies would not be inspired to revolt likewise. Many of those who owned slave plantations in the British West Indies had been greatly alarmed by the revolution, which began in 1791, and they were strongly pressing Pitt to restore slavery in St. Domingue, lest their own slaves be inspired to seek freedom. The British landed in St. Domingue on 20 September 1793, stating they had come to protect the white population from the blacks, and were able to seize some coastal enclaves. The fact that the British had came to restore slavery in St. Domingue inspired ferocious resistance from the Haitians, who had no desire to be forced into chains again. The heavy death toll caused by yellow fever, the much dreaded "black vomit", made conquering St. Domingue impossible, but an undeterred Pitt launched what he called the "great push" in 1795, sending out an even larger British expedition. In November 1795, some 218 ships left Portsmouth for St. Domingue. After the failure of the Quiberon expedition earlier in 1795, when the British landed a force of French royalists on the coast of France who were annihilated by the forces of the republic, Pitt had decided it was crucial for Britain to have St. Domingue, no matter what the cost in lives and money, to improve Britain's negotiating hand when it came time to make peace with the French republic. The British historian Michael Duffy argued that since Pitt committed far more manpower and money to the Caribbean expeditions, especially the one to St. Domingue, than he ever did to Europe in the years 1793-1798, it is proper to view the West Indies as Britain's main theatre of war and Europe as more of a sideshow. By 1795, 50% of the British Army was deployed in the West Indies (with the largest contingent in St. Domingue), whereas the rest of the British Army was divided among Britain, Europe, India, and North America. As the British death toll, largely caused by yellow fever, continued to climb, Pitt was criticised in the House of Commons. Several MPs suggested it might be better to abandon the expedition, but Pitt insisted that Britain had given its word of honour that it would protect the French planters from their former slaves, and the expedition to St. Domingue could not be abandoned. The British attempt to conquer St. Domingue in 1793 ended in disaster; the British pulled out on 31 August 1798 after having spent 4 million pounds (roughly ￡400.00 million in today's money) and having lost about 100,000 men ? dead or crippled for life, mostly from disease - over the preceding five years. The British historian Sir John William Fortescue wrote that Pitt and his cabinet had tried to destroy French power "in these pestilent islands ... only to discover, when it was too late, that they practically destroyed the British army". Fortescue concluded that Pitt's attempt to add St. Domingue to the British empire had killed off most of the British army, cost the British treasury a fortune and weakened British influence in Europe, making British power "fettered, numbered and paralyzed", all for nothing. Anti-Catholic laws in Ireland Throughout the 1790s, the popularity of the Society of United Irishmen grew. Influenced by the American and French revolutions, this movement demanded independence and republicanism for Ireland. The United Irishmen Society was very anti-clerical, being equally opposed to the "superstitions" promoted by both the Church of England and the Roman Catholic church, which caused the latter to support the Crown. Realising that the Catholic church was an ally in the struggle against the French revolution, Pitt had tried fruitlessly to persuade the Dublin parliament to loosen the anti-Catholic laws to "keep things quiet in Ireland". Pitt's efforts to soften the anti-Catholic laws failed in the face of determined resistance from the families of the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, who forced Pitt to recall Earl Fitzwilliam as Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1795, when the latter had indicated he would support a bill for Catholic relief. In much of rural Ireland, law and order had broken down as an economic crisis further impoverished the already poor Irish peasantry, and a sectarian war with many atrocities on both sides had begun in 1793 between Catholic "Defenders" versus Protestant "Peep o'Day Boys". A section of the Peep o'Day Boys who had renamed themselves the Loyal Orange Order in September 1795 were fanatically committed to upholding Protestant supremacy in Ireland at "almost any cost". In December 1796, a French invasion of Ireland led by General Lazare Hoche (scheduled to coordinate with a rising of the United Irishmen) was only thwarted by bad weather. To crush the United Irishmen, Pitt sent General Lake to Ulster in 1797 to call out Protestant Irish militiamen and organised an intelligence network of spies and informers. Spithead mutiny In April 1797, the mutiny of the entire Spithead fleet shook the government (sailors demanded a pay increase to match inflation). This mutiny occurred at the same moment that the Franco-Dutch alliance were preparing an invasion of Britain. To regain control of the fleet, Pitt agreed to navy pay increases and had George III pardon the mutineers. By contrast, the more political "floating republic" naval mutiny at the Nore in June 1797 led by Richard Parker was handled more repressively. Pitt refused to negotiate with Parker, whom he wanted to see hanged as a mutineer. In response to the 1797 mutinies, Pitt passed an act making it unlawful to advocate breaking oaths to the Crown. In 1798, he passed the Defence of the Realm act, which further restricted civil liberties. Ireland In May 1798, the long-simmering unrest in Ireland exploded into outright rebellion with the United Irishmen Society launching a revolt to win independence for Ireland. Pitt took an extremely repressive approach to the United Irishmen with the Crown executing about 1,500 United Irishmen after the revolt. The revolt of 1798 destroyed Pitt's faith in the governing competence of the Dublin parliament (dominated by Protestant Ascendancy families). Thinking a less sectarian and more conciliatory approach would have avoided the uprising, Pitt sought an Act of Union that would make Ireland an official part of the United Kingdom and end the "Irish Question". The French expeditions to Ireland in 1796 and 1798 (to support the United Irishmen) were regarded by Pitt as near-misses that might have provided an Irish base for French attacks on Britain, thus making the "Irish Question" a national security matter. As the Dublin parliament did not wish to disband, Pitt made generous use of what would now be called "pork barrel politics" to bribe Irish MPs to vote for the Act of Union. Failure to defeat France Despite Pitt's efforts, the French continued to defeat the First Coalition, which collapsed in 1798. A Second Coalition, consisting of Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, was formed, but it, too, failed to overcome the French. The fall of the Second Coalition with the defeat of the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo (14 June 1800) and at the Battle of Hohenlinden (3 December 1800) left Great Britain facing France alone. Resignation Following the Acts of Union 1800, Pitt sought to inaugurate the new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by granting concessions to Roman Catholics, who formed a 75% majority of the population in Ireland, by abolishing various political restrictions under which they suffered. The king was strongly opposed to Catholic Emancipation; he argued that to grant additional liberty would violate his coronation oath, in which he had promised to protect the established Church of England. Pitt, unable to change the king's strong views, resigned on 16 February 1801, so as to allow Henry Addington, his political friend, to form a new administration. At about the same time, however, the king suffered a renewed bout of madness, with the consequence that Addington could not receive his formal appointment. Though he had resigned, Pitt temporarily continued to discharge his duties; on 18 February 1801, he brought forward the annual budget. Power was transferred from Pitt to Addington on 14 March, when the king recovered. Pitt supported the new administration, but with little enthusiasm; he frequently absented himself from Parliament, preferring to remain in his Lord Warden's residence of Walmer Castle—before 1802 usually spending an annual late-summer holiday there, and later often present from the spring until the autumn. From the castle, he helped organise a local Volunteer Corps in anticipation of a French invasion, acted as colonel of a battalion raised by Trinity House—he was also a Master of Trinity House—and encouraged the construction of Martello towers and the Royal Military Canal in Romney Marsh. He rented land abutting the Castle to farm on which to lay out trees and walks. His niece Lady Hester Stanhope designed and managed the gardens and acted as his hostess. The Treaty of Amiens in 1802 between France and Britain marked the end of the French Revolutionary Wars. Everyone expected it to be only a short truce. By 1803, war had broken out again with France under Emperor Napoleon. Although Addington had previously invited him to join the Cabinet, Pitt preferred to join the Opposition, becoming increasingly critical of the government's policies. Addington, unable to face the combined opposition of Pitt and Fox, saw his majority gradually evaporate and resigned in late April 1804. Second government Further information: Second Pitt ministry Pitt returned to the premiership on 10 May 1804. He had originally planned to form a broad coalition government, but faced the opposition of George III to the inclusion of Fox. Moreover, many of Pitt's former supporters, including the allies of Addington, joined the Opposition. Thus, Pitt's second ministry was considerably weaker than his first. The British government began placing pressure on the French Emperor, Napoleon I. Thanks to Pitt's efforts, Britain joined the Third Coalition, an alliance that included Austria, Russia, and Sweden. In October 1805, the British Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, won a crushing victory in the Battle of Trafalgar, ensuring British naval supremacy for the remainder of the war. At the annual Lord Mayor's Banquet toasting him as "the Saviour of Europe", Pitt responded in a few words that became the most famous speech of his life: I return you many thanks for the honour you have done me; but Europe is not to be saved by any single man. England has saved herself by her exertions, and will, as I trust, save Europe by her example. Nevertheless, the Coalition collapsed, having suffered significant defeats at the Battle of Ulm (October 1805) and the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805). After hearing the news of Austerlitz Pitt referred to a map of Europe, "Roll up that map; it will not be wanted these ten years." Finances Pitt was an expert in finance and served as chancellor of the exchequer. Critical to his success in confronting Napoleon was using Britain's superior economic resources. He was able to mobilize the nation's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France. With a population of 16 million, Britain was barely half the size of France, which had a population of 30 million. In terms of soldiers, however, the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000 in 1813. Britain used its economic power to expand the Royal Navy, doubling the number of frigates and increasing the number of large ships of the line by 50%, while increasing the roster of sailors from 15,000 to 133,000 in eight years after the war began in 1793. The British national output remained strong, and the well-organized business sector channelled products into what the military needed. France, meanwhile, saw its navy shrink by more than half. The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets. By 1814, the budget that Pitt in his last years had largely shaped had expanded to ￡66 million, including ￡10 million for the Navy, ￡40 million for the Army, ￡10 million for the Allies, and ￡38 million as interest on the national debt. The national debt soared to ￡679 million, more than double the GDP. It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax. The whole cost of the war came to ￡831 million. The French financial system was inadequate and Napoleon's forces had to rely in part on requisitions from conquered lands. Death The setbacks took a toll on Pitt's health. He had long suffered from poor health, beginning in childhood, and was plagued with gout and "biliousness", which was worsened by a fondness for port that began when he was advised to consume it to deal with his chronic ill-health. On 23 January 1806, Pitt died at Bowling Green House on Putney Heath, probably from peptic ulceration of his stomach or duodenum; he was unmarried and left no children. Pitt's debts amounted to ￡40,000 when he died, but Parliament agreed to pay them on his behalf. A motion was made to honour him with a public funeral and a monument; it passed despite some opposition. Pitt's body was buried in Westminster Abbey on 22 February, having lain in state for two days in the Palace of Westminster. Pitt was succeeded as Prime Minister by his first cousin William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, who headed the Ministry of All the Talents, a coalition which included Charles James Fox. Legacy William Pitt the Younger was a prime minister who consolidated the powers of his office. Though he was sometimes opposed by members of his Cabinet, he helped define the role of the Prime Minister as the supervisor and co-ordinator of the various government departments. After his death the conservatives embraced him as a great patriotic hero. One of Pitt's accomplishments was a rehabilitation of the nation's finances after the American War of Independence. Pitt helped manage the mounting national debt, and made changes to the tax system in order to improve its great capture of revenue. Name: Weyrother Biography: Franz von Weyrother (1755 - 16 February 1806) Allegiance: Habsburg Monarchy Branch/service: chief of staff Rank: Lieutenant Field Marshal Battles/wars:French Revolutionary Wars，War of the Third Coalition Franz von Weyrother (1755 - 16 February 1806) was an Austrian staff officer and general who fought during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He drew up the plans for the disastrous defeats at the Battle of Rivoli, Battle of Hohenlinden and the Battle of Austerlitz, in which the Austrian army was defeated by Napoleon Bonaparte twice and Jean Moreau once. Early career Weyrother was born in Vienna as the son of cavalry Major (Major) Anton von Weyrother, who was Chief Rider of the Spanish Riding School in Vienna. After studying at the Ingenieurakademie in Vienna (Military engineering academy), he joined the army as a Fahnencadet (Academy graduate) in Infanterie-regiment Nr. 22 Franz von Lacy on 1 December 1775 as Lacy was his godfather. On 1 May 1777, he was promoted to F?hnrich (cadet officer or ensign) and on 16. November 1778 to Unterlieutenant (second lieutenant). In August 1779, he was chosen by Generalmajor Major General Graf Wenzel Colloredo as his adjutant and stayed in post until 1783. On 1 June 1784, he was promoted to Oberlieutenant and after his transfer on 1 August 1787 to Infanterie-regiment Nr. 2 Erzherzog Ferdinand, he served in the 1788—1790 Turkish War as Adjutant of Feldmarschalleutnant Maximilian Browne and on 1 February 1789, was appointed to Capitain-lieutenant (junior Captain) followed by Hauptmann (full Captain) on 6 July. The War of the First Coalition brought about Weyrother's important transfer to the Generalquartiermeisterstab on 16 July 1794 and he joined its former chief, Generalmajor Neu, who was now the Governor of the key fortress of Mainz, where he soon gained the reputation of a cunning and well-educated officer, who was entrusted by Major General Neu with defensive actions against the French besiegers, when Neu was too ill to direct them. he moved over to offensive operations and on 19 November 1794, took the Wissenau Lines, followed by the Zahlbach Lines on 1 December. GM Neu commended him to Feldmarschall Albert Casimir, Duke of Teschen for his untiring efforts and exceptional skills on 1 December 1794. Feldzeugmeister (General) Graf von Wartensleben commended Hauptmann Weyrother to Feldmarschall Clerfayt for his skillful leadership of the advance-guard in the assault on the Hartberg in May 1795, which led to his promotion to Major on 22 May, but on 30 August, in repelling a French assault on the Wissenau Lines, Weyrother was shot in the left shoulder. After his recovery, he was sent to the Army of the Rhine under the Archduke Charles to serve on his staff. On 11 May 1796, was awarded the Military Order of Maria Theresia and was promoted to Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant-Colonel). Italy and Bavaria In September 1796, Weyrother transferred to Northern Italy, where he fought in the Battle of Bassano under Field Marshal Dagobert von Wurmser, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Bassano on 6 November 1796. He then joined the renewed effort to relieve the Mantua, serving on the staff of Feldzeugmeister József Alvinczi, helping to plan the campaign, which ended in a narrow defeat by Bonaparte at the Battle of Arcole. His own plan for the Battle of Rivoli provided for three widely separated striking forces and unrealistically called for one flanking column to march across mountainous terrain in January. His plans were compromised by Napoleon's chief spy, Toli, who obtained a copy of the plan for the advance in January 1797, which ended in a decisive Austrian defeat at the Battle of Rivoli and the consequent surrender of the fortress of Mantua. One of a group of three, known as "Thugut's Benjamins" (trusted assistants to the Foreign Minister Johann Amadeus Francis de Paula, Baron of Thugut, during the campaign of 1799, Weyrother served as chief of staff to Feldzeugmeister Pál Kray, where he distinguished himself at Legnago (26 March), Magnano (5 April) and, now serving as liaison officer with the Russian Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov, at Novi on 15 August. He then planned the epic march of the Russian troops under Alexander Suvorov across the Saint Gotthard Pass. Promoted to Oberst (colonel) on 5 February 1800, Weyrother was given command of Infanterie-regiment Nr. 7 Schr?der, which was part of the army in Germany under Pál Kray, but a further wound and the strains of campaigning led to his leaving the army to recuperate. Recalled in the autumn of 1800, Emperor Francis II assigned him to be chief-of-staff to the 18-year-old Archduke John of Austria, the new commander of the army in Bavaria, and his Adlatus (chief adviser) Franz von Lauer. Believing Jean Moreau's French army to be in retreat, Weyrother organised an aggressive pursuit through heavily forested terrain by four non-mutually-supporting columns. Instead, Moreau stood his ground, sprang an ambush, and enveloped the Austrian left flank. The resulting Battle of Hohenlinden turned out to be a catastrophe for the Austrians, effectively ending the War of the Second Coalition. Nevertheless, Weyrother was appointed military adviser to the new Foreign Minister, Graf Ludwig Cobenzl in the negotiations following the Armistice of Steyr, which led to the Peace of Luneville in 1801. Napoleonic Wars When the War of the Third Coalition broke out, Weyrother was promoted to Generalmajor (major general). After the death of the Allied army chief of staff, Johann Heinrich von Schmitt at the Battle of Dürenstein on 11 November 1805, the Allied commander-in-chief, the Russian General Mikhail Kutusov requested that Weyrother be made chief of staff of the Austro-Russian army. Although the two men soon fell out, as Kutuzov wanted a defensive strategy, Weyrother gained the favour of Tsar Alexander I of Russia with his aggressive strategy. With the Tsar's support, he created the plan for the Battle of Austerlitz in which the Allies were crushed by Napoleon on 2 December 1805. The defeat was so bad, the Russians accused Weyrother of being in the pay of the French. Weyrother withdrew from military life and retired to Vienna, where he died aged 51. His inappropriate dispositions for the battle at Austerlitz are satirized by Leo Tolstoy in War and Peace. Name: Freire Biography: Gomes Freire de Andrade (27 January 1757, in Vienna - 18 October 1817) Allegiance: Portugal (1782 to 1788/1790 to 24 May 1807)，Russia (1788 to 1790) ，France (to 5 May 1814) Rank: Lieutenant General(Portugal)，Colonel(Russia)，General de Division(France) Commands held:4th Infantry Regiment (1790-1807),Portuguese Legion (1810-1814) Freire spent his youth in Vienna, where he received the classical education customarily given to the children of the nobility, excelling in science and mathematics. Gomes Freire de Andrade, ComC (27 January 1757, in Vienna - 18 October 1817) was a field marshal and officer of the Portuguese army who served France at the end of his military career. History Early life Gomes Freire de Andrade was the son of Anthony Ambrose Pereira Freire de Andrade e Castro (? - 11 November 1770), Portuguese ambassador to the Austrian court, and his wife Maria Anna Elisabeth, Countess Schaffgotsch (9 October 1738 - November 27, 1787), who was from an old noble family of Bohemia related to the second wife of the Marquis of Pombal. Whether through his lessons or life experience, Freire became fluent in Portuguese, German and French; and remained devoted to the arts, literature and philosophy throughout his life. His father was an ally of the Marquis of Pombal in his campaign against the Society of Jesus in Portugal, but died in 1770, when Freire was 13 years old, leaving the family in dire straits. Freire was forced to remain in Vienna until he could accumulate funds, then moved to France where he joined the service of the French diplomat Comte de Laforêt for several years before finally achieving his goal of living in Portugal. He went there in February 1781 at the age of 24, having acquired a knighthood in the Order of Christ from the Portuguese government to facilitate the process. Military service Destined for a military career from childhood, his father desiring him to have a career in the army and continue the family tradition of military service, Freire joined the Portuguese army as an infantry cadet in September 1782. After completing his training, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned to the 5th Company of the infantry regiment stationed at Peniche. Freire then went into the Portuguese Royal Navy, embarking in 1784 with an auxiliary squadron sent to assist the Spanish naval forces of Charles III of Spain in the shelling of Algiers. He returned to Lisbon in September, where he was promoted to lieutenant, and in April 1788 volunteered to rejoin the army, and returned to his old regiment with the rank of staff sergeant. When Russia went to war with Turkey, Freire obtained an appointment to serve in the army of Catherine II and left for St. Petersburg, where he made a favorable impression on the royal court and the empress herself. During the campaign of 1788 - 1789, commanded by Prince Potemkin, Freire served with distinction in the Crimean War, on the plains of the Danube and particularly at the Siege of Ochakov, where he was among the first in his regiment on the front lines when the garrison surrendered on 17 October 1788 after a prolonged siege. Freire was overlooked when decorations were awarded for service in battle, denying him the Order of St. George. He protested, and importuned Colonel Markoff for his due certificates of heroism, leading the empress to reward him with a ceremonial sword and the rank of Colonel of the Imperial Russian Army, which rank was confirmed in absentia by the Portuguese army in 1790. Later, fighting with the Prince of Nassau's squadron in the naval battle of Svensksund, Freire was rescued after Swedish cannons destroyed the "floating battery" he commanded. Although Freire lost his crew, he eventually was decorated with the Order of St. George, one of the most esteemed military orders of Russia; receiving it not from the hands of the empress, as has been said, but from the Prince of Nassau on her behalf. There was gossip at court that Andrade had amorous feelings for the empress, seemingly confirmed by the rise of disagreements between him and Prince Potemkin, known to be her favorite. Freire returned to Lisbon, where he was assigned to the Marquês das Minas regiment, part of the division Portugal was sending to assist Spain against the French Republic, and about to sail for Catalonia. Having arrived in Lisbon on the eve of the departure of the fleet, Freire did not accompany the expedition by sea, but hurried overland across Spain to take command of the regiment. The Portuguese army arrived in Catalonia with a force of five thousand men under the command of General John Forbes, disembarking at the port of Roses near Barcelona on 11 November 1793. Among the officers of the expedition were foreigners including the Duke of Northumberland, general and peer of England, the Prince of Luxembourg Montmorency, the Count of Chalons and the Count Liautaud. Shortly after arriving at Roses, the Portuguese division left for Ceret, while the regiments of Freire de Andrade and Cascais proceeded to occupy the village of Rebós at the front lines. The passage on the road from Roses to Ceret having been made during a violent storm, they arrived completely soaked and fatigued by their accelerated march; in spite of this, they soon had to run to the trenches by the bridge over the River Tech at Ceret to aid the Spanish army, which already was preparing to attack. Freire's regiment made a brilliant debut in battle, and the French were defeated on 26 November 1793. Freire subsequently pitched camp in Arles, where he set up winter quarters for the Second Brigade. There, according to Latino Coelho, he began to show his restless and undisciplined spirit, "...the haughty courage of the Colonel abrogated full submission and fomented indiscipline throughout the division." Despite the Spanish-Portuguese army's defeat of the French Republican forces, its campaign in Roussillon would become a trap: the Spanish having 18,000 wounded men in hospital and the Portuguese a thousand men incapacitated, while the French received constant reinforcements. On 29 April 1794, General Dugommier attacked the left flank of the Spanish army, which was made up of units of the Portuguese division. The Portuguese sustained fire from daybreak till two in the afternoon, yet, remarkably, were able to save the day for the Spanish army. Freire was initiated into {{Freemason}ry} before 1785, probably in the Vienna Masonic lodge Zur gekr?nten Hoffnung (To Hope Crowned) an organization to which he is known to have belonged together with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart by 1790, attaining the rank of Worshipful Master of the Regeneration. In 1801 a meeting was held in his home which led to the organization of Portuguese {{Freemason}ry}, with the subsequent creation in 1802 of the Grande Oriente Lusitano, the oldest Portuguese Masonic order, of which he became the 5th Grand Master, c. 1815-1817. Freire also belonged to the Portuguese Military Lodge, Chevaliers de la Croix (Knights of the Cross) in Grenoble, between 1808 and 1813. End of Napoleonic Wars, charges of conspiracy Having returned to Portugal to join the Portuguese Legion organised by Jean-Andoche Junot and under the command of the Marquis de Alorna, Freire left for France in April 1808, where he was received by Napoleon Bonaparte on 1 June, and subsequently took part in the French invasion of Russia. Portugal was freed in 1811 of its occupation by French troops with Marshal Massena's retreat. Following the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Freire returned to Portugal in 1817, where he was soon implicated in and accused of leading a conspiracy against the monarchy of King John VI, who, although in exile in Brazil, was still represented by the Regency in mainland Portugal under the British military government of Marshal William Carr Beresford. Freire was arrested, imprisoned, sentenced to death and hanged on 18 October (although he asked to be shot) next to the Fort of S?o Juli?o da Barra in Oeiras, for the crime of treason along with eleven other people, including Colonel Manuel Monteiro de Carvalho, the Majors Jose Campelo de Miranda and Jose da Fonseca Neves and eight army officers. The bodies of Gomes Freire and some of the others were decapitated, burnt, and their ashes thrown into the sea. This date was for more than a century a day of mourning in Portuguese {{Freemason}ry}, and even today Freire is revered as one of the great Masons and a martyr for liberty, having numerous lodges named after him and many initiates choosing his as their symbolic name. After the trial and execution of Gomes Freire and other accused conspirators, Beresford sailed to Brazil to request expanded powers over the Portuguese military. He had intended to suspend execution of the sentence until it was confirmed by the sovereign, "but the Regency took offence at the very suggestion, as if sensing an intention to usurp authority, and ordered him in an imperious and arrogant manner to proceed immediately in implementing it." This action on the part of the Regency and Lord Beresford aroused public protests and intensified anti-British sentiment throughout Portugal, leading to the Liberal Revolution of 1820 (Revolu??o Liberal) and the fall of Beresford (1820), who was prevented from landing in Lisbon upon his return from Brazil. Battles/wars :Russo-Turkish War War of the Pyrenees War of the Oranges Napoleonic Wars Battle of Wagram Battle of Smolensk Battle of Vitebsk Battle of Borodino Peninsular War Awards: Commander of Order of Christ, Order of St. George 4th Class Name: Klenau Biography: Johann von Klenau(13 April 1758 - 6 October 1819) Allegiance: Habsburg Monarchy Branch/service: Colonel-Proprietor - 5th Chevauxleger Regiment: 20 February 1804 - 10 June 1819 Rank: General of Cavalry Klenau demonstrated his "higher military calling," establishing himself as an intrepid, tenacious, and quick-thinking field officer. Awards ? Knights Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa 30 October 1795 ? Commanders Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa 13 July 1809 ? Commander's Cross, Order of Leopold 7 January 1809 ? Grand Cross, Order of Leopold 10 November 1813 Imperial Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (Russian) October 1813 Imperial Order of St. Vladimir 2nd Class (Russian), 1813 Battles/wars War of Bavarian Succession Austro-Turkish War (1787-1791) French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars Johann Josef Cajetan Graf von Klenau, Freiherr von Janowitz (Czech: Jan hrabě z Klenove, svobodny pán z Janovic;) was a field marshal in the Habsburg army. Klenau, the son of a Bohemian noble, joined the Habsburg military as a teenager and fought in the War of Bavarian Succession against Prussia, Austria's wars with the Ottoman Empire, the French Revolutionary Wars, and the Napoleonic Wars, in which he commanded a corps in several important battles. In the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Klenau distinguished himself at the Wissembourg lines, and led a battle-winning charge at Handschuhsheim in 1795. As commander of the Coalition's left flank in the Adige campaign in northern Italy in 1799, he was instrumental in isolating the French-held fortresses on the Po River by organizing and supporting a peasant uprising in the countryside. Afterward, Klenau became the youngest lieutenant field marshal in the history of the Habsburg military. As a corps commander, Klenau led key elements of the Austrian army in its victory at Aspern-Esslingen and its defeat at Wagram, where his troops covered the retreat of the main Austrian force. He commanded the IV Corps at the 1813 Battle of Dresden and again at the Battle of Nations at Leipzig, where he prevented the French from outflanking the main Austrian force on the first day of the engagement. After the Battle of Nations, Klenau organized and implemented the successful Dresden blockade and negotiated the French capitulation there. In the 1814-15 campaign, he commanded the Corps Klenau of the Army of Italy. After the war in 1815, Klenau was appointed commanding general in Moravia and Silesia. He died in 1819. Johann Klenau entered the 47th Infantry Regiment Ellrichshausen in 1774, at the age of 17, and became a second lieutenant in 1775. After transferring to a Chevauleger regiment as a Rittmeister, or captain of cavalry, Klenau fought in the short War of the Bavarian Succession, also known as the Potato War. Most of this conflict occurred in Bohemia (part of the modern Czech Republic) from 1778 to 1779, between the Habsburg Monarchy, Saxony, Bavaria and Prussia. The war had no battles, but was instead a series of skirmishes and raids, making it the ideal situation for a captain of light cavalry. In their raids, forces from both sides sought to confiscate or destroy the other's provisions, fodder, and materiel. In the Austro-Turkish War (1787-1791), one of the House of Habsburg's many 18th-century wars with the Ottoman Empire, Klenau served in the 26th Dragoon Regiment Toscana, and later transferred to the 1st Dragoon Regiment Kaiser. His regiment repulsed an attack of superior numbers of Ottoman forces on 28 September 1788, at Zemun, near Belgrade, for which he received a personal commendation and earned his promotion to major. In his early military career Klenau demonstrated, not only at Zemun but also in the earlier skirmishing and raids of 1778 and 1779, the attributes required of a successful cavalry officer: the military acumen to evaluate a situation, the flexibility to adjust his plans on a moment's notice, and the personal courage to take the same risks he demanded of his men. French Revolutionary Wars Background See also: French Revolutionary Wars Initially, the rulers of Europe considered the 1789 revolution in France as an affair between the French king and his subjects, and not a matter in which they should interfere. However, as the rhetoric grew more strident after 1790, the European monarchs began to view the French upheavals with alarm. Among the concerned monarchs were the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, who feared for the life and well-being of his sister, the Queen of France, Marie Antoinette. In August 1791, in consultation with French emigre nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia, he issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis XVI and his family. They threatened ambiguous, but quite serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. The French Republican position became increasingly difficult. Compounding problems in international relations, French emigres agitated for support of a counter-revolution. From their base in Koblenz, adjacent to the French-German border, they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe, and raised an army. On 20 April 1792, the French National Convention declared war on Austria and its allies. In this War of the First Coalition (1792-1798), France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her. Portugal and the Ottoman Empire also joined the alliance against France. Klenau and the War of the First Coalition On 12 February 1793, Klenau received his promotion to lieutenant colonel in a Lancer regiment, and joined the Austrian force in the Rhineland, serving under General of Cavalry Count Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser. He was captured later in the spring near the town of Offenbach, but was freed unexpectedly by two Austrian Hussars from the 17th Regiment Archduke Alexander Leopold, who came upon him and his captors. At the first Battle of Wissembourg, Klenau commanded a brigade in Friedrich, Baron von Hotze's 3rd Column on 13 October 1793, during which the Habsburg force stormed the 19 kilometers (12 mi) earthen ramparts held by the French. By the terms of the Peace of Basel (22 July 1795), the Prussian army was to leave the Rhine and Main river valleys; as it did so, the French quickly overran these territories. On 20 September, the fortress at Mannheim surrendered to the French without firing a shot. Mannheim had been garrisoned by a Bavarian commander, Lieutenant General Baron von Belderbusch, and several battalions of Bavarian grenadiers, fusiliers, and guard regiments, plus six companies of artillery. A small Austrian force augmented the Bavarian contingent. At the same time, further north, the fortified town of Düsseldorf, also garrisoned by Bavarians, capitulated to the French. With these capitulations, the French controlled the Rhine crossings at Düsseldorf and at the junction of the Rhine and the Main rivers. To maintain contact with the forces on their flanks, the Austrian commanders, outraged at this fait accompli, had to withdraw across the Main river. The nearby city of Heidelberg, further south of the Main on the Neckar River, appeared to be the next French target. Lieutenant Field Marshal Peter Quasdanovich, who had remained in the region between Mannheim and Heidelberg, used a hastily enhanced abatis to establish a defensive line at the sleepy country village of Handschuhsheim, east of the city of Heidelberg. The French force of two divisions—about 12,000 men—outnumbered the 8,000 defenders, and the position seemed untenable. Klenau's charge At Handschuhsheim, Klenau commanded a mounted brigade that included the six squadrons of the 4th Cuirassiers Regiment Hohenzollern, two squadrons of the 3rd Dragoon Regiment Kaiser, six squadrons of the 44th Hussar regiment Szeckler, and four squadrons of the French emigre regiment Allemand. On 24 September 1795, seeing the French, with five battalions and a regiment of Chasseurs overwhelming the troops of General Adam Bajalics von Bajahaza, Klenau quickly organized his own brigade into three columns and attacked. In a battle-winning charge, Klenau's brigade (approximately 4,000 men) dispersed the French divisions of Charles Pichegru's Army of the Upper Rhine, under the command of General of Division Georges Joseph Dufour. His cavalry caught Dufour's entire division in the open, dispersed Dufour's six squadrons of Chasseurs, and cut down Dufour's infantry. With a loss of 193 men and 54 horses, the Austrians inflicted over 1,500 French casualties, including 1,000 killed; they also captured eight guns, nine ammunition caissons and their teams, and General Dufour himself. In the action, General of Brigade Dusirat was wounded, as was Dufour before his capture. Additional Austrian losses included 35 men and 58 horses killed, six officers, 144 men and 78 horses wounded, and two men and three horses missing. For his role in this exploit, Klenau was promoted to colonel and awarded the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. At Handschuhsheim, as he had earlier at Zemon, Klenau demonstrated his "higher military calling," establishing himself as an intrepid, tenacious, and quick-thinking field officer. Action in the Italian theater In 1796, Klenau commanded the advance guard of Peter Quasdanovich's right column in northern Italy. As the column descended from the Alps at the city of Brescia, reconnaissance found the local French garrison unprepared. At midnight, Klenau led two squadrons of the 8th Hussar Regiment Wurmser (named for its Colonel-Proprietor Dagobert von Wurmser), a battalion of the 37th Infantry Regiment De Vins, and one company of the Mahony J?ger. With their approach masked by fog and darkness, the small force surprised the Brescia garrison on the morning of 30 July, capturing not only the 600-700 French soldiers stationed there, but also three officials of the French Directory: Jean Lannes, Joachim Murat, and Fran?ois etienne de Kellermann. However, within two days, Klenau's force had to face Napoleon Bonaparte and 12,000 Frenchmen; his small advance guard was quickly pushed out of Brescia on 1 August. At the subsequent Battle of Lonato of 2-3 August 1796, the French forced Quasdanovich's column to withdraw into the mountains. This isolated Quasdanovich's force from Wurmser's main army by Lake Garda, and freed the French to concentrate on the main force at Castiglione delle Stiviere, further south; Bonaparte's victory at the Battle of Castiglione forced Wurmser across the Mincio River, and allowed the French to return to the siege of Mantua. By early September, Klenau's force had rejoined Wurmser's column and fought at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September. Here, the Austrians were outnumbered almost two to one by the French. As the Austrian army retreated, Bonaparte ordered a pursuit that caused the Austrians to abandon their artillery and baggage. Most of the third battalion of the 59th Jordis, and the first battalion of the Border Infantry Banat were captured and these units ceased to exist after this battle. The Austrians lost 600 killed and wounded, and 2,000 captured, plus lost 30 guns, eight colors, and 200 limbers and ammunition waggons. Klenau was with Wurmser's column again as it fought its way to besieged Mantua and he participated in the combat at La Favorita near there on 15 September. This was the second attempt to relieve the fortress; as the Austrians withdrew from the battle, they retreated into Mantua itself, and from 15 September until 2 February 1797, Klenau was trapped in the fortress while the city was besieged. Following the Austrian loss at the Battle of Rivoli, 48 kilometers (30 mi) north of Mantua, on 14-15 January 1797, when clearly there would be no Austrian relief for Mantua, Klenau negotiated conditions of surrender with French General Jean Serurier, although additional evidence suggests that Bonaparte was present and dictated far more generous terms than Klenau expected. When the garrison capitulated in February, Klenau co-signed the document with Wurmser. The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details. These were to be convened at a small town in the upper Rhine valley, Rastatt, close to the French border. The primary combatants of the First Coalition, France and Austria, were highly suspicious of each other's motives, and the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue and diplomatic posturing. The French demanded more territory than originally agreed. The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories. The Rastatt delegates could not, or would not, orchestrate the transfer of agreed-upon territories to compensate the German princes for their losses. Compounding the Congress's problems, tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies, either separately or jointly. Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay agreed-upon tribute to France, and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion. The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopean Republic. A republican uprising in the Swiss cantons, encouraged by the French Republic which offered military support, led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic. Other factors contributed to the rising tensions. On his way to Egypt in 1798, Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and forcibly removed the Hospitallers from their possessions. This angered Paul, Tsar of Russia, who was the honorary head of the Order. The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war. Indeed, the weaker the French Republic seemed, the more seriously the Austrians, the Neapolitans, the Russians, and the English actually discussed this possibility. Napoleonic Wars War of the Third Coalition In the War of the Third Coalition, 1803-1806, an alliance of Austria, Portugal, Russia, and others fought the First French Empire and its client states. Although several naval battles determined control of the seas, the outcome of the war was determined on the continent, predominantly in two major land operations. In the Ulm campaign, Klenau's force achieved the single Austrian victory prior to the surrender of the Austrian army in Swabia. In the second determining event, the decisive French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz over the combined Russian and Austrian force forced a final capitulation of the Austrian forces and took the Habsburgs out of the Coalition. This did not establish a lasting peace on the continent. Prussian worries about growing French influence in Central Europe sparked the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806, in which Austria did not participate. Danube campaign: Road to Ulm Action on the Danube by Vienna Aspern and Essling By May 1809, the Austrians were pushed to within visual distance of Vienna, and in a critical engagement on the banks of the Danube river, the French and their allies grappled for control of the Marchfeld plain with the Austrians. The French held Lobau island, a vital river crossing, and the Austrians held the heights further to the east. Between them lay several villages, two of which were central in the engagement and gave the battle its name: They lay so close to Vienna that the battle could be seen and heard from the city ramparts and Aspern and Essling (also spelled in German as E?ling) are today part of the Donaustadt, a district of Austrian capital. At the Battle of Aspern-Essling, Klenau commanded a free-standing force of close to 6,000, including a battalion of the 1st J?ger, three battalions of the 3rd Infantry Regiment Archduke Charles, eight squadrons each of the Stipcisc Hussars and Schwarzenburg Uhlans, and a horse artillery battery of 64 guns. Typical confusion in the Austrian command structure meant he received his orders late, and Klenau's delay in deployment meant that his men approached the French III Corps at Essling in daylight and in close order; a two-gun French battery on the plain beyond the Essling, "mowed furrows" of enfilade fire in the Austrian ranks. Despite the withering fire, Klenau's force reached Essling's edge, where his men set up 64 artillery pieces and bombarded the French for nearly an hour. Taking the village by storm, Austrian cavalry poured into the village from the north, and the French were pushed out in a methodical advance. Klenau's batteries were able to fire on the French-held bridges south of the village, over which the French had to retreat. In bitter house-to-house fighting, the Austrians entered the village. Combat at the granary was especially brutal, as Hungarian grenadiers battled unsuccessfully to dislodge the French from their positions in the second and third floors. The battle resumed at dawn of 22 April. Massena cleared Aspern of Austrians, but while he did so, Rosenberg's force stormed Jean Lannes' position at Essling. Lannes, reinforced by Vincent Saint-Hilaire's division, subsequently drove Rosenberg out of Essling. At Aspern, Massena was driven out by Hiller and Bellegarde's counter-attacks. Meanwhile, Napoleon had launched an attack on the main army at the Austrian center. Klenau's force stood on the immediate right flank of the center, opposite the attacking force of Lannes. The French cavalry, in reserve, prepared to move at either flank, or to the center, depending on where the Austrian line broke first. The French nearly broke through at the center but, at the last minute, Charles arrived with his last reserve, leading his soldiers with a color in his hand. Lannes was checked, and the impetus of the attack died out all along the line. In the final hours of the battle, Lannes himself was cut down by a cannonball from Klenau's artillery. Aspern was lost to the French. The Danube bridges upon which the French relied had been cut again by heavy barges, which the Austrians had released on the river. When he lost his route across the river, Napoleon at once suspended the attack. For his leadership at Essling, Klenau received the Commander's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. Both sides lost close to 28,000 men, to wounds and death. For Napoleon, whose force was smaller, the losses were more costly. For Charles, the victory, which occurred within visual range of the Vienna ramparts, won him support from the hawks, or the pro-war party, in the Hofburg. The Austrian victory at Aspern-Essling proved that Napoleon could be beaten. His force had been divided (Davout's corps had never made it over the Danube), and Napoleon had underestimated the Austrian strength of force and, more importantly, the tenacity the Austrians showed in situations like that of Essling, when Klenau marched his force across open country under enemy fire. After Aspern-Essling, Napoleon revised his opinion of the Austrian soldier. Wagram In the lull between the Battle of Aspern-Essling and the Battle of Wagram (5-6 July) Charles ordered the construction of a several-mile-long entrenchment, but did little else to shore up his force. Conversely, on the other side of the Danube, Napoleon brought in additional troops from Italy and Hungary. The day prior to the battle at Wagram, Klenau replaced General Johann von Hiller, who had fallen ill, to command the 13,740 soldiers of VI Corps, and Armand von Nordmann replaced him as commander of the Advance Guard. Klenau's Corps stood about 8 kilometers (5 mi) ahead of the main Austrian force. The Corps, about 8,000 men, were ordered to oppose any French advance on the Marchfeld plain. By mid-afternoon, Klenau could see Napoleon's massive force advancing toward them through the cornfields. Klenau managed a spirited, and gradual withdrawal to a position behind the Austrian line at the Russbach, and above the Wagram escarpment; this exposed several of the villages on the western edge of the Marchfield Plain, including Aspern and Essling, to French capture. On the next day of battle, Klenau was ordered to a forward position, to complete a double-envelopment of Napoleon's force, envisioned by Charles as the best means of inducing panic among the French troops. At dawn, or so, at 0400, his cannonade rained havoc on Boudet's division of Massena's IV Corps; Massena sent another division under Claude Legrand to support Boudet. Klenau's corps managed to retake both Essling and Aspern, without the same vigorous contest that had occurred two months earlier. Half the pincer movement was well underway, although Klenau's force could not move further ahead: The guns on the Island of Lobau prevented further advance. There was no support from Kollorat's forces on his flank, and for the closing prong of the pincer movement, Archduke John was no where in sight; he had not abandoned his baggage, and was plodding slowly, with his army, toward the battlefield, but still a good day's march away. Despite the mile-long gap in the French line, and the advance of Austrian cavalry, Klenau's men could not hold them against Andre Massena's prolonged mid-day assault. Charles watched from his command post at Wagram as Klenau's forces stubbornly clung to their positions, but were overwhelmed by the inexorable progress of Massena's troops, what Klenau later called Massena's Infernal Column. Klenau organized the rear guard for the Army's retreat into Moravia, and lost 15 percent of his force. General Rene Savary, who directed part of the French pursuit, wrote that the Klenau's soldiers had "fought in a manner calculated to instill a cautious conduct into any man disposed to deeds of rashness." Aftermath As a consequence, Austria withdrew from the Coalition. Although France had not completely defeated them, the Treaty of Sch?nbrunn, signed on 14 October 1809, imposed a heavy political, territorial, and economic price. France received Carinthia, Carniola, and the Adriatic ports, while Galicia was given to France's ally Poland. The Salzburg area went to the French ally, Bavaria. Austria lost over three million subjects, about 20 percent of her total population, which dramatically reduced the military force that Austria could field. Francis also agreed to pay an indemnity equivalent to almost 85 million francs, gave recognition to Joseph Bonaparte as the King of Spain, and affirmed Habsburg participation in Napoleon's Continental System. Francis reluctantly agreed to Napoleon's marriage with his daughter, Marie Louise, which Napoleon assumed, incorrectly, would eliminate Austria as a future threat. War of Liberation 1813 See also: German Campaign of 1813 Battle of Dresden Strategically, the Battle of Dresden demonstrated the problems of the Coalition's strategy. On 25 August, the three monarchs—Alexander II of Russia, Francis II of Austria, and Frederick William III of Prussia—and their staffs assembled on an overlook of the city to discuss their strategy. The city's weak defenses were clear from this vantage point: the French and Saxon garrison of 20,000 men under Marshal Saint-Cyr could not hope to hold a city of that size. The Tsar and General Jean Victor Moreau, formerly a General of France and by 1813 an adviser to the Coalition, wanted to attack at once; Schwarzenberg wanted to wait until additional forces arrived. By waiting one day, the Coalition lost the advantage. As the Coalition assaulted the southern suburbs of the city, Napoleon arrived from the north and west with the Guard and Marmont's VI Corps, covering 140 kilometers (87 mi) in forced marches over three days. The leading elements of Klenau's corps were placed on the army's left flank, separated from the main body by the Wei?eritz, flooded after almost a week of rain. Marshal Joachim Murat took advantage of this isolation and inflicted heavy losses on the Austrians. A French participant observed, separating Klenau's corps from the Austrian army, Murat "hurl himself upon it at the head of the carabineers and cuirassiers. His movement was decisive; Klenau could not resist that terrible charge. Nearly all his battalions were compelled to lay down their arms, and two other divisions of infantry shared their fate." Murat captured intact a division of five infantry regiments (15,000 men) under command of Lieutenant Field Marshal Joseph, Baron von Mesko de Fels?-Kubiny, plus 15 of their regimental and company colors. As the left wing disintegrated, the French swarmed over the flank; the right wing was also driven back, and the entire force had to withdraw. After the immediate defense of Dresden, though, Napoleon's situation deteriorated. Vandamme pursued the retreating Army of Bohemia, expecting to be supported by St. Cyr and General Marmont, who were still busy in Dresden. Vandamme approached the Russian corps commanded by Ostermann-Tolstoy, but left a valley behind him unprotected as he descended out of the mountain into Bohemia. As he engaged Ostermann-Tolstoy, he saw some troops behind him, which soon attacked him; thus beset from two sides, his young troops were unable to defend themselves; at the Battle of Kulm, Vandamme lost his entire artillery, and the Austrians acquired about 7,500 prisoners, including the general himself. To the north of Dresden, as Napoleon appeared to be engaged, looking elsewhere, Blücher brought his troops south, toward the city. Realizing the danger, Napoleon directed his main army north again, to repel the Prussians; as he did so, the wiley Blücher withdrew. Other portions of the French army had comparable difficulties. Marshal Oudinot was repelled by Bernadotte at the Battle of Gro?beeren, and MacDonald, near the Bober river. Furthermore, Napoleon began to suffer from illness, referred to variously as a colic or fatigue. Battle of Leipzig From 12 to 15 October, the days of skirmishing preliminary to the Battle of Leipzig (16-19 October), Klenau's force took the heavily defended village Liebertwolkwitz, but were forced out in a French counter-attack. A contemporary witness later described finding dead Austrians at the church cemetery, pinned to the walls with bayonets. Klenau's primary objective was the village of Liebertwolkwitz. He took the Kolmberg, a nearby height also known as the Schwedenschanze (Swedish fortification), a defensive remnant of the Thirty Years' War about 4 kilometers (2 mi) east of the village, and established a battery there, but did not bring enough troops to support it. An attack by 4,000 of Jacques MacDonald's infantry secured the hill; although Klenau's cavalry managed to push the French back, they could not retake the hill. In the action, Klenau's own horse was shot and killed, and he was nearly captured, but he struggled back to his line, and reorganized his men. Eventually, Klenau's corps took the village and the Kolmberg several times, to be pushed out by the French, to counter-attack, retreat, counter-attack and retreat and this see-sawing back and forth, the attacks, counter-attacks experienced by Klenau's force, were characteristic of the battle. On the critical first day of the battle, 16 October, a French 100-gun artillery barrage forced a hole in the line between the Russian and Prussian forces on Klenau's flank. When Murat's cavalry charged the hole, Klenau's corps, plus reserve cavalry, eventually forced the Murat's troops back to the cover of the French artillery. Klenau's force made a short retreat, leaving a detachment at the Kolmberg. By mid-afternoon, the Allied columns had been driven to their starting positions, but had maintained their line; as one part of the line was forced back, its flanks dropped back with it, maintaining a continuous line and preventing a French flanking operation. In this first-day action, Klenau's force played a vital role in preventing MacDonald from flanking Prince Schwarzenberg's main army. On the night of the 16th, the French controlled the Kolmberg that Klenau had fought over all day, and a Hessian soldier wrote: "it was the worst bivouac we had experienced on this campaign. The weather was wet and windy ... we had to use water from puddles in which lay the blood of men and horses ... and half the men remained under arms at all times." Klenau and the Siege of Dresden After the battle, the allied high command assigned Klenau to blockade the large French garrison at Dresden. His IV Austrian Corps of the Army of Bohemia included the division of Lt. General Alexander Ivanovich, Count Ostermann-Tolstoy, and the militia of Major General Alexey Nikolayevich Titov, a total of approximately 41,000 troops. Klenau eventually negotiated a capitulation in which the French troops would return to France with their honors, on condition that they would not fight against the Allies for six months. Marshal Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr surrendered to Klenau on 11 November, but Schwarzenburg refused to agree to the capitulation and the French troops marched into captivity into Austria instead. The victors took 94 French field guns and 151 Saxon fortress guns, and wrested from the French complete control over the Kingdom of Saxony. War in France 1814-1815 and post-war career During the 1814 campaigns, Klenau remained with the Army of Bohemia as it approached Paris slowly, from the south-east, via the Seine river valley. The armies would be as many as 32 kilometers (20 mi) apart. Their communications would be conducted through Wittgenstein's cavalry and some irregular cossacks, which was directly opposite to the Trachenberg plan. Schwarzenberg knew it was exactly what Napoleon would want them to do, but reluctantly agreed to it. Afterward, Klenau commanded a corps in Italy, known as the Korps Klenau. After the war ended again in 1815, Klenau was appointed commanding general in Moravia and Silesia. He held this office until his death on 6 October 1819 at Brno, in the modern-day Czech Republic. Name: Franz II Biography: Francis II Names:Franz Josef Karl Position: Holy Roman Emperor King in Germany(5 July 1792 - 6 August 1806), Archduke/Emperor of Austria(1 March 1792/11 August 1804 - 2 March 1835), Head of the Pr?sidialmacht Austria( 20 June 1815 - 2 March 1835), King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia(1 March 1792 - 2 March 1835), King of Lombardy-Venetia ( 9 June 1815 - 2 March 1835) House:Habsburg-Lorraine Religion:Roman Catholicism Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary in his young age,there he traversed the Empire soilds for his uncle and fatherFrancis II (German: Franz II.; 12 February 1768 - 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor from 1792 to 1806 and, as Francis I, the first Emperor of Austria from 1804 to 1835. He assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in response to the coronation of Napoleon as Emperor of the French. Soon after Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine, Francis abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor. He was King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. He also served as the first president of the German Confederation following its establishment in 1815. Francis II continued his leading role as an opponent of Napoleonic France in the Napoleonic Wars, and suffered several more defeats after Austerlitz. The marriage of his daughter Marie Louise of Austria to Napoleon on 10 March 1810 was arguably his severest personal defeat. After the abdication of Napoleon following the War of the Sixth Coalition, Austria participated as a leading member of the Holy Alliance at the Congress of Vienna, which was largely dominated by Francis's chancellor Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich culminating in a new European map and the restoration of most of Francis's ancient dominions. Due to the establishment of the Concert of Europe, which largely resisted popular nationalist and liberal tendencies, Francis was viewed as a reactionary later in his reign. Francis II's grandchildren include Napoleon II (Napoleon's only legitimate son), Franz Joseph I of Austria, Maximilian I of Mexico, Maria II of Portugal and Pedro II of Brazil. Early life Francis was a son of Emperor Leopold II (1747-1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain (1745-1792), daughter of Charles III of Spain. Francis was born in Florence, the capital of Tuscany, where his father reigned as Grand Duke from 1765 to 1790. Though he had a happy childhood surrounded by his many siblings, his family knew Francis was likely to be a future Emperor (his uncle Joseph had no surviving issue from either of his two marriages), and so in 1784 the young Archduke was sent to the Imperial Court in Vienna to educate and prepare him for his future role. Emperor Joseph II himself took charge of Francis's development. His disciplinarian regime was a stark contrast to the indulgent Florentine Court of Leopold. The Emperor wrote that Francis was "stunted in growth", "backward in bodily dexterity and deportment", and "neither more nor less than a spoiled mother's child." Joseph concluded that "the manner in which he was treated for upwards of sixteen years could not but have confirmed him in the delusion that the preservation of his own person was the only thing of importance." Joseph's martinet method of improving the young Francis was "fear and unpleasantness." The young Archduke was isolated, the reasoning being that this would make him more self-sufficient as it was felt by Joseph that Francis "failed to lead himself, to do his own thinking." Nonetheless, Francis greatly admired his uncle, if rather feared him. To complete his training, Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary and he settled easily into the routine of military life. After the death of Joseph II in 1790, Francis's father became Emperor. He had an early taste of power while acting as Leopold's deputy in Vienna while the incoming Emperor traversed the Empire attempting to win back those alienated by his brother's policies. The strain told on Leopold and by the winter of 1791, he became ill. He gradually worsened throughout early 1792; on the afternoon of 1 March Leopold died, at the relatively young age of 44. Francis, just past his 24th birthday, was now Emperor, much sooner than he had expected. Emperor As the head of the Holy Roman Empire and the ruler of the vast multi-ethnic Habsburg hereditary lands, Francis felt threatened by the French revolutionaries and later Napoleon's expansionism as well as their social and political reforms which were being exported throughout Europe in the wake of the conquering French armies. Francis had a fraught relationship with France. His aunt Marie Antoinette, the wife of Louis XVI and Queen consort of France, was guillotined by the revolutionaries in 1793, at the beginning of his reign, although, on the whole, he was indifferent to her fate. Later, he led the Holy Roman Empire into the French Revolutionary Wars. He briefly commanded the Allied forces during the Flanders Campaign of 1794 before handing over command to his brother Archduke Charles. He was later defeated by Napoleon. By the Treaty of Campo Formio, he ceded the left bank of the Rhine to France in exchange for Venice and Dalmatia. He again fought against France during the War of the Second Coalition. On 11 August 1804, in response to Napoleon crowning himself as emperor of the French earlier that year, he announced that he would henceforth assume the title of hereditary emperor of Austria as Francis I, a move that technically was illegal in terms of imperial law. Yet Napoleon had agreed beforehand and therefore it happened. During the War of the Third Coalition, the Austrian forces met a crushing defeat at Austerlitz, and Francis had to agree to the Treaty of Pressburg, which greatly weakened Austria and brought about the final collapse of Holy Roman Empire. In July 1806, under massive pressure from France, Bavaria and fifteen other German states ratified the statutes founding the Confederation of the Rhine, with Napoleon designated Protector, and they announced to the Imperial Diet their intention to leave the Empire with immediate effect. Then, on 22 July, Napoleon issued an ultimatum to Francis demanding that he abdicate as Holy Roman Emperor by 10 August. Five days later, Francis bowed to the inevitable and, without mentioning the ultimatum, affirmed that since the Peace of Pressburg he has tried his best to fulfil his duties as emperor but that circumstances had convinced him that he could no longer rule according to his oath of office, the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine making that impossible. He added that "we hereby decree that we regard the bond which until now tied us to the states of the Empire as dissolved" in effect dissolving the empire. At the same time he declared the complete and formal withdrawal of his hereditary lands from imperial jurisdiction. After that date, he reigned as Francis I, Emperor of Austria. In 1809, Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the Peninsular War embroiling Napoleon in Spain. He was again defeated, and this time forced to ally himself with Napoleon, ceding territory to the Empire, joining the Continental System, and wedding his daughter Marie-Louise to the Emperor. The Napoleonic wars drastically weakened Austria, making it entirely landlocked and threatened its preeminence among the states of Germany, a position that it would eventually cede to the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1813, for the fourth and final time, Austria turned against France and joined Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Sweden in their war against Napoleon. Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France—in recognition of this, Francis, represented by Clemens von Metternich, presided over the Congress of Vienna, helping to form the Concert of Europe and the Holy Alliance, ushering in an era of conservatism in Europe. The German Confederation, a loose association of Central European states was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress was a personal triumph for Francis, who hosted the assorted dignitaries in comfort, though Francis undermined his allies Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III of Prussia by negotiating a secret treaty with the restored French king Louis XVIII. Domestic policy The violent events of the French Revolution impressed themselves deeply into the mind of Francis (as well as all other European monarchs), and he came to distrust radicalism in any form. In 1794, a "Jacobin" conspiracy was discovered in the Austrian and Hungarian armies. The leaders were put on trial, but the verdicts only skirted the perimeter of the conspiracy. Francis's brother Alexander Leopold (at that time Palatine of Hungary) wrote to the Emperor admitting "Although we have caught a lot of the culprits, we have not really got to the bottom of this business yet." Nonetheless, two officers heavily implicated in the conspiracy were hanged and gibbeted, while numerous others were sentenced to imprisonment (many of whom died from the conditions). Francis was from his experiences suspicious and set up an extensive network of police spies and censors to monitor dissent (in this he was following his father's lead, as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany had the most effective secret police in Europe). Even his family did not escape attention. His brothers, the Archdukes Charles and Johann had their meetings and activities spied upon. Censorship was also prevalent. The author Franz Grillparzer, a Habsburg patriot, had one play suppressed solely as a "precautionary" measure. When Grillparzer met the censor responsible, he asked him what was objectionable about the work. The censor replied, "Oh, nothing at all. But I thought to myself, 'One can never tell'." In military affairs Francis had allowed his brother, the Archduke Charles, extensive control over the army during the Napoleonic wars. Yet, distrustful of allowing any individual too much power, he otherwise maintained the separation of command functions between the Hofkriegsrat and his field commanders. In the later years of his reign he limited military spending, requiring it not exceed forty million florins per year; because of inflation this resulted in inadequate funding, with the army's share of the budget shrinking from half in 1817 to only twenty-three percent in 1830. Francis presented himself as an open and approachable monarch (he regularly set aside two mornings each week to meet his imperial subjects, regardless of status, by appointment in his office, even speaking to them in their own language), but his will was sovereign. In 1804, he had no compunction about announcing that through his authority as Holy Roman Emperor, he declared he was now Emperor of Austria (at the time a geographical term that had little resonance). Two years later, Francis personally wound up the moribund Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Both actions were of dubious constitutional legality. To increase patriotic sentiment during the war with France, the anthem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" was composed in 1797 to be sung as the Kaiserhymne to music by Joseph Haydn. The lyrics were adapted for later Emperors and the music lives on as the Deutschlandlied. Later years On 2 March 1835, 43 years and a day after his father's death, Francis died in Vienna of a sudden fever aged 67, in the presence of many of his family and with all the religious comforts. His funeral was magnificent, with his Viennese subjects respectfully filing past his coffin in the chapel of Hofburg Palace for three days. Francis was interred in the traditional resting place of Habsburg monarchs, the Kapuziner Imperial Crypt in Vienna's Neue Markt Square. He is buried in tomb number 57, surrounded by his four wives. Francis passed on a main point in the political testament he left for his son and heir Ferdinand to; "preserve unity in the family and regard it as one of the highest goods." In many portraits (particularly those painted by Peter Fendi) he was portrayed as the patriarch of a loving family, surrounded by his children and grandchildren. Marriages Francis II married four times: On 6 January 1788, to Elisabeth of Württemberg (21 April 1767 - 18 February 1790). On 15 September 1790, to his double first cousin Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies (6 June 1772 - 13 April 1807), daughter of King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (both were grandchildren of Empress Maria Theresa and shared all of their other grandparents in common), with whom he had twelve children, of whom only seven reached adulthood. On 6 January 1808, he married again to another first cousin, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este (14 December 1787 - 7 April 1816) with no issue. She was the daughter of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and Maria Beatrice d'Este, Princess of Modena. On 29 October 1816, to Karoline Charlotte Auguste of Bavaria (8 February 1792 - 9 February 1873) with no issue. She was daughter of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria and had been previously married to William I of Württemberg. Name: Metternich Biography: Klemens von Metternich (15 May 1773 - 11 June 1859) Position: Chancellor of the Austrian Empire,Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire Education:University of Strasbourg, University of Mainz Policy: Monarchy, conservatism Known for:The Congress of Vienna, Minister of State, Conservatism, Concert of Europe Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Prince of Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein (15 May 1773 - 11 June 1859), known as Klemens von Metternich, was a conservative Austrian statesman and diplomat who was at the center of European affairs for three decades as the Austrian Empire's foreign minister from 1809 and Chancellor from 1821 until the liberal Revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. Born into the House of Metternich in 1773 as the son of a diplomat, Metternich received a good education at the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz. Metternich rose through key diplomatic posts, including ambassadorial roles in the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of Prussia, and especially Napoleonic France. One of his first assignments as Foreign Minister was to engineer a detente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise. Soon after, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna that divided post-Napoleonic Europe amongst the major powers. For his service to the Austrian Empire, he was given the title of Prince in October 1813. Under his guidance, the "Metternich system" of international congresses continued for another decade as Austria aligned itself with Russia and to a lesser extent Prussia. This marked the high point of Austria's diplomatic importance and thereafter Metternich slowly slipped into the periphery of international diplomacy. At home, Metternich held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848 under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I. After a brief exile in London, Brighton, and Brussels that lasted until 1851, he returned to the Viennese court, this time to offer only advice to Ferdinand's successor, Franz Josef. Having outlived his generation of politicians, Metternich died at the age of 86 in 1859. A traditional conservative, Metternich was keen to maintain the balance of power, in particular by resisting Russian territorial ambitions in Central Europe and lands belonging to the Ottoman Empire. He disliked liberalism and left-wing politics and strove to prevent the breakup of the Austrian Empire, for example, by crushing nationalist revolts in Austrian northern Italy. At home, he pursued a similar policy, using censorship and a wide-ranging spy network to suppress unrest. Metternich has been both praised and heavily criticized for the policies he pursued. His supporters pointed out that he presided over the "Age of Metternich" when international diplomacy helped prevent major wars in Europe. His qualities as a diplomat were commended, some noting that his achievements were considerable in light of the weakness of his negotiating position. Meanwhile, his detractors argued that he could have done much to secure Austria's future, and he was deemed a stumbling block to reforms in Austria. Klemens Metternich was born into the House of Metternich on 15 May 1773 to Franz Georg Karl Count Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein, a diplomat who had passed from the service of the Archbishopric of Trier to that of the Imperial court, and his wife Countess Maria Beatrix Aloisia von Kageneck. He was named in honour of Prince Clemens Wenceslaus of Saxony, the archbishop-elector of Trier and the past employer of his father. He was the eldest son and had one older sister Pauline (1772-1855), wife of Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg. At the time of his birth, the family possessed a ruined keep at Beilstein, a castle at Winneberg, an estate west of Koblenz, and another in K?nigswart, Bohemia, won during the 17th century. At this time Metternich's father, described as "a boring babbler and chronic liar" by a contemporary, was the Austrian ambassador to the courts of the three Rhenish electors (Trier, Cologne and Mainz). Metternich's education was handled by his mother, heavily influenced by their proximity to France; Metternich spoke French better than German. As a child he went on official visits with his father and, under the direction of Protestant tutor John Frederick Simon, was tutored in academic subjects, swimming, and horsemanship. In the summer of 1788, Metternich began studying law at the University of Strasbourg, matriculating on 12 November. While a student he was for some time accommodated by Prince Maximilian of Zweibrücken, the future King of Bavaria. At this time he was described by Simon as "happy, handsome and lovable", though contemporaries would later recount how he had been a liar and a braggart. Metternich left Strasbourg in September 1790 to attend Leopold II's October coronation in Frankfurt, where he performed the largely honorific role of Ceremonial Marshall to the Catholic Bench of the College of the Counts of Westphalia. There, under the wing of his father, he met with the future Francis II and looked at ease among the attendant nobility. Between the end of 1790 and summer of 1792 Metternich studied law at the University of Mainz, receiving a more conservative education than at Strasbourg, a city the return to which was now unsafe. In the summers he worked with his father, who had been appointed plenipotentiary and effective ruler of the Austrian Netherlands. In March 1792 Francis succeeded as Holy Roman Emperor and was crowned in July, affording Metternich a reprise of his earlier role of Ceremonial Marshall. In the meantime France had declared war on Austria, beginning the War of the First Coalition (1792-7) and making Metternich's further study in Mainz impossible. Now in the employment of his father, he was sent on a special mission to the front. Here he led the interrogation of the French Minister of War the Marquis de Beurnonville and several accompanying National Convention commissioners. Metternich observed the siege and fall of Valenciennes, later looking back on these as substantial lessons about warfare. In early 1794 he was sent to England, ostensibly on official business helping Viscount Desandrouin, by the Treasurer-General of the Austrian Netherlands, to negotiate a loan. Ambassador Dresden and Berlin The Holy Roman Empire's defeat in the War of the Second Coalition shook up diplomatic circles, and the promising Metternich was now offered a choice between three ministerial positions: to the Imperial Diet at Regensburg; to the Kingdom of Denmark at Copenhagen; or to the Elector of Saxony at Dresden. He chose Dresden in late January 1801, and his appointment was officially announced in February. Metternich summered in Vienna, where he wrote his "Instructions", a memorandum showing a much greater understanding of statesmanship than his earlier writing. He visited the K?nigswart estate in the autumn before taking up his new position on 4 November. The subtleties of the memorandum were lost on the Saxon court, which was headed by the retiring Frederick Augustus, a man with little political initiative. Despite the boredom of the court, Metternich enjoyed the light-hearted frivolity of the city and took up a mistress, Princess Katharina Bagration-Mukhranska, who bore him a daughter, Marie-Clementine. In January 1803 Metternich and his wife had a child whom they named Viktor. In Dresden Metternich also made a number of important contacts including Friedrich Gentz, a publicist who would serve Metternich as both confidant and critic for the next thirty years. He also established links with important Polish and French political figures. To compensate for the loss of the Metternich's ancestral estates in the Moselle valley when the French Republic annexed the west bank of the Rhine, the Imperial Recess of 1803 brought Metternich's family new estates in Ochsenhausen, the title of Prince, and a seat in the Imperial Diet. In the ensuing diplomatic reshuffle Metternich was appointed ambassador to the Kingdom of Prussia, being notified of this in February 1803 and taking his position in November of that year. He arrived at a critical juncture in European diplomacy, soon growing worried about the territorial ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte, newly the leader of France. This fear was shared by the Russian court under Alexander I, and the Tsar kept Metternich informed of Russian policy. By autumn of 1804 Vienna decided on action entered into in August 1805 when the Austrian Empire (as the Holy Roman Empire was in the process of becoming) began its involvement in the War of the Third Coalition. Metternich's now almost impossible task was to convince Prussia to join the coalition against Bonaparte. Their eventual agreement was not due to Metternich, however, and after the coalition's defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz, Prussia disregarded the agreement and signed a treaty with the French instead. Paris In the ensuing reshuffle in Vienna Count Johann Philipp von Stadion-Warthausen became the Foreign Minister of Austrian Empire, freeing Metternich to assume the post of Ambassador to the Russian Empire. He never made it to Russia, as need had arisen for a new Austrian at the French court. Metternich was approved for the post in June 1806. He enjoyed being in demand and was happy to be sent to France on a generous salary of 90,000 gulden a year. After an arduous trip he took up residence in August 1806, being briefed by Baron von Vincent and Engelbert von Floret, whom he would retain as a close adviser for two decades. He met French foreign minister Prince Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord on 5 August and Napoleon himself five days later at Saint-Cloud; soon, the War of the Fourth Coalition drew both Talleyrand and Napoleon eastwards. Metternich's wife and children joined him in October, and he went into society, using his charm to win great eminence there. The presence of Eleonore did not prevent him from a series of affairs that certainly included Napoleon's sister Princess Caroline Murat, Laure Junot, and perhaps many besides. After the Treaties of Tilsit of July 1807, Metternich saw that Austria's position in Europe was much more vulnerable but believed the accord between Russia and France would not last. In the meantime he found the new French Foreign Minister, Jean-Baptiste Champagny unaccommodating and struggled to negotiate a satisfactory settlement over the future of several French forts on the River Inn. Over the following months the reach of Austrian policy, and Metternich's own reputation, increased. Metternich pushed for a Russo-Austrian alliance, though Tsar Alexander was too preoccupied with the three other wars he was engaged in to commit. Over time, Metternich came to see an eventual war with France as inevitable. In a memorable event, Metternich argued with Napoleon at Napoleon's 39th birthday celebrations in August 1808 over the increasingly obvious preparations for war on both sides. Soon after, Napoleon refused Metternich's attendance at the Congress of Erfurt; Metternich was later glad to hear from Talleyrand that Napoleon's attempts at the Congress to get Russia to invade Austria had proved unsuccessful. In late 1808 Metternich was recalled to Vienna for five weeks of meetings about the possibility of Austria invading France while Napoleon was on campaign in Spain. His memoranda reported that France was not united behind Napoleon, that Russia was unlikely to want to fight Austria, and that France had few reliable troops that could fight in central Europe. Back in Paris, Metternich was overtly apprehensive about his own safety. When Austria declared war on France, Metternich was indeed arrested in retaliation for the arrest of two French diplomats in Vienna, but the effects of this were minimal. He was allowed to leave France under escort for Austria in late May 1809. After Napoleon's capture of Vienna Metternich was conducted to the Austrian capital and exchange there for the French diplomats. Foreign Minister Detente with France As France's ally As a neutral As a coalition partner Austria's allies saw the declaration as an admission that Austria's diplomatic ambitions had failed, but Metternich viewed it as one move in a much longer campaign. For the rest of the war he strove to hold the Coalition together and, as such, to curb Russian momentum in Europe. To this end he won an early victory as an Austrian general, the Prince of Schwarzenberg, was confirmed supreme commander of the Coalition forces rather than Tsar Alexander I. He also succeeded in getting the three allied monarchs (Alexander, Francis and Prussia's Frederick William III) to follow him and their armies on campaign. With the Treaties of Teplitz, Metternich allowed Austria to remain uncommitted over the future of France, Italy, and Poland. He was still confined, however, by the British, who were subsidizing Prussia and Russia (in September Metternich requested subsidies for Austria as well). Meanwhile, the Coalition forces took the offensive. On 18 October 1813 Metternich witnessed the successful Battle of Leipzig and, two days later, he was rewarded for his "wise direction" with the rank of prince (German: Fürst). Metternich was delighted when Frankfurt was retaken in early November and, in particular, by the deference the Tsar showed Francis at a ceremony organised there by Metternich. Diplomatically, with the war drawing to a close, he remained determined to prevent the creation of a strong, unified German state, even offering Napoleon generous terms in order to retain him as a counterweight. On 2 December 1813 Napoleon agreed to talk, though these talks were delayed by the need for the participation of a more senior British diplomat, (Viscount Castlereagh). Before talks could begin, Coalition armies crossed the Rhine on 22 December. Metternich retired from Frankfurt to Breisgau to celebrate Christmas with his wife's family before travelling to the new Coalition headquarters at Basel in January 1814. Quarrels with Tsar Alexander, particularly over the fate of France intensified in January, prompting Alexander to storm out. He therefore missed the arrival of Castlereagh in mid-January. Metternich and Castlereagh formed a good working relationship and then met with Alexander at Langres. The Tsar remained unaccommodating however, demanding a push into the centre of France; but he was too preoccupied to object to Metternich's other ideas, like a final peace conference in Vienna. Metternich did not attend talks with the French at Chatillon, as he wanted to stay with Alexander. The talks stalled, and, after a brief advance, Coalition forces had to retreat after the Montmirail and Montereau. This relieved Metternich's fears that an overconfident Alexander might act unilaterally. Metternich continued negotiations with the French envoy Caulaincourt through early to mid March 1814, when victory at the Laon put the Coalition back on the offensive. By this time Metternich was tiring of trying to hold the Coalition together, and even the British-engineered Treaty of Chaumont did not help. In the absence of the Prussians and Russians the Coalition agreed to the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty. Francis rejected a final plea from Napoleon that he would abdicate in favour of his son with Marie Louise as regent, and Paris fell on 30 March. Military manoeuvres had forced Metternich westward to Dijon on 24 March and now, after a deliberate delay, he left for the French capital on 7 April. On 10 April he found a city at peace and, much to his annoyance, largely in the control of Tsar Alexander. The Austrians disliked the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau that Russia had imposed on Napoleon in their absence, but Metternich was reluctant to oppose them and on 11 April signed the treaty. Thereafter he focused on safeguarding Austrian interests in the forthcoming peace; asserting Austria's influence in Germany over that of Prussia; and undoing Russian ascendancy. For these reasons he ensured that the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, lost to French client states in 1805, were duly re-annexed. On the division of formerly French-occupied Poland and Germany, Metternich was more confined by the interests of the Allies. After two failed proposals, advanced by the Prussians, the issue was postponed until after a peace treaty had been signed. Elsewhere, Metternich, like many of his counterparts, was anxious to provide the renewed French monarchy with the resources to suppress the new revolution. The generous Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 May. Now free, Metternich accompanied Tsar Alexander to England; Wilhelmine, who had followed Metternich to Paris, also made the crossing. A triumphant Metternich filled his four weeks with revelry, re-establishing his reputation and that of Austria; he was also awarded an honorary law degree from the University of Oxford. By contrast and to Metternich's pleasure, Alexander was ill-mannered and often insulting. Despite the opportunities, little diplomacy took place; instead, all that was firmly agreed was that proper discussions would take place at Vienna, with a date tentatively set for 15 August. When the Tsar tried to postpone it to October Metternich agreed but effected conditions that prevented Alexander from exercising any advantage due to his de facto control of Poland. Metternich was eventually reunited with his family in Austria in the middle of July 1814, having stopped for a week in France to soothe fears surrounding Napoleon's wife Marie Louise, now the Duchess of Parma. His return to Vienna was celebrated by an occasional cantata that included the line "History holds thee up to posterity as a model among great men". Congress of Vienna Further information: Congress of Vienna Paris and Italy Metternich was soon back with coalition allies in Paris, once more discussing peace terms. After 133 days of negotiations, longer than the turmoil itself, the second Treaty of Paris was concluded on 20 November. Metternich, of the opinion that France should not be dismembered, was happy with the result: France lost only a little land along its eastern borders, seven hundred million French francs, and the artworks it had plundered. It also accepted an army of occupation numbering 150,000. In the meantime a separate treaty, proposed by Alexander and redrafted by Metternich, had been signed on 26 September. This created a new Holy Alliance centered on Russia, Prussia and Austria; it was a document Metternich neither pushed for nor wanted, given its vaguely liberal sentiments. Representatives from most of the European states eventually signed, with the exception of the Pope, the United Kingdom, and the Ottoman Empire. Shortly afterwards, a separate treaty reaffirmed the Quadruple Alliance and established through its sixth article the Congress System of regular diplomatic meetings. With Europe at peace, the Austrian flag now flew over 50% more land than when Metternich had become Foreign Minister. Metternich now returned to the question of Italy, making his first visit to the country in early December 1815. After visiting Venice, his family joined him in Milan on 18 December. For once it was Metternich playing the liberal, vainly urging Francis to give the region some autonomy. Metternich spent four months in Italy, endlessly busy and suffering chronic inflammation of the eyelids. He tried to control Austrian foreign policy from Milan and when there was a serious disagreement between the Empire and the Kingdom of Bavaria, was heavily criticised for his absence. His enemies could not capitalise on this, however; Stadion was occupied by his work as finance minister and the Empress Maria Ludovika, a fierce critic of Metternich's policies, died in April. The uncharacteristic gap between the views of Metternich and his emperor was eased only by the active compromise of proposals. Metternich returned to Vienna on 28 May 1816 after almost a year's absence. Professionally, the rest of 1816 passed quietly for the tired Minister, who was concerned with fiscal policy and monitoring the spread of liberalism in Germany and nationalism in Italy. Personally, he was shaken in November by the death of Julie Zichy-Festetics. Two years later he wrote that his "life ended there," and his old frivolity took some time to return. The only consolation was July's news that Metternich was to receive new estates along the Rhine at Johannisberg, only 25 miles (40 km) from his birthplace at Koblenz. In June 1817 Metternich was required to escort the emperor's newlywed daughter Maria Leopoldina to a ship at Livorno. There was delay upon their arrival, and Metternich spent the time travelling around Italy again; he visited Venice, Padua, Ferrara, Pisa, Florence and Lucca. Though alarmed by developments (he noted that many of Francis' concessions were still not in practice), he was optimistic and made another plea for decentralisation on 29 August. After this failed, Metternich decided to broaden his efforts into general administrative reform to avoid the appearance of favouring the Italians over the rest of the Empire. While working on this, he returned to Vienna on 12 September 1817 to be immediately caught up in the organisation of his daughter Maria's marriage to Count Joseph Esterházy just three days later. It proved too much, and Metternich was taken ill. After a delay for recovery, Metternich condensed his proposals for Italy into three documents he submitted to Francis, all dated 27 October 1817. The administration would remain undemocratic, but there would be a new Ministry of Justice and four new chancellors—each with local remits, including one for "Italy". Importantly, the divisions would be regional, not national. In the end, Francis accepted the revised proposals, albeit with several alterations and restrictions. Aachen, Teplice, Karlsbad, Troppau and Laibach Metternich's primary focus remained on preserving unity among the Great Powers of Europe and hence his own power as mediator. He was also concerned by liberal-minded Ioannis Kapodistrias' increasing influence over Tsar Alexander and the continual threat of Russia annexing large areas of the declining Ottoman Empire (the so-called Eastern Question). As he had earlier envisaged, by April 1818 Britain had drawn up, and Metternich pushed through, proposals to have a Congress at Aachen, then a Prussian frontier town, six months later. Meanwhile, Metternich was advised to go to the spa town of Karlsbad to treat the rheumatic tension in his back. It was a pleasant month-long trip, although it was there he received news of the death of his father at the age of 72. He visited the family estate at K?nigswart and then Frankfurt in late August to encourage the member states of the German Confederation to agree on procedural issues. He could also now visit Koblenz for the first time in 25 years and his new estate at Johannisberg. Travelling with Emperor Francis, he was warmly greeted by the Catholic towns along the Rhine as he progressed towards Aachen. He had arranged in advance for newspapers to cover the first peacetime congress of its kind. As discussions began, Metternich pushed for the withdrawal of allied troops from France and means for preserving the unity of the European powers. The former was agreed almost immediately, but the latter agreement extended only to maintaining the Quadruple Alliance. Metternich rejected the Tsar's idealistic plans for (among other things) a single European army. His own recommendations to the Prussians for greater controls on freedom of speech was equally hard for other powers such as Britain to support openly. Metternich travelled with Princess Dorothea von Lieven to Brussels soon after the congress broke up, and although he could not stay more than a few days, the pair exchanged letters for the next eight years. He arrived in Vienna on 11 December 1818 and was finally able to spend considerable time with his children. He entertained the Tsar during the Christmas season and spent twelve weeks monitoring Italy and Germany before setting off with the Emperor on the third trip to Italy. The trip was cut short by the assassination of the conservative German dramatist August von Kotzebue. After a short delay, Metternich decided that if the German governments would not act against this perceived problem, Austria would have to compel them. He called an informal conference in Karlsbad and sounded out Prussian support beforehand by meeting with Frederick William III of Prussia in Teplice in July. Metternich carried the day, using a recent attempt on the life of the Chief Minister of Nassau, Carl Ibell to win agreement for the conservative program now known as the Convention of Teplitz. The Karlsbad conference opened on 6 August and ran for the rest of the month. Metternich overcame any opposition to his proposed "group of anti-revolutionary measures, correct and preemptory", although they were condemned by outsiders. Despite censure Metternich was very pleased with the result, known as the Carlsbad Decrees. At the conference in Vienna later in the year, Metternich found himself constrained by the Kings of Württemberg and Bavaria to abandon his plans to reform the German federation. He now regretted having so quickly forced through its original constitution five years before. Nevertheless, he held ground on other issues and the Conference's Final Act was highly reactionary, much as Metternich had envisaged it. He remained in Vienna until the close in May 1820, finding the whole affair a bore. On 6 May he heard of the death of his daughter Klementine from tuberculosis. Journeying on to Prague, he heard that his eldest daughter Maria had also contracted the disease. He was at her bedside in Baden bei Wien when she died on 20 July. This prompted Eleonore and the remaining children to leave for the cleaner air of France. The rest of 1820 was filled with liberal revolts to which Metternich was expected to respond. Ultimately, the Austrian Foreign Minister was torn between following through on his conservative pledge (a policy favoured by the Russians) and keeping out of a country in which Austria had no interest (favoured by the British). He chose "sympathetic inactivity" on Spain but, much to his dismay and surprise, Guglielmo Pepe led a revolt in Naples in early July and forced King Ferdinand I to accept a new constitution. Metternich reluctantly agreed to attend the Russian-initiated Congress of Troppau in October to discuss these events. He need not have worried: the Tsar gave way and accepted a compromise proposal of moderate interventionism. Still worried by Kapodistrias' influence over the Tsar, he laid down his conservative principles in a long memorandum, including an attack on the free press and the initiative of the middle classes. The Congress disbanded in the third week of December, and the next step would be a congress at Laibach to discuss intervention with Ferdinand. Metternich found himself able to dominate Laibach more than any other congress, overseeing Ferdinand's rejection of the liberal constitution he had agreed to only months before. Austrian armies left for Naples in February and entered the city in March. The Congress was adjourned but, forewarned or by luck, Metternich kept representatives of the powers close at hand until the revolt was put down. As a result, when similar revolts broke out in Piedmont in the middle of March, Metternich had the Tsar at hand, who agreed to send 90,000 men to the frontier in a show of solidarity. Concerns grew in Vienna that Metternich's policy was too expensive. He responded that Naples and Piedmont would pay for stability; nonetheless, he, too, was clearly worried for the future of Italy. He was relieved when able to create a Court Chancellor and Chancellor of State on 25 May, a post left vacant since the death of Kaunitz in 1794. He was also pleased at the renewed (if fragile) closeness between Austria, Prussia and Russia; however, it had come at the expense of the Anglo-Austrian entente. Chancellor Hanover, Verona, and Czernowitz Hungarian Diets, Alexander I's death, and problems in Italy Eastern Question revisited and peace in Europe Revolution Further information: Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire Exile, return, and death Shortly afterwards Metternich died in Vienna on 11 June 1859, aged 86, and the last great figure of his generation. Almost everyone of note in Vienna came to pay tribute; in the foreign press, his death went virtually unnoticed. Historians' assessment Main article: Historical assessment of Klemens von Metternich Name: Charles Biography: Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen(5 September 1771 - 30 April 1847) Names:Karl Ludwig Johann Josef Lorenz Allegiance: Holy Roman Empire, Austrian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Army, Imperial and Royal Army Rank: Lieutenant Field Marshal Commands: Imperial and Royal Army Archduke Charles Louis John Joseph Laurentius of Austria, Duke of Teschen (German: Erzherzog Karl Ludwig Johann Joseph Lorenz von ?sterreich, Herzog von Teschen; 5 September 1771 - 30 April 1847) was an Austrian field-marshal, the third son of Emperor Leopold II and his wife, Maria Luisa of Spain. He was also the younger brother of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. Despite being epileptic, Charles achieved respect both as a commander and as a reformer of the Austrian army. He was considered one of Napoleon's more formidable opponents and one of the greatest generals of the French Revolutionary Wars. He began his career fighting the revolutionary armies of France. Early in the wars of the First Coalition, he saw victory at Neerwinden in 1793, before being defeated at Wattignies 1793 and Fleurus 1794. In 1796, as chief of all Austrian forces on the Rhine, Charles defeated Jean-Baptiste Jourdan at Amberg and Würzburg, and then won a victory at Emmendingen that forced Jean Victor Marie Moreau to withdraw across the Rhine. He also defeated opponents at Zürich, Ostrach, Stockach, and Messkirch in 1799. He reformed Austria's armies to adopt the nation-at-arms principle. In 1809, he entered the War of the Fifth Coalition and inflicted Napoleon's first major setback at Aspern-Essling, before suffering a defeat at the bloody Battle of Wagram. After Wagram, Charles saw no more significant action in the Napoleonic Wars. As a military strategist, Charles was able to successfully execute complex and risky maneuvers of troops. However, his contemporary Carl von Clausewitz criticized his rigidity and adherence to "geographic" strategy. Austrians nevertheless remember Charles as a hero of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Youth and early career Charles was born in Florence, Tuscany. His father, then Grand Duke of Tuscany, generously permitted Charles's childless aunt Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria and her husband Albert of Saxe-Teschen to adopt and raise the boy in Vienna. Charles spent his youth in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the wars of the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at the Battle of Jemappes (1792), and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the Action of Aldenhoven and the Battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, an office he lost with the occupation of the Low Countries by the French revolutionaries in 1794. The year he became Governor he also received the army rank of Lieutenant Field Marshal. Shortly thereafter another promotion saw him made Feldzeugmeister (equivalent of Lieutenant General). In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and was present at the Battle of Fleurus (1794). In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following year, he was entrusted with chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in 1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At first, falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau. Falling upon Jourdan, he beat him in the battles of Amberg (August) and Würzburg (September), and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which he defeated and forced out of Germany (Battle of Emmendingen, October). Napoleonic Wars See also: Imperial and Royal Army during the Napoleonic Wars In 1797 he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he once more opposed Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Ostrach and Stockach, following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Massena in the First Battle of Zurich, after which he re-entered Germany and drove the French once more over the Rhine. Ill-health, however, forced him to retire to Bohemia, but he was soon recalled to undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the Battle of Hohenlinden had, however, foredoomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice of Steyr. His popularity was now such that the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his honor and to give him the title of savior of his country, but Charles refused both distinctions. In the short and disastrous war of 1805 Archduke Charles commanded what was intended to be the main army in Italy, but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations; Austria sustained defeat on the Danube, and the archduke was defeated by Massena in the Battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace he began his active work of army reorganization, which was first tested on the field in 1809. In 1806 Francis II (now Francis I of Austria) named the Archduke Charles, already a field marshal, as Commander in Chief of the Austrian army and Head of the Council of War. Supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th century. The chief characteristics of the new order were the adoption of the nation in arms principle and the adoption of French war organization and tactics. The army reforms were not yet completed by the war of 1809, in which Charles acted as commander in chief, yet even so it proved a far more formidable opponent than the old and was only defeated after a desperate struggle involving Austrian victories and large loss of life on both sides. Its initial successes were neutralized by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmühl but, after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won a strong victory at the Battle of Aspern-Essling but soon afterwards lost at the Battle of Wagram. At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices. In 1808, when Napoleon crowned his brother Joseph king of Spain, Archduke Charles said to his brother, emperor Francis II, "Now we know what Napoleon wants : he wants everything". Later life When Austria joined the ranks of the allies during the War of the Sixth Coalition, Charles was not given a command and the post of commander-in-chief of the allied Grand Army of Bohemia went to the Prince of Schwarzenberg. Charles spent the rest of his life in retirement, except for a short time in 1815 when he was military governor of the Fortress Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. On 15 September/17 September 1815 in Weilburg, Charles married Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (1797-1829). She was a daughter of Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg (1768-1816) and his wife Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg. Frederick William was the eldest surviving son of Karl Christian of Nassau-Weilburg and Princess Wilhelmine Carolina of Orange-Nassau. Wilhelmine Carolina was a daughter of William IV, Prince of Orange and Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange. Anne was in turn the eldest daughter of George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach. Charles died at Vienna on 30 April 1847. He is buried in tomb 122 in the New Vault of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory on the Heldenplatz in Vienna in 1860. Assessment of his achievements The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategic works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand it, though his education certainly prejudiced him in favor of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to that of any leader of his time, with only a few exceptions. According to the Encyclop?dia Britannica Eleventh Edition, his campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavorable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless, they cannot but be considered antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the importance of strategic points are the chief features of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered from the prescription that "this principle is never to be departed from." Again and again he repeated the advice that nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure, a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. Strategic points, he says, not the defeat of the enemy's army, decide the fate of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main concern, a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble defense against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is designed to "cover a retreat." The baneful influence of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of K?niggr?tz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a strategic point, which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian armies, and in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign of 1859, and in the almost unintelligible Battle of Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of Archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon. He was the 831st Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria. Creation of the Austrian staff When Karl Mack von Leiberich became chief of staff of the army under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in the Netherlands, he issued the Instruktionspunkte fur die gesamte Herren Generals, the last of 19 points setting out the roles of staff officers, dealing with offensive and defensive operations, while helping the Commander-in-chief. In 1796, Archduke Charles augmented these with his own Observationspunkte, writing of the Chief of Staff: “he is duty bound to consider all possibilities related to operations and not view himself as merely carrying out those instructions”. On 20 March 1801, Feldmarschalleutnant Duka became the world's first peacetime Generalquartiermeister at the head of the staff and the wartime role of the Chief of Staff was now focused on planning and operations to assist the Commander. Archduke Charles produced a new Dienstvorschrift on 1 September 1805, which divided the staff into three: 1) Political Correspondence; 2) the Operations Directorate, dealing with planning and intelligence; 3) the Service Directorate, dealing with administration, supply and military justice. The Archduke set out the position of a modern Chief of Staff: “The Chief of Staff stands at the side of the Commander-in-Chief and is completely at his disposal. His sphere of work connects him with no specific unit”. “The Commander-in-Chief decides what should happen and how; his chief assistant works out these decisions, so that each subordinate understands his allotted task”. With the creation of the Korps in 1809, each had a staff, whose chief was responsible for directing operations and executing the overall headquarters plan. Honours Austrian Empire: Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1790 Grand Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, in Diamonds, 1793 Kingdom of Bavaria: Knight of St. Hubert, 1844 Empire of Brazil: Grand Cross of the Southern Cross Kingdom of France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Kingdom of Prussia: Knight of the Black Eagle, 4 October 1835 Knight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class Russian Empire: Knight of St. Andrew Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky Knight of the White Eagle Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class Grand Duchy of Tuscany: Grand Cross of St. Joseph Two Sicilies: Knight of St. Januarius Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit United Kingdom: Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 23 May 1834 Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars ? Battle of Jemappes ? Battle of Neerwinden ? Battle of Fleurus ? Battle of Aldenhoven ? Battle of Wetzlar (1796) ? Battle of Kehl (1796) ? Battle of Amberg ? Battle of Würzburg ? Battle of Limburg (1796) ? Battle of Emmendingen ? Battle of Schliengen ? Battle of Ostrach ? Battle of Stockach ? First Battle of Zurich ? Battle of Mannheim (1799) Napoleonic Wars ? Battle of Caldiero ? Battle of Abensberg ? Battle of Eckmühl ? Battle of Aspern-Essling ? Battle of Wagram Name: J.Joseph Biography: Johann I Joseph (26 June 1760 - 20 April 1836) Position: Prince of Liechtenstein,Austro cuirassiers commander,General of Cavalry i Names:Johann Baptist Josef Adam Johann Nepomuk Aloys Franz de Paula House:Liechtenstein Allegiance: Holy Roman Empire Branch/service: Austro cavalry force Rank: Feldmarschal-Leutnant Commands: cavalry of the 5th Column Johann I Joseph (Johann Baptist Josef Adam Johann Nepomuk Aloys Franz de Paula; 26 June 1760 - 20 April 1836) was Prince of Liechtenstein between 1805 and 1806 and again from 1814 until 1836. He was the last Liechtenstein prince to rule under the Holy Roman Empire between 1805 and 1806 and as regent of Liechtenstein from 1806 until 1814. He was the fourth son of Franz Joseph I, Prince of Liechtenstein. Early career Liechtenstein chose a military career at age 22 and entered the army as a lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. During the Austro-Turkish War (1788-1791) he earned, in rapid succession, promotion to Major, Oberstleutnant, and Oberst (colonel). He earned renown as a good cavalry officer and was honored with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa in 1790. French Revolutionary Wars During the French Revolutionary Wars, he participated in an "outstandingly effective cavalry action" at Avesnes-le-Sec on 12 September 1793, where 4,663 Republican troops suffered losses of 2,000 killed and wounded with the Allies losing only 69 men. In addition, 2,000 soldiers and 20 artillery pieces were captured. He also participated in many other battles. Soon after being promoted to General-Major in June 1794, he fought at the Battle of Fleurus. He commanded a mixed cavalry-infantry brigade in Anton Sztaray's division at the Battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796. After this action he was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa. In the War of the Second Coalition, Liechtenstein commanded the Austrian Reserve at the Battle of Trebbia. In August 1799 he received promotion to Feldmarschal-Leutnant. He commanded 8,000 men in the successful siege of Cuneo in November and December. On 3 December 1800, he led a 5,109-man cavalry division in the Battle of Hohenlinden. Napoleonic Wars Liechtenstein was prominent in the Napoleonic Wars. At the Battle of Austerlitz, he led the 4,600 cavalry of the 5th Column. His troops fought well but he was unable to save the Austrian-Russian army from a disastrous defeat. Afterward, he carried on the negotiations with Emperor Napoleon I which concluded with the Peace of Pressburg. He earned the rank of General of Cavalry in 1808. Throughout the War of the Fifth Coalition Liechtenstein commanded the I Reserve Korps in the army of Archduke Charles. He led his cavalry and grenadiers at the Battle of Eckmühl on 22 April 1809, the Battle of Aspern-Essling on 21-22 May, and the Battle of Wagram on 5-6 July. He took command of the main army after Archduke Charles resigned and held this responsibility until the end of the year. Emperor Francis II promoted him Feldmarschall in September. He negotiated and signed the Peace of Sch?nbrunn. Both of these treaties were very favourable to Napoleon and hard on Austria. Afterward, Liechtenstein was accused of having little diplomatic skill. To escape criticism he resigned from the military in 1810. Sovereign As Prince of Liechtenstein, Johann made forward-thinking reforms, but also had an absolutist governing style. In 1818 he granted a constitution, although it was limited in its nature. He expanded agriculture and forestry and radically reorganized his administration, in an attempt to take the requirements of what was then a modern estate into account. He proved a trendsetter in the area of garden art by planting Biedermeier gardens and park landscapes in an English model. In 1806 Napoleon incorporated Liechtenstein in the Confederation of the Rhine and made it a sovereign state. At the Vienna Congress the sovereignty of Liechtenstein was approved. Liechtenstein became a member of the German Confederation in 1815. This membership confirmed Liechtenstein’s sovereignty. Marriage and issue On 12 April 1792 in Vienna, he married Landgravine Josepha of Fürstenberg-Weitra (Vienna, 21 June 1776 - Vienna, 23 February 1848), Dame of the Imperial Court and Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross. They had 14 children: Princess Maria Leopoldine Josepha Sophia Aemiliana (Vienna, 11 September 1793 - Vienna, 28 July 1808) Princess Karoline (Vienna, 2 February 1795 - died in infancy) Aloys II, Prince of Liechtenstein (1796-1858) Princess Maria Sophie Josepha (Vienna, 5 September 1798 - Vienna, 27 June 1869), married in Vienna on 4 August 1817 Vincenz Graf Esterházy von Galántha (Pressburg, 25 October 1787 - Eisgrub, 19 October 1835), without issue Princess Maria Josepha (Vienna, 11 January 1800 - Vienna, 14 June 1884), unmarried and without issue Prince Franz de Paula of Liechtenstein (1802-1887), married Countess Julia Potocka and had issue. His great-grandson would eventually become Prince Franz Joseph II. Prince Karl Johann of Liechtenstein (1803-1871). Married Rosalie d'Hemricourt Gr?fin von Grünne and had issue. Princess Klothilda Leopoldina Josepha (Vienna, 19 August 1804 - Vienna, 27 January 1807) Princess Henriette (Vienna, 1 April 1806 - Ischl, 15 June 1886), married in Vienna on 1 October 1825 Joseph Graf Hunyady von Kethely (Vienna, 13 January 1801 - Vienna, 9 March 1869), and had issue Prince Friedrich Adalbert (Vienna, 22 September 1807 - Vienna, 1 May 1885), 1,018th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria, married at Schloss Rosegg on 15 September 1848 Johanna Sophie Christiane L?we (Oldenburg, 24 May 1815 - Pest, 28 November 1866), without issue Prince Eduard Franz of Liechtenstein (1809-1864). Married Countess Honoria Choloniowa-Choloniewska and had issue. Prince August Ludwig Ignaz (Vienna, 22 April 1810 - Vienna, 27 May 1824) Princess Ida Leopoldine Sophia/e Maria/e Josepha/Josephine Franziska (Eisgrub, Moravia, 12 September 1811 - Vienna, 27 June 1884), Dame of the Imperial Court, Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross, married in Vienna on 30 July 1832 Karl/Carl 4te Fürst Paar Freiherr auf Hartberg und Krottenstein (Brieg, Silesia, 6 January 1806 - Vienna, 17 January 1881), Hereditary Grand-Master of the Posts of the Imperial Court, and had issue Prince Rudolf Maria Franz Placidus (Vienna, 5 October 1816 - Vicenza, 19 June 1848), unmarried and without issue Honours Habsburg Monarchy: Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 19 December 1790; Commander, 1796; Grand Cross, 1801 869th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 1801 Russian Empire: Knight of the Order of St. George, 3rd Class, 7 October 1813 Name: Davidovich Biography: Paul Davidovich(1737 - 18 February 1814) Position: Proprietor (Inhaber) of an Austrian infantry regiment Allegiance: Habsburg Monarchy，Austrian Empire Branch/service: Army Rank: General of the Infantry Baron Paul Davidovich or Pavle Davidovi? (Serbian Cyrillic: Павле Давидови?) (1737, Buda - 18 February 1814, Komárom) became a general of the Austrian Empire and a Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. He played a major role in the 1796 Italian campaign during the French Revolutionary Wars, leading corps-sized commands in the fighting against the French army led by Napoleon Bonaparte. He led troops during the Napoleonic Wars and was Proprietor (Inhaber) of an Austrian infantry regiment. Early career Born in Buda (Ofen) (in modern-day Budapest, Hungary) in 1737, Davidovich came from a Serb family which had immigrated to the Austrian Empire from the Ottoman Empire at the time of Emperor Leopold I. In 1757, Davidovich joined the Austrian army's Ferdinand Karl Infantry Regiment #2. He served during the Seven Years' War and rose in rank to Captain. In 1771, he received promotion to Major in d'Alton Infantry Regiment #19. He performed heroically under fire at Bystrzyca K?odzka (Habelschwerdt) in January 1779 during the War of the Bavarian Succession. This action earned him the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. He was rewarded with the noble rank of Freiherr in 1780. The following year, he became Oberst-Leutnant of the Esterhazy Infantry Regiment #34. He earned promotion to Oberst (colonel) of the Peterwardeiner Grenz infantry regiment in 1783. During the Austro-Turkish War, Davidovich talked the Turkish governor of ?abac into surrendering in 1788. He assisted Maximilian Baillet de Latour in stamping out the 1789 Belgian revolt and was elevated to the rank of General-Major in 1790. French Revolutionary Wars In 1793 during the War of the First Coalition, he distinguished himself in the battles of Neerwinden and Wattignies. He participated in the Flanders campaign in 1794 under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. He served under Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser in the successful Siege of Mannheim which capitulated on 22 November 1795. He was promoted to Feldmarschal-Leutnant in March 1796. During the spring of 1796, Napoleon's French army overran the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont and the Duchy of Milan, and began the Siege of Mantua. In July, Davidovich transferred to the Italian theater and was placed under Wurmser's command. During the first relief of Mantua, he commanded the Left-Center (III) Column, which included the brigades of Anton Mittrowsky, Anton Lipthay, and Leberecht Spiegel. The force numbered 8,274 infantry, 1,618 cavalry, and 40 cannon. He fought at the Battle of Castiglione on 5 August. In the second relief of Mantua, Wurmser and his chief-of-staff Franz von Lauer planned to transfer major elements of the army from the upper Adige valley to Bassano del Grappa via the Brenta valley. They assigned Davidovich to hold the Adige valley with 13,500 soldiers in the brigades of the Prince of Reuss, Josef Vukassovich, and Johann Sporck. Lauer believed that the French army would remain passive during the operation. Defying expectations, Bonaparte attacked Davidovich with 30,000 men. In the Battle of Rovereto on 4 September, the French swamped the Austrian defenses, inflicted 3,000 casualties, captured Trento, and pushed Davidovich north beyond Lavis. Bonaparte soon won the Battle of Bassano and drove Wurmser and 12,000 men within the fortress of Mantua. For the third relief of Mantua, Emperor Francis II appointed József Alvinczi commander of a newly formed army. Alvinczi planned to advance on Mantua from the east with 28,000 soldiers while Davidovich and 19,500 troops moved from the Adige valley in the north. Davidovich's Tyrol Corps comprised the brigades of Sporck, Vukassovich, Johann Laudon, and Joseph Ocskay, plus a small reserve. After a bloody clash at Cembra on 2 November, he recaptured Trento. He routed Claude Vaubois' outnumbered French division at the Battle of Calliano on 7 November. Despite being urged by Alvinczi to attack again, he proved very slow to follow up his success. One reason was the 3,500 casualties suffered at Cembra and Calliano. Other difficulties included a false report that placed Andre Massena's division in his front, heavy snow in the mountains, and the fact that messages took two days to arrive from Alvinczi. He routed Vaubois again at Rivoli Veronese on 17 November, but this victory came two days too late. After the French defeated Alvinczi on 15-17 November at the Battle of Arcole, Bonaparte turned on Davidovich in great strength. The French beat him in a second clash at Rivoli on 22 November. With Davidovich's corps in flight northward, Alvinczi was forced to abandon the campaign. Napoleonic Wars In 1804, he became the proprietor of Davidovich Infantry Regiment #34, a Hungarian unit, and held this position until his death. When the War of the Third Coalition broke out, he commanded part of Archduke Charles' army in Italy. During the Battle of Caldiero on 29-31 October 1805, he led the nine infantry battalions, eight cavalry squadrons, and 26 artillery pieces of the left-wing. After the war, he served as deputy (Adlatus) to the commanding general in Slavonia. He inspected fortresses in Serbia and received a promotion to Feldzeugmeister in 1807. In his last active command, he led a division of Hungarian insurrection militia at the Battle of Raab on 14 June 1809 during the War of the Fifth Coalition. He died on 18 February 1814 at Komárno when he was governor of that fortress. Wars:Seven Years' War War of the Bavarian Succession Austro-Turkish War French Revolutionary Wars Napoleonic Wars Awards Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa Name: Scharnhorst Biography: Gerhard von Scharnhorst (12 November 1755 - 28 June 1813) Nationality:Electorate of Hanover Position: Prussian General Staff Allegiance: Prussia Branch/service: Prussian Army Rank: Generalleutnant Scharnhorst’s first military campaign took place in 1793 in the Netherlands, in which he served with distinction under the Duke of York in British army. By slow and labored steps, Scharnhorst converted the professional long-service army of Prussia, wrecked at Jena (1806), into a national army based on universal service. The organization of the Landwehr (army reserves) was begun. Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (12 November 1755 - 28 June 1813) was a Hanoverian-born general in Prussian service from 1801. As the first Chief of the Prussian General Staff, he was noted for his military theories, his reforms of the Prussian army, and his leadership during the Napoleonic Wars. Scharnhorst limited the use of corporal punishments, established promotion for merit, abolished the enrollment of foreigners, began the organization of a reserve army, and organized and simplified the military administration. Biography Born at Bordenau (now a part of Neustadt am Rübenberge, Lower Saxony) near Hanover, into a small landowner's family, Scharnhorst succeeded in educating himself and in securing admission to the military academy of William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, at the Wilhelmstein fortress. In 1778 he received a commission into the Hanoverian service. He employed the intervals of regimental duty in further self-education and literary work. In 1783 he transferred to the artillery and received an appointment to the new artillery school in Hanover. He had already founded a military journal which, under a series of names, endured until 1805, and in 1788 he designed, and in part published, a Handbook for Officers in the Applied Sections of Military Science (Handbuch für Offiziere in den anwendbaren Teilen der Kriegswissenschaften). He also published in 1792 his Military Handbook for Use in the Field (Milit?risches Taschenbuch für den Gebrauch im Felde). The income he derived from his writings provided Scharnhorst's chief means of support, for he still held the rank of lieutenant, and though the farm of Bordenau produced a small sum annually, he had a wife, Clara Schmalz (a sister of Theodor Schmalz, the first director of Berlin University) and family to maintain. His first military campaign took place in 1793 in the Netherlands, in which he served with distinction under the Duke of York. In 1794 he took part in the defence of Menen and commemorated the escape of the garrison in his Defence of the Town of Menen (Verteidigung der Stadt Menin, Hanover, 1803), which, apart from his paper on "The Origins of the Good Fortune of the French in the Revolutionary War" (Die Ursachen des Glücks der Franzosen im Revolutionskrieg) remains his best-known work. Shortly thereafter he received promotion to the rank of major and joined the staff of the Hanoverian contingent. After the Peace of Basel (5 March 1795) Scharnhorst returned to Hanover. He had by now become so well known to the armies of the various allied states that he received invitations from several of them to transfer his services. This in the end led to his engaging himself to King Frederick William III of Prussia, who gave him a patent of nobility, the rank of lieutenant-colonel and more than twice the pay that he had received in Hanover (1801). The Prussian Military Academy employed him, almost as a matter of course, in important instructional work (Clausewitz was one of his students) and he founded the Berlin Military Society. In the mobilizations and precautionary measures that marked the years 1804 and 1805, and in the war of 1806 that ensued, Scharnhorst served as chief of the general staff (lieutenant-quartermaster) of the Duke of Brunswick, received a slight wound at Auerstedt (14 October 1806) and distinguished himself by his stern resolution during the retreat of the Prussian army. He attached himself to Blücher in the last stages of the disastrous campaign, went into captivity with him at the capitulation of Ratekau (7 November 1806), and, quickly exchanged, had a prominent and almost decisive part in leading L'Estocq's Prussian corps, which served with the Russians. For his services at Eylau (February 1807) he received the highest Prussian military order Pour le Merite. It was apparent that Scharnhorst's skills exceeded those of a merely brilliant staff officer. Educated in the traditions of the Seven Years' War, he had by degrees, as his experience widened, divested his mind of antiquated forms of war, and realised that only a "national" army and a policy of fighting decisive battles could give an adequate response to the political and strategic situation brought about by the French Revolution. He was promoted to major-general a few days after the Peace of Tilsit (July 1807), and became the head of a reform commission that included the best of the younger officers, such as Gneisenau, Grolman, and Boyen. Stein himself became a member of the commission and secured Scharnhorst free access to King Frederick William III by securing his appointment as aide-de-camp-general. But Napoleon quickly became suspicious, and Frederick William repeatedly had to suspend or cancel the reforms recommended. By slow and labored steps, Scharnhorst converted the professional long-service army of Prussia, wrecked at Jena (1806), into a national army based on universal service. Universal service was not secured until his death, but he laid down the principles and prepared the way for its adoption. Enrollments of foreigners were abolished, corporal punishments were limited to flagrant cases of insubordination, promotion for merit was established, and the military administration organized and simplified. The organization of the Landwehr (army reserves) was begun. In 1809, the war between France and Austria roused premature hopes in the patriots' party, which the conqueror did not fail to note. By direct application to Napoleon, Scharnhorst evaded the decree of 26 September 1810, which required all foreigners to leave the Prussian service forthwith, but when in 1811-1812 France forced Prussia into an alliance against Russia and Prussia despatched an auxiliary army to serve under Napoleon's orders, Scharnhorst left Berlin on unlimited leave of absence. In retirement he wrote and published a work on firearms, über die Wirkung des Feuergewehrs (1813). But the retreat from Moscow (1812) at last sounded the call to arms for the new national army of Prussia. Scharnhorst, recalled to the king's headquarters, refused a higher post but became chief of staff to Blücher, in whose vigour, energy, and influence with the young soldiers he had complete confidence. Russian Prince Wittgenstein was so impressed by Scharnhorst that he asked to borrow him temporarily as his chief of staff, and Blücher agreed. In the first battle, Lützen or Gross-G?rschen (2 May 1813), Prussia suffered defeat, but a very different defeat from those Napoleon had hitherto customarily inflicted. The French suffered significant casualties and, due in part to a severe shortage of cavalry, failed to follow up, rendering it an incomplete triumph. In this battle, Scharnhorst received a wound in the foot, not in itself grave, but soon made mortal by the fatigues of the retreat to Dresden, and he succumbed to it on 28 June 1813 at Prague, where he had travelled to negotiate with Schwarzenberg and Radetzky for the armed intervention of Austria. Shortly before his death he had received promotion to the rank of lieutenant-general. Frederick William III erected a statue in his memory, by Christian Daniel Rauch, in Berlin. Scharnhorst was buried at the Invalidenfriedhof Cemetery in Berlin. Legacy Scharnhorst became the namesake for several objects, places and groups: SMS Scharnhorst, a 1906 German armored cruiser during World War I. Scharnhorst, a 1936 German battleship during World War II and lead ship of the Scharnhorst class, which also included the Gneisenau. Infantry Division Scharnhorst, a 1945 German infantry division and one of the last new Wehrmacht formations of World War II. Scharnhorst Order, highest military order of the former East German National People's Army (NVA). Scharnhorst (F 213), a 1943 British sloop, initially known as HMS Mermaid, transferred to West Germany in 1959. Many streets in German cities, including Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, and Cologne, among others. General Hans von Seeckt has been compared to Scharnhorst, mainly for his part in preparing the German Army of the Weimar Republic, which was severely limited by the Treaty of Versailles, for its eventual rearming, adapting secret doctrines, and preparing a General Staff. He has been credited with their unparalleled success in the campaigns of 1939-1940. After the rise of the Nazis in Germany, Field Marshal von Mackensen compared von Seeckt to Scharnhorst, saying "The old fire burnt still, and the Allied Control had not destroyed any of the lasting elements of German strength." Winston Churchill also subscribed to this theory, believing von Seeckt was vital in the return of Germany to its place in the military world as rapidly as it had. Battles/wars War of the Fourth Coalition Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (1806) Battle of Eylau (1807) War of the Sixth Coalition Battle of Lützen (1813) (DOW) Awards Pour le Merite Name: Francois Biography: Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand (4 September 1768 - 4 July 1848) Position: French Ambassador to the Papal States, Minister of Foreign Affairs, French Ambassador to the United Kingdom, French Ambassador to Prussia, French Ambassador to Sweden, Member of the Academie francaise Political beliefs: conservatism, monarchy Allegiance: Kingdom of France Branch/service: Armee des emigres Years of service :1792 Rank: Private Battles/wars :French Revolutionary WarsSiege of Thionville Genre:Novel, memoir, essay Subject: Religion, exoticism, existentialism Literary movement:Romanticism.Conservatism Notable works:AtalaGenie du christianismeReneMemoires d'Outre-Tombe After the outbreak of the Revolution, he supported the royal party and went into exile in the United States and London. After returning to France, he served as ambassador to the Pope State and ambassador to Sweden.He also once received a large sum of money from the Russian Tsarina Elizabeth Alexeievna. She had seen him as a defender of Christianity and thus worthy of her royal support. Francois-Rene, vicomte de Chateaubriand (4 September 1768 - 4 July 1848) was a French writer, politician, diplomat and historian who had a notable influence on French literature of the nineteenth century. Descended from an old aristocratic family from Brittany, Chateaubriand was a royalist by political disposition. In an age when large numbers of intellectuals turned against the Church, he authored the Genie du christianisme in defense of the Catholic faith. His works include the autobiography Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ("Memoirs from Beyond the Grave"), published posthumously in 1849-1850. Historian Peter Gay says that Chateaubriand saw himself as the greatest lover, the greatest writer, and the greatest philosopher of his age. Gay states that Chateaubriand "dominated the literary scene in France in the first half of the nineteenth century". Biography Early years and exile Born in Saint-Malo on 4 September 1768, the last of ten children, Chateaubriand grew up at his family's castle (the chateau de Combourg) in Combourg, Brittany. His father, Rene de Chateaubriand (1718-86), was a former sea captain turned ship owner and slave trader. His mother's maiden name was Apolline de Bedee. Chateaubriand's father was a morose, uncommunicative man, and the young Chateaubriand grew up in an atmosphere of gloomy solitude, only broken by long walks in the Breton countryside and an intense friendship with his sister Lucile. His youthful solitude and wild desire produced a suicide attempt with a hunting rifle, although the weapon failed to discharge. English agriculturist and pioneering travel writer Arthur Young visited Comburg in 1788 and he described the immediate environs of the "romantic" Chateau de Combourg thusly: "SEPTEMBER 1st. To Combourg, the country has a savage aspect; husbandry not much further advanced, at least in skill, than among the Hurons, which appears incredible amidst inclosures; the people almost as wild as their country, and their town of Combourg one of the most brutal filthy places that can be seen; mud houses, no windows, and a pavement so broken, as to impede all passengers, but ease none - yet here is a chateau, and inhabited; who is this Mons. de Chateaubriant, the owner, that has nerves strung for a residence amidst such filth and poverty? Below this hideous heap of wretchedness is a fine lake..." Chateaubriand was educated in Dol, Rennes and Dinan. For a time he could not make up his mind whether he wanted to be a naval officer or a priest, but at the age of seventeen, he decided on a military career and gained a commission as a second lieutenant in the French Army based at Navarre. Within two years, he had been promoted to the rank of captain. He visited Paris in 1788 where he made the acquaintance of Jean-Francois de La Harpe, Andre Chenier, Louis-Marcelin de Fontanes and other leading writers of the time. When the French Revolution broke out, Chateaubriand was initially sympathetic, but as events in Paris - and throughout the countryside (including, presumably, "wretched" "brutal" and "filthy" Combourg) - became more violent he wisely decided to journey to North America in 1791. He was given the idea to leave Europe by Guillaume-Chretien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, who also encouraged him to do some botanical studies. Journey to America n Voyage en Amerique, published in 1826, Chateaubriand writes that he arrived in Philadelphia on 10 July 1791. He visited New York, Boston and Lexington, before leaving by boat on the Hudson River to reach Albany. He then followed the Mohawk Trail up the Niagara Falls where he broke his arm and spent a month in recovery in the company of a Native American tribe. Chateaubriand then describes Native American tribes' customs, as well as zoological, political and economic consideration. He then says that a raid along the Ohio River, the Mississippi River, Louisiana and Florida took him back to Philadelphia, where he embarked on the Molly in November to go back to France. This experience provided the setting for his exotic novels Les Natchez (written between 1793 and 1799 but published only in 1826), Atala (1801) and Rene (1802). His vivid, captivating descriptions of nature in the sparsely settled American Deep South were written in a style that was very innovative for the time and spearheaded what later became the Romantic movement in France. As early as 1916, some scholars have cast doubt on Chateaubriand's claims that he was granted an interview with George Washington and that he actually lived for a time with the Native Americans he wrote about. Critics have questioned the veracity of entire sections of Chateaubriand's claimed travels, notably his passage through the Mississippi Valley, Louisiana and Florida. Return to France Chateaubriand returned to France in 1792 and subsequently joined the army of Royalist emigres in Koblenz under the leadership of Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Conde. Under strong pressure from his family, he married a young aristocratic woman, also from Saint-Malo, whom he had never previously met, Celeste Buisson de la Vigne (in later life, Chateaubriand was notoriously unfaithful to her, having a series of love affairs). His military career came to an end when he was wounded at the Siege of Thionville, a major clash between Royalist troops (of which Chateaubriand was a member) and the French Revolutionary Army. Half-dead, he was taken to Jersey and exiled to England, leaving his wife behind. Exile in London Chateaubriand spent most of his exile in extreme poverty in London, scraping a living offering French lessons and doing translation work, but a stay in Suffolk (Bungay) proved to be more idyllic. Here Chateaubriand fell in love with a young English woman, Charlotte Ives, but the romance ended when he was forced to reveal he was already married. During his time in Britain, Chateaubriand also became familiar with English literature. This reading, particularly of John Milton's Paradise Lost (which he later translated into French prose), had a deep influence on his own literary work. His exile forced Chateaubriand to examine the causes of the French Revolution, which had cost the lives of many of his family and friends; these reflections inspired his first work, Essai sur les Revolutions (1797). An attempt in 18th-century style to explain the French Revolution, it predated his subsequent, romantic style of writing and was largely ignored. A major turning point in Chateaubriand's life was his conversion back to the Catholic faith of his childhood around 1798. Consulate and Empire Further information: French Consulate Further information: First French Empire Chateaubriand took advantage of the amnesty issued to emigres to return to France in May 1800 (under the French Consulate); he edited the Mercure de France. In 1802, he won fame with Genie du christianisme ("The Genius of Christianity"), an apologia for the Catholic faith which contributed to the post-revolutionary religious revival in France. It also won him the favour of Napoleon Bonaparte, who was eager to win over the Catholic Church at the time. James McMillan argues that a Europe-wide Catholic Revival emerged from the change in the cultural climate from intellectually-oriented classicism to emotionally-based Romanticism. He concludes that Chateaubriand's book: did more than any other single work to restore the credibility and prestige of Christianity in intellectual circles and launched a fashionable rediscovery of the Middle Ages and their Christian civilisation. The revival was by no means confined to an intellectual elite, however, but was evident in the real, though uneven, rechristianisation of the French countryside. Appointed secretary of the legation to the Holy See by Napoleon, he accompanied Cardinal Fesch to Rome. But the two men soon quarrelled, and Chateaubriand was appointed minister to the Republic of Valais on November 1803. He resigned his post in disgust after Napoleon ordered the execution in 1804 of Louis XVI's cousin, Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Conde, duc d'Enghien. Chateaubriand was, after his resignation, completely dependent on his literary efforts. However, and quite unexpectedly, he received a large sum of money from the Russian Tsarina Elizabeth Alexeievna. She had seen him as a defender of Christianity and thus worthy of her royal support. Chateaubriand used his new-found wealth in 1806 to visit Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt, Tunisia, and Spain. The notes he made on his travels later formed part of a prose epic, Les Martyrs, set during the Roman persecution of early Christianity. His notes also furnished a running account of the trip itself, published in 1811 as the Itineraire de Paris à Jerusalem (Itinerary from Paris to Jerusalem). The Spanish stage of the journey inspired a third novella, Les aventures du dernier Abencerage (The Adventures of the Last Abencerrage), which appeared in 1826. On his return to France at the end of 1806, he published a severe criticism of Napoleon, comparing him to Nero and predicting the emergence of a new Tacitus. Napoleon famously threatened to have Chateaubriand sabred on the steps of the Tuileries Palace for it, but settled for merely banishing him from the city. Chateaubriand therefore retired, in 1807, to a modest estate he called Vallee-aux-Loups ("Wolf Valley"), in Chatenay-Malabry, 11 km (6.8 mi) south of central Paris, where he lived until 1817. Here he finished Les Martyrs, which appeared in 1809, and began the first drafts of his Memoires d’Outre-Tombe. He was elected to the Academie francaise in 1811, but, given his plan to infuse his acceptance speech with criticism of the Revolution, he could not occupy his seat until after the Bourbon Restoration. His literary friends during this period included Madame de Sta?l, Joseph Joubert and Pierre-Simon Ballanche. Under the Restoration Further information: Bourbon Restoration in France Chateaubriand became a major figure in politics as well as literature. At first he was a strong Royalist in the period up to 1824. His liberal phase lasted from 1824 to 1830. After that he was much less active. After the fall of Napoleon, Chateaubriand rallied to the Bourbons. On 30 March 1814, he wrote a pamphlet against Napoleon, titled De Buonaparte et des Bourbons, of which thousands of copies were published. He then followed Louis XVIII into exile to Ghent during the Hundred Days (March-July 1815), and was nominated ambassador to Sweden. After Napoleon's final defeat in the Battle of Waterloo (of which he heard the distant cannon rumblings outside Ghent), Chateaubriand became peer of France and state minister (1815). In December 1815 he voted for Marshal Ney's execution. However, his criticism of King Louis XVIII in La Monarchie selon la Charte, after the Chambre introuvable was dissolved, resulted in his disgrace. He lost his function of state minister, and joined the opposition, siding with the Ultra-royalist group supporting the future Charles X, and becoming one of the main writers of its mouthpiece, Le Conservateur. Chateaubriand sided again with the Court after the murder of the Duc de Berry (1820), writing for the occasion the Memoires sur la vie et la mort du duc. He then served as ambassador to Prussia (1821) and the United Kingdom (1822), and even rose to the office of Minister of Foreign Affairs (28 December 1822 - 4 August 1824). A plenipotentiary to the Congress of Verona (1822), he decided in favor of the Quintuple Alliance's intervention in Spain during the Trienio Liberal, despite opposition from the Duke of Wellington. Chateaubriand was soon relieved of his office by Prime Minister Joseph de Villèle on 5 June 1824, over his objections to a law the latter proposed that would have resulted in the widening of the electorate. Chateaubriand was subsequently appointed French ambassador to Genoa. Consequently, he moved towards the liberal opposition, both as a Peer and as a contributor to Journal des Debats (his articles there gave the signal of the paper's similar switch, which, however, was more moderate than Le National, directed by Adolphe Thiers and Armand Carrel). Opposing Villèle, he became highly popular as a defender of press freedom and the cause of Greek independence. After Villèle's downfall, Charles X appointed Chateaubriand ambassador to the Holy See in 1828, but he resigned upon the accession of the Prince de Polignac as premier (November 1829). In 1830, he donated a monument to the French painter Nicolas Poussin in the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina in Rome. July Monarchy Further information: July Monarchy In 1830, after the July Revolution, his refusal to swear allegiance to the new House of Orleans king Louis-Philippe put an end to his political career. He withdrew from political life to write his Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ("Memoirs from Beyond the Grave"), published posthumously in two volumes in 1849-1850. It reflects his growing pessimism regarding the future. Although his contemporaries celebrated the present and future as an extension of the past, Chateaubriand and the new Romanticists couldn’t share their nostalgic outlook. Instead he foresaw chaos, discontinuity, and disaster. His diaries and letters often focused on the upheavals he could see every day — abuses of power, excesses of daily life, and disasters yet to come. His melancholy tone suggested astonishment, surrender, betrayal, and bitterness. His etudes historiques was an introduction to a projected History of France. He became a harsh critic of the "bourgeois king" Louis-Philippe and the July Monarchy, and his planned volume on the arrest of Marie-Caroline, duchesse de Berry caused him to be (unsuccessfully) prosecuted. Chateaubriand, along with other Catholic traditionalists such as Ballanche or, on the other side of the political divide, the socialist and republican Pierre Leroux, was one of the few men of his time who attempted to conciliate the three terms of Liberte, egalite and fraternite, going beyond the antagonism between liberals and socialists as to what interpretation to give the seemingly contradictory terms. Chateaubriand thus gave a Christian interpretation of the revolutionary motto, stating in the 1841 conclusion to his Memoires d'Outre-Tombe: Far from being at its term, the religion of the Liberator is now only just entering its third phase, the political period, liberty, equality, fraternity. In his final years, he lived as a recluse in an apartment at 120 rue du Bac, Paris, leaving his house only to pay visits to Juliette Recamier in Abbaye-aux-Bois. His final work, Vie de Rance, was written at the suggestion of his confessor and published in 1844. It is a biography of Armand Jean le Bouthillier de Rance, a worldly seventeenth-century French aristocrat who withdrew from society to become the founder of the Trappist order of monks. The parallels with Chateaubriand's own life are striking. As late as 1845-1847, he also kept revising Memoires d’Outre-Tombe, particularly the earlier sections, as evidenced by the revision dates on the manuscript. Chateaubriand died in Paris on 4 July 1848, in the midst of the Revolution of 1848, in the arms of his dear friend Juliette Recamier, and was buried, as he had requested, on the tidal island Grand Be near Saint-Malo, accessible only when the tide is out. Influence His descriptions of Nature and his analysis of emotion made him the model for a generation of Romantic writers, not only in France but also abroad. For example, Lord Byron was deeply impressed by Rene. The young Victor Hugo scribbled in a notebook, "To be Chateaubriand or nothing." Even his enemies found it hard to avoid his influence. Stendhal, who despised him for political reasons, made use of his psychological analyses in his own book, De l'amour. Chateaubriand was the first to define the vague des passions ("intimations of passion") that later became a commonplace of Romanticism: "One inhabits, with a full heart, an empty world" (Genie du Christianisme). His political thought and actions seem to offer numerous contradictions: he wanted to be the friend both of legitimist royalty and of republicans, alternately defending whichever of the two seemed more in danger: "I am a Bourbonist out of honour, a monarchist out of reason, and a republican out of taste and temperament". He was the first of a series of French men of letters (Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Andre Malraux, Paul Claudel) who tried to mix political and literary careers. "We are convinced that the great writers have told their own story in their works", wrote Chateaubriand in Genie du christianisme. "One only truly describes one's own heart by attributing it to another, and the greater part of genius is composed of memories". This is certainly true of Chateaubriand himself. All his works have strong autobiographical elements, overt or disguised. George Brandes, in 1901, compared the works of Chateaubriand to those of Rousseau and others: The year 1800 was the first to produce a book bearing the imprint of the new era, a work small in size, but great in significance and mighty in the impression it made. Atala took the French public by storm in a way which no book had done since the days of Paul and Virginia. It was a romance of the plains and mysterious forests of North America, with a strong, strange aroma of the untilled soil from which it sprang; it glowed with rich foreign colouring, and with the fiercer glow of consuming passion. Chateaubriand was a food enthusiast; Chateaubriand steak is most likely to have been named after him. Honors and memberships Chateaubriand was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816. A French school in Rome (Italy) is named after him. Works 1797: Essai sur les revolutions. 1801: Atala, ou Les Amours de Deux Sauvages dans le Desert. 1802: Rene. 1802: Genie du christianisme. 1809: Les Martyrs. 1811: Itineraire de Paris à Jerusalem. English translation by Frederic Shoberl, 1814. Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary, during the years 1806 and 1807. 1814: "On Buonaparte and the Bourbons", in Blum, Christopher Olaf, editor and translator, 2004. Critics of the Enlightenment. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books. 3-42. 1820: Memoires sur la vie et la mort du duc de Berry. 1826: Les Natchez. 1826: Les Aventures du dernier Abencerage. 1827: Voyage en Amerique. 1831: etudes historiques. 1833: Memoires sur la captivite de Madame la duchesse de Berry. 1844: La Vie de Rance. 1848-50. Memoires d'Outre-Tombe. "Progress," in Menczer, Bela, 1962. Catholic Political Thought, 1789-1848, University of Notre Dame Press. Name: Beethoven Biography: Ludwig van Beethoven(17 December 1770 - 26 March 1827) Occupation :Composer，pianist Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. Beethoven remains one of the most admired composers in the history of Western music; his works rank amongst the most performed of the classical music repertoire, and span the transition from the classical period to the romantic era in classical music. His career has conventionally been divided into early, middle, and late periods. The "early" period, during which he forged his craft, is typically considered to have lasted until 1802. From 1802 to around 1812, his "middle" period showed an individual development from the "classical" styles of Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and is sometimes characterized as "heroic". During this time, he began to suffer increasingly from deafness. In his "late" period from 1812 to his death in 1827, he extended his innovations in musical form and expression. Born in Bonn, Beethoven's musical talent was obvious at an early age, and he was initially harshly and intensively taught by his father Johann van Beethoven. Beethoven was later taught by the composer and conductor Christian Gottlob Neefe, under whose tutelage he published his first work, a set of keyboard variations, in 1783. He found relief from a dysfunctional home life with the family of Helene von Breuning, whose children he loved, befriended, and taught piano. At age 21, he moved to Vienna, which subsequently became his base, and studied composition with Haydn. Beethoven then gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist, and he was soon courted by Karl Alois, Prince Lichnowsky for compositions, which resulted in his three Opus 1 piano trios (the earliest works to which he accorded an opus number) in 1795. His first major orchestral work, the First Symphony, appeared in 1800, and his first set of string quartets was published in 1801. During this period, his hearing began to deteriorate, but he continued to conduct, premiering his Third and Fifth Symphonies in 1804 and 1808, respectively. His Violin Concerto appeared in 1806. His last piano concerto (No. 5, Op. 73, known as the 'Emperor'), dedicated to his frequent patron Archduke Rudolf of Austria, was premiered in 1810, but not with Beethoven as soloist. He was almost completely deaf by 1814, and he then gave up performing and appearing in public. He described his problems with health and his unfulfilled personal life in two letters, his "Heiligenstadt Testament" (1802) to his brothers and his unsent love letter to an unknown "Immortal Beloved" (1812). In the years from 1810, increasingly less socially involved, Beethoven composed many of his most admired works including his later symphonies and his mature chamber music and piano sonatas. His only opera, Fidelio, which had been first performed in 1805, was revised to its final version in 1814. He composed his Missa Solemnis in the years 1819-1823, and his final, Ninth, Symphony, one of the first examples of a choral symphony, from 1822-1824. Written in his last years, his late string quartets of 1825-1826 are amongst his final achievements. After some months of bedridden illness, he died in 1827. Beethoven's works remain mainstays of the classical music repertoire. 1780-1792: Bonn 1792-1802: Vienna - the early years Beethoven left Bonn for Vienna in November 1792, amid rumours of war spilling out of France; he learned shortly after his arrival that his father had died. Over the next few years, Beethoven responded to the widespread feeling that he was a successor to the recently deceased Mozart by studying that master's work and writing works with a distinctly Mozartian flavour. He did not immediately set out to establish himself as a composer, but rather devoted himself to study and performance. Working under Haydn's direction, he sought to master counterpoint. He also studied violin under Ignaz Schuppanzigh. Early in this period, he also began receiving occasional instruction from Antonio Salieri, primarily in Italian vocal composition style; this relationship persisted until at least 1802, and possibly as late as 1809. With Haydn's departure for England in 1794, Beethoven was expected by the Elector to return home to Bonn. He chose instead to remain in Vienna, continuing his instruction in counterpoint with Johann Albrechtsberger and other teachers. In any case, by this time it must have seemed clear to his employer that Bonn would fall to the French, as it did in October 1794, effectively leaving Beethoven without a stipend or the necessity to return. However, several Viennese noblemen had already recognised his ability and offered him financial support, among them Prince Joseph Franz Lobkowitz, Prince Karl Lichnowsky, and Baron Gottfried van Swieten. Assisted by his connections with Haydn and Waldstein, Beethoven began to develop a reputation as a performer and improviser in the salons of the Viennese nobility. His friend Nikolaus Simrock began publishing his compositions, starting with a set of keyboard variations on a theme of Dittersdorf (WoO 66). By 1793, he had established a reputation in Vienna as a piano virtuoso, but he apparently withheld works from publication so that their eventual appearance would have greater impact. In 1795 Beethoven made his public debut in Vienna over three days, beginning with a performance of one of his own piano concertos on 29 March at the Burgtheater and ending with a Mozart concerto on 31 March, probably the D minor concerto for which he had written a cadenza soon after his arrival in Vienna. By this year he had two piano concertos available for performance, one in B-flat major he had begun composing before moving to Vienna and had worked on for over a decade, and one in C major composed for the most part during 1795. Viewing the latter as the more substantive work, he chose to designate it as his first piano concerto, publishing it in March 1801 as Opus 15, before publishing the former as Opus 19 the following December. He wrote new cadenzas for both works in 1809. Shortly after his public debut he arranged for the publication of the first of his compositions to which he assigned an opus number, the three piano trios, Opus 1. These works were dedicated to his patron Prince Lichnowsky, and were a financial success; Beethoven's profits were nearly sufficient to cover his living expenses for a year. In 1799 Beethoven participated in (and won) a notorious piano 'duel' at the home of Baron Raimund Wetzlar (a former patron of Mozart) against the virtuoso Joseph W?lfl; and in the following year he similarly triumphed against Daniel Steibelt at the salon of Count Moritz von Fries. Beethoven's eighth piano sonata the "Pathetique" (Op. 13), published in 1799 is described by the musicologist Barry Cooper as "surpass any of his previous compositions, in strength of character, depth of emotion, level of originality, and ingenuity of motivic and tonal manipulation". Beethoven composed his first six string quartets (Op. 18) between 1798 and 1800 (commissioned by, and dedicated to, Prince Lobkowitz). They were published in 1801. He also completed his Septet (Op. 20) in 1799, which was one of his most popular works during his lifetime. With premieres of his First and Second Symphonies in 1800 and 1803, he became regarded as one of the most important of a generation of young composers following Haydn and Mozart. But his melodies, musical development, use of modulation and texture, and characterisation of emotion all set him apart from his influences, and heightened the impact some of his early works made when they were first published. For the premiere of his First Symphony, he hired the Burgtheater on 2 April 1800, and staged an extensive programme, including works by Haydn and Mozart, as well as his Septet, the Symphony, and one of his piano concertos (the latter three works all then unpublished). The concert, which the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung described as "the most interesting concert in a long time", was not without difficulties; among the criticisms was that "the players did not bother to pay any attention to the soloist". By the end of 1800, Beethoven and his music were already much in demand from patrons and publishers. In May 1799, he taught piano to the daughters of Hungarian Countess Anna Brunsvik. During this time, he fell in love with the younger daughter Josephine. Amongst his other students, from 1801 to 1805, he tutored Ferdinand Ries, who went on to become a composer and later wrote about their encounters. The young Carl Czerny, who later became a renowned music teacher himself, studied with Beethoven from 1801 to 1803. In late 1801, he met a young countess, Julie Guicciardi, through the Brunsvik family; he mentions his love for Julie in a November 1801 letter to a friend, but class difference prevented any consideration of pursuing this. He dedicated his 1802 Sonata Op. 27 No. 2, now commonly known as the Moonlight Sonata, to her. In the spring of 1801 he completed The Creatures of Prometheus, a ballet. The work received numerous performances in 1801 and 1802, and he rushed to publish a piano arrangement to capitalise on its early popularity. In the spring of 1802 he completed the Second Symphony, intended for performance at a concert that was cancelled. The symphony received its premiere instead at a subscription concert in April 1803 at the Theater an der Wien, where he had been appointed composer in residence. In addition to the Second Symphony, the concert also featured the First Symphony, the Third Piano Concerto, and the oratorio Christ on the Mount of Olives. Reviews were mixed, but the concert was a financial success; he was able to charge three times the cost of a typical concert ticket. His business dealings with publishers also began to improve in 1802 when his brother Kaspar, who had previously assisted him casually, began to assume a larger role in the management of his affairs. In addition to negotiating higher prices for recently composed works, Kaspar also began selling some of his earlier unpublished compositions and encouraged him (against Beethoven's preference) to also make arrangements and transcriptions of his more popular works for other instrument combinations. Beethoven acceded to these requests, as he could not prevent publishers from hiring others to do similar arrangements of his works. 1802-1812: The 'heroic' period Deafness Beethoven told the English pianist Charles Neate (in 1815) that he dated his hearing loss from a fit he suffered in 1798 induced by a quarrel with a singer. During its gradual decline, his hearing was further impeded by a severe form of tinnitus. As early as 1801, he wrote to Wegeler and another friend Karl Amenda, describing his symptoms and the difficulties they caused in both professional and social settings (although it is likely some of his close friends were already aware of the problems). The cause was probably otosclerosis, perhaps accompanied by degeneration of the auditory nerve. On the advice of his doctor, Beethoven moved to the small Austrian town of Heiligenstadt, just outside Vienna, from April to October 1802 in an attempt to come to terms with his condition. There he wrote the document now known as the Heiligenstadt Testament, a letter to his brothers which records his thoughts of suicide due to his growing deafness and records his resolution to continue living for and through his art. The letter was never sent and was discovered in his papers after his death. The letters to Wegeler and Amenda were not so despairing; in them Beethoven commented also on his ongoing professional and financial success at this period, and his determination, as he expressed it to Wegeler, to "seize Fate by the throat; it shall certainly not crush me completely". In 1806, Beethoven noted on one of his musical sketches: "Let your deafness no longer be a secret - even in art." Beethoven's hearing loss did not prevent him from composing music, but it made playing at concerts—an important source of income at this phase of his life—increasingly difficult. (It also contributed substantially to his social withdrawal.) Czerny remarked however that Beethoven could still hear speech and music normally until 1812. Beethoven never became totally deaf; in his final years he was still able to distinguish low tones and sudden loud sounds. The 'heroic' style Beethoven's return to Vienna from Heiligenstadt was marked by a change in musical style, and is now often designated as the start of his middle or "heroic" period characterised by many original works composed on a grand scale. According to Carl Czerny, Beethoven said: "I am not satisfied with the work I have done so far. From now on I intend to take a new way." An early major work employing this new style was the Third Symphony in E flat Op. 55, known as the Eroica, written in 1803-04. The idea of creating a symphony based on the career of Napoleon may have been suggested to Beethoven by General Bernadotte in 1798. Beethoven, sympathetic to the ideal of the heroic revolutionary leader, originally gave the symphony the title "Bonaparte", but disillusioned by Napoleon declaring himself Emperor in 1804, he scratched Napoleon's name from the manuscript's title page, and the symphony was published in 1806 with its present title and the subtitle "to celebrate the memory of a great man". The Eroica was longer and larger in scope than any previous symphony. When it premiered in early 1805 it received a mixed reception. Some listeners objected to its length or misunderstood its structure, while others viewed it as a masterpiece. Other middle period works extend in the same dramatic manner the musical language Beethoven had inherited. The Rasumovsky string quartets, and the Waldstein and Appassionata piano sonatas share the heroic spirit of the Third Symphony. Other works of this period include the Fourth through Eighth Symphonies, the oratorio Christ on the Mount of Olives, the opera Fidelio, and the Violin Concerto. Beethoven was hailed in 1810 by the writer and composer E. T. A. Hoffmann, in an influential review in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, as the greatest of (what he considered) the three "Romantic" composers (that is, ahead of Haydn and Mozart); in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony his music, wrote Hoffmann, "sets in motion terror, fear, horror, pain, and awakens the infinite yearning that is the essence of romanticism". During this time Beethoven's income came from publishing his works, from performances of them, and from his patrons, for whom he gave private performances and copies of works they commissioned for an exclusive period before their publication. Some of his early patrons, including Prince Lobkowitz and Prince Lichnowsky, gave him annual stipends in addition to commissioning works and purchasing published works. Perhaps his most important aristocratic patron was Archduke Rudolf of Austria, the youngest son of Emperor Leopold II, who in 1803 or 1804 began to study piano and composition with him. They became friends, and their meetings continued until 1824. Beethoven dedicated 14 compositions to Rudolf, including some of his major works such as the Archduke Trio Op. 97 (1811) and Missa solemnis Op. 123 (1823). His position at the Theater an der Wien was terminated when the theatre changed management in early 1804, and he was forced to move temporarily to the suburbs of Vienna with his friend Stephan von Breuning. This slowed work on Leonore, (his original title for his opera), his largest work to date, for a time. It was delayed again by the Austrian censor and finally premiered, under its present title of Fidelio in November 1805 to houses that were nearly empty because of the French occupation of the city. In addition to being a financial failure, this version of Fidelio was also a critical failure, and Beethoven began revising it. Despite this failure, Beethoven continued to attract recognition. In 1807 the musician and publisher Muzio Clementi secured the rights for publishing his works in England, and Haydn's former patron Prince Esterházy commissioned a mass (the Mass in C, Op. 86) for his wife's name-day. But he could not count on such recognition alone. A colossal benefit concert which he organized in December 1808, and was widely advertised, included the premieres of the Fifth and Sixth (Pastoral) symphonies, the Fourth Piano Concerto, extracts from the Mass in C, the scena and aria Ah! perfido Op. 65 and the Choral Fantasy op. 80. There was a large audience (including Czerny and the young Ignaz Moscheles), but it was under-rehearsed, involved many stops and starts, and during the Fantasia Beethoven was noted shouting at the musicians "badly played, wrong, again!" The financial outcome is unknown. In the autumn of 1808, after having been rejected for a position at the Royal Theatre, Beethoven had received an offer from Napoleon's brother Jer?me Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia, for a well-paid position as Kapellmeister at the court in Cassel. To persuade him to stay in Vienna, Archduke Rudolf, Prince Kinsky and Prince Lobkowitz, after receiving representations from Beethoven's friends, pledged to pay him a pension of 4000 florins a year. In the event, Archduke Rudolf paid his share of the pension on the agreed date. Kinsky, immediately called to military duty, did not contribute and died in November 1812 after falling from his horse. The Austrian currency destabilized and Lobkowitz went bankrupt in 1811 so that to benefit from the agreement Beethoven eventually had recourse to the law, which in 1815 brought him some recompense. The imminence of war reaching Vienna itself was felt in early 1809. In April Beethoven had completed writing his Piano Concerto No. 5 in E flat major, Op. 73, which the musicologist Alfred Einstein has described as "the apotheosis of the military concept" in Beethoven's music. Archduke Rudolf left the capital with the Imperial family in early May, prompting Beethoven's piano sonata Les Adieux, (Sonata No. 26, Op. 81a), actually entitled by Beethoven in German "Das Lebewohl" (The Farewell), of which the final movement, "Das Wiedersehen" (The Return), is dated in the manuscript with the date of Rudolf's homecoming of 30 January 1810. During the French bombardment of Vienna in May Beethoven took refuge in the cellar of the house of his brother Kaspar. The subsequent occupation of Vienna and the disruptions to cultural life and to Beethoven's publishers, together with Beethoven's poor health at the end of 1809, explain his significantly reduced output during this period, although other notable works of the year include his String Quartet No. 10 in F major, Op. 74 (known as The Harp) and the Piano Sonata No. 24 in F sharp major op. 78, dedicated to Josephine's sister Therese Brunsvik. Goethe At the end of 1809 Beethoven was commissioned to write incidental music for Goethe's play Egmont. The result (an overture, and nine additional entractes and vocal pieces, Op. 84), which appeared in 1810 fitted well with Beethoven's "heroic" style and he became interested in Goethe, setting three of his poems as songs (Op. 83) and learning about the poet from a mutual acquaintance, Bettina Brentano (who also wrote to Goethe at this time about Beethoven). Other works of this period in a similar vein were the F minor String Quartet Op. 95, to which Beethoven gave the subtitle Quartetto serioso, and the Op. 97 Piano Trio in B flat major known, from its dedication to his patron Rudolph as the Archduke Trio. In the spring of 1811, Beethoven became seriously ill, suffering headaches and high fever. His doctor Johann Malfatti recommended him to take a cure at the spa of Teplitz (now Teplice in the Czech Republic), where he wrote two more overtures and sets of incidental music for dramas, this time by August von Kotzebue - King Stephen Op. 117 and The Ruins of Athens Op. 113. Advised again to visit Teplitz in 1812 he met there with Goethe, who wrote: "His talent amazed me; unfortunately he is an utterly untamed personality, who is not altogether wrong in holding the world to be detestable, but surely does not make it any more enjoyable ... by his attitude." Beethoven wrote to his publishers Breitkopf and H?rtel that "Goethe delights far too much in the court atmosphere, far more than is becoming in a poet." But following their meeting he began a setting for choir and orchestra of Goethe's Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt (Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage) (Op. 112), completed in 1815. After this was published in 1822 with a dedication to the poet, Beethoven wrote to him: "The admiration, the love and esteem which already in my youth I cherished for the one and only immortal Goethe have persisted." 1813-1822: Acclaim Post-war Vienna Beethoven was finally motivated to begin significant composition again in June 1813, when news arrived of Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Vitoria by a coalition led by the Duke of Wellington. The inventor M?lzel persuaded him to write a work commemorating the event for his mechanical instrument the Panharmonicon. This Beethoven also transcribed for orchestra as Wellington's Victory (Op. 91, also known as the Battle Symphony). It was first performed on 8 December, along with his Seventh Symphony, Op. 92, at a charity concert for victims of the war, a concert whose success led to its repeat on 12 December. The orchestra included several leading and rising musicians who happened to be in Vienna at the time, including Giacomo Meyerbeer and Domenico Dragonetti. The work received repeat performances at concerts staged by Beethoven in January and February 1814. These concerts brought Beethoven more profit than any others in his career, and enabled him to buy the bank shares that were eventually to be the most valuable assets in his estate at his death. Pause Between 1815 and 1819 Beethoven's output dropped again to a level unique in his mature life. He attributed part of this to a lengthy illness (he called it an "inflammatory fever") that he had for more than a year, starting in October 1816. Resurgence During 1822, Anton Schindler, who in 1840 became one of Beethoven's earliest and most influential (but not always reliable) biographers, began to work as the composer's unpaid secretary. He was later to claim that he had been a member of Beethoven's circle since 1814, but there is no evidence for this. Cooper suggests that "Beethoven greatly appreciated his assistance, but did not think much of him as a man". 1823-1827: The final years The year 1823 saw the completion of three notable works, all of which had occupied Beethoven for some years, namely the Missa Solemnis, the Ninth Symphony and the Diabelli Variations. Beethoven at last presented the manuscript of the completed Missa to Rudolph on 19 March (more than a year after the archduke's enthronement as archbishop). He was not however in a hurry to get it published or performed as he had formed a notion that he could profitably sell manuscripts of the work to various courts in Germany and Europe at 50 ducats each. One of the few who took up this offer was Louis XVIII of France, who also sent Beethoven a heavy gold medallion. The Symphony and the variations took up most of the rest of Beethoven's working year. Diabelli hoped to publish both works, but the potential prize of the Mass excited many other publishers to lobby Beethoven for it, including Schlesinger and Carl Friedrich Peters. (In the end, it was obtained by Schotts). Beethoven had become critical of the Viennese reception of his works. He told the visiting Johann Friedrich Rochlitz in 1822: You will hear nothing of me here ... Fidelio? They cannot give it, nor do they want to listen to it. The symphonies? They have no time for them. My concertos? Everyone grinds out only the stuff he himself has made. The solo pieces? They went out of fashion long ago, and here fashion is everything. At the most, Schuppanzigh occasionally digs up a quartet. He, therefore, enquired about premiering the Missa and the Ninth Symphony in Berlin. When his Viennese admirers learnt of this, they pleaded with him to arrange local performances. Beethoven was won over, and the symphony was first performed, along with sections of the Missa Solemnis, on 7 May 1824, to great acclaim at the K?rntnertortheater. Beethoven stood by the conductor Michael Umlauf during the concert beating time (although Umlauf had warned the singers and orchestra to ignore him), and because of his deafness was not even aware of the applause which followed until he was turned to witness it. The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung gushed, "inexhaustible genius had shown us a new world", and Carl Czerny wrote that the Symphony "breathes such a fresh, lively, indeed youthful spirit ... so much power, innovation, and beauty as ever from the head of this original man, although he certainly sometimes led the old wigs to shake their heads". The concert did not net Beethoven much money, as the expenses of mounting it were very high. A second concert on 24 May, in which the producer guaranteed him a minimum fee, was poorly attended; nephew Karl noted that "many people already gone into the country". It was Beethoven's last public concert. Beethoven accused Schindler of either cheating him or mismanaging the ticket receipts; this led to the replacement of Schindler as Beethoven's secretary by Karl Holz, the second violinist in the Schuppanzigh Quartet, although by 1826 Beethoven and Schindler were reconciled. Beethoven then turned to writing the string quartets for Galitzin, despite failing health. The first of these, the quartet in E? major, Op. 127 was premiered by the Schuppanzigh Quartet in March 1825. While writing the next, the quartet in A minor, Op. 132, in April 1825, he was struck by a sudden illness. Recuperating in Baden, he included in the quartet its slow movement to which he gave the title "Holy song of thanks ('Heiliger Dankgesang') to the Divinity, from a convalescent, in the Lydian mode". The next quartet to be completed was the Thirteenth, op. 130, in B? major. In six movements, the last, contrapuntal movement proved to be very difficult for both the performers and the audience at its premiere in March 1826 (again by the Schuppanzigh Quartet). Beethoven was persuaded by the publisher Artaria, for an additional fee, to write a new finale, and to issue the last movement as a separate work (the Grosse Fugue, Op. 133). Beethoven's favourite was the last of this series, the quartet in C? minor Op. 131, which he rated as his most perfect single work. Beethoven's relations with his nephew Karl had continued to be stormy; Beethoven's letters to him were demanding and reproachful. In August, Karl, who had been seeing his mother again against Beethoven's wishes, attempted suicide by shooting himself in the head. He survived and after discharge from hospital went to recuperate in the village of Gneixendorf with Beethoven and his uncle Johann. Whilst in Gneixendorf, Beethoven completed a further quartet, (Op. 135 in F major) which he sent to Schlesinger. Under the introductory slow chords in the last movement, Beethoven wrote in the manuscript "Muss es sein?" ("Must it be?"); the response, over the faster main theme of the movement, is "Es muss sein!" ("It must be!"). The whole movement is headed "Der schwer gefasste Entschluss" ("The Difficult Decision"). Following this in November Beethoven completed his final composition, the replacement finale for the op. 130 quartet. Beethoven at this time was already ill and depressed; he began to quarrel with Johann, insisting that Johann made Karl his heir, in preference to Johann's wife. Death Main article: Death of Ludwig van Beethoven Name: Radetzky Biography: Joseph Radetzky von Radetz(2 November 1766 - 5 January 1858) Allegiance: Habsburg Monarchy Rank: Field Marshal Battles/wars:Austro-Turkish War，French Revolutionary Wars，Napoleonic Wars First Italian War of Independence Johann Josef Wenzel Anton Franz Karl, Graf Radetzky von Radetz (English: John Joseph Wenceslaus Anthony Francis Charles, Count Radetzky of Radetz; Czech: Jan Josef Václav Antonín Franti?ek Karel hrabě Radecky z Rad?e; Slovene: Janez Jo?ef Vencelj Anton Fran?i?ek Karel grof Radetzky; 2 November 1766 - 5 January 1858) was a Bohemian nobleman and Austrian field marshal. He served as chief of the general staff in the Habsburg Monarchy during the later period of the Napoleonic Wars and afterwards began military reforms. A disciplined and fair man, he was so beloved by his troops that he was known as Vater ('Father') Radetzky. He is best known for the victories at the Battles of Custoza (24-25 July 1848) and Novara (23 March 1849) during the First Italian War of Independence. Early years Radetzky, a titled Graf or Count, was born into a noble Bohemian military family of Czech origin at Chateau T?ebnice (German: Trebnitz) near Sedl?any in Bohemia (now part of the town). Orphaned at an early age (his mother died giving birth), Radetzky was educated by his grandfather and, after the count's death, he continued at the Theresa Academy at Vienna. The academy was dissolved during his first year's residence in 1785, and Radetzky became a cadet in the Austrian Army. The following year he became an officer, and in 1787 was promoted to first lieutenant in a cuirassier regiment. He served as an adjutant to both Count von Lacy and Field Marshal von Laudon during the Austro-Turkish War of 1787-1791, and in the Austrian Netherlands from 1792 to 1795. In 1798, he married Countess Francesca von Strassoldo Grafenberg, from Tr?i?, Carniola (now in Slovenia). She was a descendant of the Austrian princely family of Auersperg that was one of the hereditary Habsburg duchies in what is now Slovenia. They had five sons and three daughters, only two of whom outlived their father. Radetzky also had a longstanding romantic relationship with his Italian mistress, Giuditta Meregalli of Sesto San Giovanni. She was 40 years his junior and bore him four children, all of whom took his name and were recognized by Radetzky. Meregalli received extensive letters from him written during his battles. He was a devout lifelong Roman Catholic. Napoleonic Wars In 1795 Radetzky fought on the Rhine. The following year he served with Johann Beaulieu against Napoleon in Italy, but disliked the indecisive "cordon" system of warfare which Count von Lacy had instituted and other Austrian generals imitated. His personal courage was conspicuous. At the Battle of Fleurus (1794) he led a party of cavalry through the French lines to discover the fate of Charleroi, and at Valeggio sul Mincio in 1796, with a few hussars, he rescued Beaulieu from the enemy. Promoted to major, he took part in Dagobert Wurmser's Siege of Mantua campaign, which ended in the fall of that fortress. As lieutenant-colonel and colonel he displayed bravery and skill in the battles of Trebbia and Novi (1799). At the Battle of Marengo, as colonel on the staff of Melas, he was hit by five bullets, after endeavouring on the previous evening to bring about modifications in the plan suggested by the "scientific" Anton von Zach. In 1801 Radetzky was made a Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. In 1805, on the march to Ulm, he received news of his promotion to major-general and his assignment to a command in Italy under the Archduke Charles of Austria. He thus took part in the failed campaign of Caldiero. Peace provided a short respite, which he spent in studying and teaching the art of war. In 1809 he led a brigade in V Corps during the Battle of Eckmühl. Promoted lieutenant field marshal, he commanded a division in IV Corps at the Battle of Wagram. In 1810 he was created a Commander of the Order of Maria Theresa and became Inhaber of the 5th Radetzky Hussars. From 1809 to 1812, as chief of the general staff, he was active in reorganizing the army and its tactical system, but, unable to carry out the reforms he desired owing to the opposition of the Treasury, he resigned his position. In 1813 he was Schwarzenberg's chief of staff and had considerable influence on the councils of the Allied sovereigns and generals. Langenau, the quartermaster-general of the Grand Army, found him an indispensable assistant, and he had a considerable share in planning the Leipzig campaign. He won praise for his tactical skills in the battles of Brienne and Arcis-sur-Aube. He entered Paris with the allied sovereigns in March 1814, and returned with them to the Congress of Vienna, where he appears to have acted as an intermediary between Metternich and Tsar Alexander I of Russia, when the two were not on speaking terms. Italian campaigns During the succeeding years of peace he disappeared from public view. He resumed his functions as chief of staff, but his ardent ideas for reforming the army came to nothing in the face of the general war-weariness and desire to "let well enough alone." His zeal added to the number of his enemies, and in 1829, after twenty years as lieutenant field marshal, it was proposed to place him on the retired list. The emperor, unwilling to go as far as that, promoted him general of cavalry and shelved him by making him governor of a fortress. But very soon afterwards, the Restoration settlement of Europe was shaken by fresh upheavals, and Radetzky was brought back into the field of war again. He took part under Frimont in the campaign against the Papal States insurgents, and succeeded that general in the chief command of the Austrian army in Italy in 1834. In 1836, Radetzky was promoted to full field marshal. He was then seventy, but still displayed the vigor and zeal of his youth in the training and discipline of the army he commanded. But there too he was in advance of his time, and the government not only disregarded his suggestions and warnings but also refused the military the money that would have enabled the finest army it possessed to take the field at a moment's notice. Thus the events of 1848 in Italy, which gave the old field marshal his place in history among the great commanders, found him, in the beginning, not unprepared but seriously handicapped in the struggle with Charles Albert's army, and the insurgents in Milan and elsewhere. By falling back to the Quadrilatero and there, rebuffing one opponent after another, he was able to buy time until reinforcements arrived, and thenceforward up to the final triumph at the Battle of Novara on 23 March 1849, he and his army carried all before them. He also commanded the Austrian troops who reconquered Venice after the year-long siege of the rebellious city in May 1848 - August 1849. He became a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1848. His well-disciplined sense of duty towards officers of higher rank had become more intense in the long years of peace, and, after keeping his army loyal midst the confusion of 1848, he made no attempt to play the part of Wallenstein or even to assume Wellington's role of 'family adviser to the nation'. While as a patriot he dreamed a little of a united Germany, he remained to the end simply the commander of one of the emperor's armies. After his triumph in Italy, he was made Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia from 1848 to 1857 - being the only one not of royal Habsburg blood. Repression in Lombardy-Venetia was severe: the Austrians could act with impunity and little denunciation from the exiled patriots in the rest of Italy, and masking their action as "repression of banditry," there was little danger of it acquiring international resonance. From 1848 Radetzky introduced public caning as a form of punishment, the death penalty for conspirators and life sentences for failing to denounce revolutionary activities. The Belfiore martyrs, Luigi Dottesio and Amatore Sciesa were among the many who were executed for political activities. While effective in preventing rebellions, these brutal acts marked the failure of all re-pacification policies between Austria and the Italian population; 1848 had dug too deep a chasm between the Italians and the Austrian government, and - as events in 1859 showed - it was only the power of the Austrian military that maintained the rule of Austria and her client states in Italy. It was part of Radetzky's good fortune that he died one year before his whole work dissolved. Death Josef Wenzel Graf Radetzky of Radetz died from pneumonia on 5 January 1858 in Milan. The Emperor wished him to be buried in the Capuchin crypt (the Imperial Crypt in Vienna); however, Radetzky had bequeathed his earthly remains, and the right to bury him, to Joseph Gottfried Pargfrieder, an army supplies merchant and land owner, who decades earlier had settled his debts. On 19 January 1858, Radetzky was buried at the Heldenberg Memorial site (Gedenkst?tte Heldenberg) in Lower Austria, an open-air pantheon with warrior statues celebrating the heroes of Austrian military history from Middle Ages to the 19th century (Heldenberg literally translates as "Hero Mountain"). Radetzky lies buried in a crypt under a monumental obelisk in the central part of the pantheon, together with Field Marshal Maximilian von Wimpffen and Pargfrieder himself. Legacy In military history Radetzky is highly regarded as a brilliant field marshal, while social historians consider his ruthless role as a Viceroy as the point of no return in the troubled relationship between Austria and the Italian population. In popular culture Johann Strauss I's Radetzky March was commissioned to commemorate Radetzky's victories at the Battle of Custoza. Honours He received the following orders and decorations: Austria: Knight of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, 1801; Commander, 1809 Grand Cross, 1848 Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1849 Grand Cross of St. Stephen, in Diamonds, 1851 Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold Knight of the Iron Crown, 1st Class Military Merit Cross Russia: Knight of St. George, 3rd Class, 8 October 1813; 1st Class, 27 August 1848 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 1814 Knight of St. Andrew, 18 March 1839; in Diamonds, 1846 Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class Knight of the White Eagle Honor Sword "for Bravery", in Diamonds Baden: Grand Cross of the Z?hringer Lion, 1815 Bavaria: Grand Cross of the Military Order of Max Joseph, 1815 Knight of St. Hubert, 1849 Hanover: Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 1817 Knight of St. George, 1848 Parma: Senator Grand Cross of the Constantinian Order of St. George, in Diamonds, 1833 Grand Cross of St. Louis for Civil Merit, in Diamonds, 1849 Grand Cross of St. George for Military Merit Sardinia: Knight of the Annunciation, 13 September 1838 Grand Cross of Saints Maurice and Lazarus Prussia: Knight of the Black Eagle, 9 September 1847; in Diamonds, 6 May 1849 Knight of the Red Eagle, 1st Class with Swords Denmark: Knight of the Elephant, 28 October 1849 Two Sicilies: Grand Cross of St. Ferdinand and Merit, 1849 Hesse-Darmstadt: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 11 May 1851 Saxony: Knight of the Rue Crown, 1851 Württemberg: Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1851 Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order, 26 August 1851 France: Grand Cross of the Military Order of St. Louis Greece: Grand Cross of the Redeemer Holy See: Grand Cross of St. Gregory the Great Grand Cross of the Order of Pope Pius IX, in Diamonds Modena: Grand Cross of the Eagle of Este Tuscany: Grand Cross of St. Joseph Knight of the Military Merit Order, 1st Class Name: Frederick I Biography: Frederick I of Württemberg(6 November 1754 - 30 October 1816) Position: Duke/Elector/King of Württemberg Religion:Lutheranism He served in Prussia and Russia in his early years, he stayed in Russia in 1780s.In the meantime, Frederick's succession to the throne of Württemberg had become more and more likely. In June 1789 he traveled to Paris to see the first stages of the French Revolution at first hand, before moving to Ludwigsburg the following year，and then soon become the elector of Württemberg of the Holy Roman Empire. Later, he formed an alliance with Napoleon and provided France with a large amount of auxiliary power. He also married his daughter, Princess Catherine, to Napoleon's younger brother, Jerome Bonaparte. After Napoleon's fall, he participated in the Vienna Conference as the brother-in-law of the British Regent (later George IV) and the uncle of the Russian Emperor Alexander I and was reconfirmed as the King. Frederick I (German: Friedrich Wilhelm Karl; 6 November 1754 - 30 October 1816) was the ruler of Württemberg from 1797 to his death. He was the last Duke of Württemberg from 1797 to 1803, then the first and only Elector of Württemberg from 1803 to 1806, before raising Württemberg to a kingdom in 1806 with the approval of Napoleon I. He was known for his size: at 2.12 m (6 ft 11 in) and about 200 kg (440 lb). Born in Treptow an der Rega, today Trzebiatów, Poland, Frederick was the eldest son of Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, and Sophia Dorothea of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Frederick's father was the third son of Charles Alexander, Duke of Württemberg, and Frederick was thus the nephew of the long-reigning duke Charles Eugene (German: Karl Eugen). Since neither Duke Charles Eugene nor his next brother, Louis Eugene (German: Ludwig Eugen), had any sons, it was expected that Frederick's father (also named Frederick) would eventually succeed to the Duchy, and would be succeeded in turn by Frederick. That eventuality was however many years in the future, and the birth of a legitimate son to either of his uncles would preempt Frederick's hopes conclusively. Further, his uncle the Duke was not disposed to give any member of his family any role in affairs of government. Frederick therefore determined - like his father - on a military career at the court of Frederick the Great. This later drew Frederick and his family into the Prussian king's network of marriage alliances - in 1776 his sister Sophie would marry to Tsesarevich Paul, future Emperor of Russia and son of Empress Catherine II. These family ties to Russia had immediate consequences for Frederick and far-reaching ones for Württemberg during the reorganisation of Europe in the wake of the 1814 Congress of Vienna. In June 1774 he entered the Prussian Army as an oberst in the Kürassierregiment L?lh?ffel, rising to a commander in the same unit in December 1776. He fought with it in the War of the Bavarian Succession. In 1780 he took over the 2nd Dragoon Regiment (Krockow). Frederick married Duchess Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (sixteen years old and thus ten years his junior) on 15 October 1780 at Braunschweig. She was the eldest daughter of Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Princess Augusta of Great Britain and thus a niece of George III of Great Britain and sister to Caroline of Brunswick, the future wife of George IV. The marriage was not a happy one - even during her first pregnancy in 1781 she wished to separate but was persuaded to stay with Frederick by her father. Though they had four children, Frederick was rumored to be bisexual, with a coterie of young noblemen. He had a good relationship with the King of Prussia and regularly took part in cabinet meetings, though this was clouded by his sister Elizabeth's 1788 marriage to Francis of Austria, later the last Holy Roman Emperor and the first Emperor of Austria. Frederick the Great feared that Prussia would become isolated by a closer relationship between Russia and Austria, whose rulers were both Frederick of Württemberg's sisters and (probably wrongly) blamed him for Francis' marriage. In Russia In 1781 Frederick resigned from the Prussian Army as a major general and the following year he accompanied Sophie and her husband to Russia, after a Grand Tour of Europe that the imperial couple had undertaken. Pleased with the well-spoken and confident young man, Catherine II appointed Frederick Governor-General of Eastern Finland, with his seat at Viipuri. From June to October 1783 he was also in command of a 15000-20000 strong corps in Kherson during the Russo-Turkish War, but he was not significantly involved in combat. Frederick's relationship with his wife became more and more strained. He was reportedly violent towards her and after a play during a visit to Saint Petersburg in December 1786, Augusta asked for protection from Empress Catherine. She gave Augusta asylum and ordered Frederick to leave Russia. When Sophie protested at the treatment of her brother, Catherine replied, "It is not I who cover the Prince of Württemberg with opprobrium: on the contrary, it is I who try to bury abominations and it is my duty to suppress any further ones." Catherine's relationship with Frederick's brother-in-law Paul had also broken down and so Frederick had to help protect his sister as she came under fire from Catherine. Augusta was sent to live at Lohde Castle in Western Estonia but died on 27 September 1788 from complications of amenorrhea, which she had been suffering from for several years, and although rumours were spread about a death from miscarriage they were disproven through an exhumation later. In the same year, Frederick sold his residence in Vyborg, known as Monrepos. In the meantime, Frederick's succession to the throne of Württemberg had become more and more likely. In June 1789 he traveled to Paris to see the first stages of the French Revolution at first hand, before moving to Ludwigsburg the following year, much to the displeasure of his uncle Carl Eugen, who was still on the throne. His father came to the throne in 1795 and finally Frederick gained his long-wished political influences. His Brunswick-born father helped him make contact with the British royal family - Frederick's first wife had been a niece of George III. On 18 May 1797, Frederick married George's eldest daughter Charlotte at the Chapel Royal in St James's Palace. Reign Duke and Elector On 22 December 1797, Frederick's father, who had succeeded his brother as Duke of Württemberg two years before, died, and Frederick became Duke of Württemberg as Frederick III. He was not to enjoy his reign undisturbed for long, however. In 1800, the French army occupied Württemberg and the Duke and Duchess fled to Vienna. In 1801, Duke Frederick ceded the enclave of Montbeliard to the French Republic, and received Ellwangen in exchange two years later. In the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, which reorganized the Empire as a result of the French annexation of the west bank of the Rhine, the Duke of Württemberg was raised to the dignity of Imperial Elector. Frederick assumed the title Prince-Elector (German: Kurfürst) on 25 February 1803, and was thereafter known as the Elector of Württemberg. The reorganization of the Empire also secured the new Elector control of various ecclesiastical territories and former free cities, thus greatly increasing the size of his domains. King In exchange for providing France with a large auxiliary force, Napoleon allowed Frederick to raise Württemberg to a kingdom on 26 December 1805. Friedrick was formally crowned king at Stuttgart on 1 January 1806, and took the regnal name of King Frederick I. Soon after, Württemberg seceded from the Holy Roman Empire and joined Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine. Once again, the assumption of a new title also meant territorial expansion, as the territories of various nearby princes were mediatized and annexed by Württemberg. As a symbol of his alliance with Napoleon, Frederick's daughter, Princess Catharina, was married to Napoleon's youngest brother, Jer?me Bonaparte. The newly elevated king's alliance with France technically made him the enemy of his father-in-law, George III. However, the King's dynastic connections would enable him to act as a go-between with Britain and various continental powers. In 1810, Frederick banished the composer Carl Maria von Weber from Württemberg on the pretext that Weber had mismanaged the funds of Frederick's brother, Louis, for whom Weber had served as secretary since 1807. During the German Campaign of 1813, Frederick changed sides and went over to the Allies, where his status as the brother-in-law of the British Prince Regent (later George IV) and uncle to the Russian Emperor Alexander I helped his standing. After the fall of Napoleon, he attended the Congress of Vienna and was confirmed as King. At Vienna, Frederick and his ministers were very concerned to make sure that Württemberg would be able to retain all the territories it had gained in the past fifteen years. Frederick's harsh treatment of the mediatized princes within his domain made him one of the principal targets of the organization of dispossessed princes, which hoped to gain the support of the Powers in regaining their lost sovereignty. In the end, however, Austria, which was seen as the natural ally of the princes, was more interested in alliance with the medium-sized German states like Württemberg than in asserting its traditional role as protector of the smaller sovereigns of the old Empire; and Frederick was allowed to retain his dubiously acquired lands. Frederick, along with the other German princes, joined the new German Confederation in 1815. He died in Stuttgart in October of the next year. When he became King, he granted his children and further male-line descendants the titles Princes and Princesses of Württemberg with the style Royal Highness, and he styled his siblings as Royal Highnesses with the titles Dukes and Duchesses of Württemberg. He was very tall and obese: behind his back he was known as "The Great Belly-Gerent". Napoleon remarked that God had created the Prince to demonstrate the utmost extent to which the human skin could be stretched without bursting. In return, Frederick wondered how so much poison could fit in such a small head as Napoleon's. Marriages and issue He married twice: Firstly on 15 October 1780, to Augusta of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, by whom he had four children: King William I of Württemberg (1781-1864), who succeeded his father as king. Princess Catharina of Württemberg (1783-1835), who on 22 August 1807 married Jer?me Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, youngest brother of Emperor Napoleon I of France, and had issue. Duchess Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg (1783-1784), died in infancy. Prince Paul of Württemberg (1785-1852), whose grandson was King William II of Württemberg. Secondly on 18 May 1797 he married Charlotte, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of King George III of Great Britain, by whom he had only one child, a stillborn daughter delivered on 27 April 1798. Name: Lagrange Biography: Joseph-Louis Lagrange(25 January 1736 - 10 April 1813) Citizenship:Sardinia,French Empire Known for:Analytical mechanics,Celestial mechanics,Mathematical analysis,Number theory Theory of equation Alma mater:University of Turin Fields:Mathematics,Astronomy,Mechanics Institutions:ecole Normale,ecole Polytechnique Joseph-Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Luigi Lagrangia or Giuseppe Ludovico De la Grange Tournier; 25 January 1736 - 10 April 1813), also reported as Giuseppe Luigi Lagrange or Lagrangia, was an Italian mathematician and astronomer, later naturalized French. He made significant contributions to the fields of analysis, number theory, and both classical and celestial mechanics. In 1766, on the recommendation of Swiss Leonhard Euler and French d'Alembert, Lagrange succeeded Euler as the director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Prussia, where he stayed for over twenty years, producing volumes of work and winning several prizes of the French Academy of Sciences. Lagrange's treatise on analytical mechanics (Mecanique analytique, 4. ed., 2 vols. Paris: Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1788-89), written in Berlin and first published in 1788, offered the most comprehensive treatment of classical mechanics since Newton and formed a basis for the development of mathematical physics in the nineteenth century. In 1787, at age 51, he moved from Berlin to Paris and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He remained in France until the end of his life. He was instrumental in the decimalisation in Revolutionary France, became the first professor of analysis at the ecole Polytechnique upon its opening in 1794, was a founding member of the Bureau des Longitudes, and became Senator in 1799. Scientific contribution Lagrange was one of the creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the Euler-Lagrange equations for extrema of functionals. He extended the method to include possible constraints, arriving at the method of Lagrange multipliers. Lagrange invented the method of solving differential equations known as variation of parameters, applied differential calculus to the theory of probabilities and worked on solutions for algebraic equations. He proved that every natural number is a sum of four squares. His treatise Theorie des fonctions analytiques laid some of the foundations of group theory, anticipating Galois. In calculus, Lagrange developed a novel approach to interpolation and Taylor series. He studied the three-body problem for the Earth, Sun and Moon (1764) and the movement of Jupiter's satellites (1766), and in 1772 found the special-case solutions to this problem that yield what are now known as Lagrangian points. Lagrange is best known for transforming Newtonian mechanics into a branch of analysis, Lagrangian mechanics, and presented the mechanical "principles" as simple results of the variational calculus. Biography Early years Firstborn of eleven children as Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, Lagrange was of Italian and French descent. His paternal great-grandfather was a French captain of cavalry, whose family originated from the French region of Tours. After serving under Louis XIV, he had entered the service of Charles Emmanuel II, Duke of Savoy, and married a Conti from the noble Roman family. Lagrange's father, Giuseppe Francesco Lodovico, was doctor in Law at the University of Torino, while his mother was the only child of a rich doctor of Cambiano, in the countryside of Turin. He was raised as a Roman Catholic (but later on became an agnostic). His father, who had charge of the king's military chest and was Treasurer of the Office of Public Works and Fortifications in Turin, should have maintained a good social position and wealth, but before his son grew up he had lost most of his property in speculations. A career as a lawyer was planned out for Lagrange by his father, and certainly Lagrange seems to have accepted this willingly. He studied at the University of Turin and his favourite subject was classical Latin. At first he had no great enthusiasm for mathematics, finding Greek geometry rather dull. It was not until he was seventeen that he showed any taste for mathematics - his interest in the subject being first excited by a paper by Edmond Halley from 1693 which he came across by accident. Alone and unaided he threw himself into mathematical studies; at the end of a year's incessant toil he was already an accomplished mathematician. Charles Emmanuel III appointed Lagrange to serve as the "Sostituto del Maestro di Matematica" (mathematics assistant professor) at the Royal Military Academy of the Theory and Practice of Artillery in 1755, where he taught courses in calculus and mechanics to support the Piedmontese army's early adoption of the ballistics theories of Benjamin Robins and Leonhard Euler. In that capacity, Lagrange was the first to teach calculus in an engineering school. According to Alessandro Papacino D'Antoni, the academy's military commander and famous artillery theorist, Lagrange unfortunately proved to be a problematic professor with his oblivious teaching style, abstract reasoning, and impatience with artillery and fortification-engineering applications. In this Academy one of his students was Fran?ois Daviet. Variational calculus Lagrange is one of the founders of the calculus of variations. Starting in 1754, he worked on the problem of the tautochrone, discovering a method of maximizing and minimizing functionals in a way similar to finding extrema of functions. Lagrange wrote several letters to Leonhard Euler between 1754 and 1756 describing his results. He outlined his "δ-algorithm", leading to the Euler-Lagrange equations of variational calculus and considerably simplifying Euler's earlier analysis. Lagrange also applied his ideas to problems of classical mechanics, generalising the results of Euler and Maupertuis. Euler was very impressed with Lagrange's results. It has been stated that "with characteristic courtesy he withheld a paper he had previously written, which covered some of the same ground, in order that the young Italian might have time to complete his work, and claim the undisputed invention of the new calculus"; however, this chivalric view has been disputed. Lagrange published his method in two memoirs of the Turin Society in 1762 and 1773. Miscellanea Taurinensia In 1758, with the aid of his pupils (mainly with Daviet), Lagrange established a society, which was subsequently incorporated as the Turin Academy of Sciences, and most of his early writings are to be found in the five volumes of its transactions, usually known as the Miscellanea Taurinensia. Many of these are elaborate papers. The first volume contains a paper on the theory of the propagation of sound; in this he indicates a mistake made by Newton, obtains the general differential equation for the motion, and integrates it for motion in a straight line. This volume also contains the complete solution of the problem of a string vibrating transversely; in this paper he points out a lack of generality in the solutions previously given by Brook Taylor, D'Alembert, and Euler, and arrives at the conclusion that the form of the curve at any time t is given by the equation . The article concludes with a masterly discussion of echoes, beats, and compound sounds. Other articles in this volume are on recurring series, probabilities, and the calculus of variations. The second volume contains a long paper embodying the results of several papers in the first volume on the theory and notation of the calculus of variations; and he illustrates its use by deducing the principle of least action, and by solutions of various problems in dynamics. The third volume includes the solution of several dynamical problems by means of the calculus of variations; some papers on the integral calculus; a solution of Fermat's problem mentioned above: given an integer n which is not a perfect square, to find a number x such that x2n + 1 is a perfect square; and the general differential equations of motion for three bodies moving under their mutual attractions. The next work he produced was in 1764 on the libration of the Moon, and an explanation as to why the same face was always turned to the earth, a problem which he treated by the aid of virtual work. His solution is especially interesting as containing the germ of the idea of generalised equations of motion, equations which he first formally proved in 1780. Berlin Already by 1756, Euler and Maupertuis, seeing Lagrange's mathematical talent, tried to persuade Lagrange to come to Berlin, but he shyly refused the offer. In 1765, d'Alembert interceded on Lagrange's behalf with Frederick of Prussia and by letter, asked him to leave Turin for a considerably more prestigious position in Berlin. He again turned down the offer, responding that:361 It seems to me that Berlin would not be at all suitable for me while M.Euler is there. In 1766, after Euler left Berlin for Saint Petersburg, Frederick himself wrote to Lagrange expressing the wish of "the greatest king in Europe" to have "the greatest mathematician in Europe" resident at his court. Lagrange was finally persuaded. He spent the next twenty years in Prussia, where he produced a long series of papers published in the Berlin and Turin transactions, and composed his monumental work, the Mecanique analytique. In 1767, he married his cousin Vittoria Conti. Lagrange was a favourite of the king, who frequently lectured him on the advantages of perfect regularity of life. The lesson was accepted, and Lagrange studied his mind and body as though they were machines, and experimented to find the exact amount of work which he could do before exhaustion. Every night he set himself a definite task for the next day, and on completing any branch of a subject he wrote a short analysis to see what points in the demonstrations or in the subject-matter were capable of improvement. He carefully planned his papers before writing them, usually without a single erasure or correction. Nonetheless, during his years in Berlin, Lagrange's health was rather poor, and that of his wife Vittoria was even worse. She died in 1783 after years of illness and Lagrange was very depressed. In 1786, Frederick II died, and the climate of Berlin became difficult for Lagrange. Paris In 1786, following Frederick's death, Lagrange received similar invitations from states including Spain and Naples, and he accepted the offer of Louis XVI to move to Paris. In France he was received with every mark of distinction and special apartments in the Louvre were prepared for his reception, and he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences, which later became part of the Institut de France (1795). At the beginning of his residence in Paris he was seized with an attack of melancholy, and even the printed copy of his Mecanique on which he had worked for a quarter of a century lay for more than two years unopened on his desk. Curiosity as to the results of the French revolution first stirred him out of his lethargy, a curiosity which soon turned to alarm as the revolution developed. It was about the same time, 1792, that the unaccountable sadness of his life and his timidity moved the compassion of 24-year-old Renee-Fran?oise-Adela?de Le Monnier, daughter of his friend, the astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier. She insisted on marrying him, and proved a devoted wife to whom he became warmly attached. In September 1793, the Reign of Terror began. Under intervention of Antoine Lavoisier, who himself was by then already thrown out of the Academy along with many other scholars, Lagrange was specifically exempted by name in the decree of October 1793 that ordered all foreigners to leave France. On 4 May 1794, Lavoisier and 27 other tax farmers were arrested and sentenced to death and guillotined on the afternoon after the trial. Lagrange said on the death of Lavoisier: It took only a moment to cause this head to fall and a hundred years will not suffice to produce its like. Though Lagrange had been preparing to escape from France while there was yet time, he was never in any danger; different revolutionary governments (and at a later time, Napoleon) loaded him with honours and distinctions. This luckiness or safety may to some extent be due to his life attitude he expressed many years before: "I believe that, in general, one of the first principles of every wise man is to conform strictly to the laws of the country in which he is living, even when they are unreasonable". A striking testimony to the respect in which he was held was shown in 1796 when the French commissary in Italy was ordered to attend in full state on Lagrange's father, and tender the congratulations of the republic on the achievements of his son, who "had done honor to all mankind by his genius, and whom it was the special glory of Piedmont to have produced." It may be added that Napoleon, when he attained power, warmly encouraged scientific studies in France, and was a liberal benefactor of them. Appointed senator in 1799, he was the first signer of the Senatus-consulte which in 1802 annexed his fatherland Piedmont to France. He acquired French citizenship in consequence. The French claimed he was a French mathematician, but the Italians continued to claim him as Italian. Units of measurement Lagrange was involved in the development of the metric system of measurement in the 1790s. He was offered the presidency of the Commission for the reform of weights and measures (la Commission des Poids et Mesures) when he was preparing to escape. After Lavoisier's death in 1794, it was largely Lagrange who influenced the choice of the metre and kilogram units with decimal subdivision, by the commission of 1799. Lagrange was also one of the founding members of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1795. ecole Normale In 1795, Lagrange was appointed to a mathematical chair at the newly established ecole Normale, which enjoyed only a short existence of four months. His lectures there were elementary; they contain nothing of any mathematical importance, though they do provide a brief historical insight into his reason for proposing undecimal or Base 11 as the base number for the reformed system of weights and measures.:23 The lectures were published because the professors had to “pledge themselves to the representatives of the people and to each other neither to read nor to repeat from memory” :iii]. The discourses were ordered taken down in shorthand to enable the deputies to see how the professors acquitted themselves. It was also thought the published lectures would interest a significant portion of the citizenry :v]. ecole Polytechnique In 1794, Lagrange was appointed professor of the ecole Polytechnique; and his lectures there, described by mathematicians who had the good fortune to be able to attend them, were almost perfect both in form and matter. Beginning with the merest elements, he led his hearers on until, almost unknown to themselves, they were themselves extending the bounds of the subject: above all he impressed on his pupils the advantage of always using general methods expressed in a symmetrical notation. But Lagrange does not seem to have been a successful teacher. Fourier, who attended his lectures in 1795, wrote: his voice is very feeble, at least in that he does not become heated; he has a very marked Italian accent and pronounces the s like z The students, of whom the majority are incapable of appreciating him, give him little welcome, but the professeurs make amends for it. Late years In 1810, Lagrange commenced a thorough revision of the Mecanique analytique, but he was able to complete only about two-thirds of it before his death at Paris in 1813, in 128 rue du Faubourg Saint-Honore. Napoleon honoured him with the Grand Croix of the Ordre Imperial de la Reunion just two days before he died. He was buried that same year in the Pantheon in Paris. The inscription on his tomb reads in translation: JOSEPH LOUIS LAGRANGE. Senator. Count of the Empire. Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of the Reunion. Member of the Institute and the Bureau of Longitude. Born in Turin on 25 January 1736. Died in Paris on 10 April 1813. Work in Berlin Lagrange was extremely active scientifically during twenty years he spent in Berlin. Not only did he produce his Mecanique analytique, but he contributed between one and two hundred papers to the Academy of Turin, the Berlin Academy, and the French Academy. Some of these are really treatises, and all without exception are of a high order of excellence. Except for a short time when he was ill he produced on average about one paper a month. Of these, note the following as amongst the most important. First, his contributions to the fourth and fifth volumes, 1766-1773, of the Miscellanea Taurinensia; of which the most important was the one in 1771, in which he discussed how numerous astronomical observations should be combined so as to give the most probable result. And later, his contributions to the first two volumes, 1784-1785, of the transactions of the Turin Academy; to the first of which he contributed a paper on the pressure exerted by fluids in motion, and to the second an article on integration by infinite series, and the kind of problems for which it is suitable. Most of the papers sent to Paris were on astronomical questions, and among these including his paper on the Jovian system in 1766, his essay on the problem of three bodies in 1772, his work on the secular equation of the Moon in 1773, and his treatise on cometary perturbations in 1778. These were all written on subjects proposed by the Academie fran?aise, and in each case the prize was awarded to him. Lagrangian mechanics Between 1772 and 1788, Lagrange re-formulated Classical/Newtonian mechanics to simplify formulas and ease calculations. These mechanics are called Lagrangian mechanics. Algebra The greater number of his papers during this time were, however, contributed to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. Several of them deal with questions in algebra. His discussion of representations of integers by quadratic forms (1769) and by more general algebraic forms (1770). His tract on the Theory of Elimination, 1770. Lagrange's theorem that the order of a subgroup H of a group G must divide the order of G. His papers of 1770 and 1771 on the general process for solving an algebraic equation of any degree via the Lagrange resolvents. This method fails to give a general formula for solutions of an equation of degree five and higher, because the auxiliary equation involved has higher degree than the original one. The significance of this method is that it exhibits the already known formulas for solving equations of second, third, and fourth degrees as manifestations of a single principle, and was foundational in Galois theory. The complete solution of a binomial equation (namely an equation of the form is also treated in these papers. In 1773, Lagrange considered a functional determinant of order 3, a special case of a Jacobian. He also proved the expression for the volume of a tetrahedron with one of the vertices at the origin as the one sixth of the absolute value of the determinant formed by the coordinates of the other three vertices. Number theory Several of his early papers also deal with questions of number theory. Lagrange (1766-1769) was the first European to prove that Pell's equation x2 ? ny2 = 1 has a nontrivial solution in the integers for any non-square natural number n. He proved the theorem, stated by Bachet without justification, that every positive integer is the sum of four squares, 1770. He proved Wilson's theorem that (for any integer n > 1): n is a prime if and only if (n ? 1)! + 1 is a multiple of n, 1771. His papers of 1773, 1775, and 1777 gave demonstrations of several results enunciated by Fermat, and not previously proved. His Recherches d'Arithmetique of 1775 developed a general theory of binary quadratic forms to handle the general problem of when an integer is representable by the form ax2 + by2 + cxy. He made contributions to the theory of continued fractions. Other mathematical work There are also numerous articles on various points of analytical geometry. In two of them, written rather later, in 1792 and 1793, he reduced the equations of the quadrics (or conicoids) to their canonical forms. During the years from 1772 to 1785, he contributed a long series of papers which created the science of partial differential equations. A large part of these results was collected in the second edition of Euler's integral calculus which was published in 1794. Astronomy Lastly, there are numerous papers on problems in astronomy. Of these the most important are the following: Attempting to solve the general three-body problem, with the consequent discovery of the two constant-pattern solutions, collinear and equilateral, 1772. Those solutions were later seen to explain what are now known as the Lagrangian points. On the attraction of ellipsoids, 1773: this is founded on Maclaurin's work. On the secular equation of the Moon, 1773; also noticeable for the earliest introduction of the idea of the potential. The potential of a body at any point is the sum of the mass of every element of the body when divided by its distance from the point. Lagrange showed that if the potential of a body at an external point were known, the attraction in any direction could be at once found. The theory of the potential was elaborated in a paper sent to Berlin in 1777. On the motion of the nodes of a planet's orbit, 1774. On the stability of the planetary orbits, 1776. Two papers in which the method of determining the orbit of a comet from three observations is completely worked out, 1778 and 1783: this has not indeed proved practically available, but his system of calculating the perturbations by means of mechanical quadratures has formed the basis of most subsequent researches on the subject. His determination of the secular and periodic variations of the elements of the planets, 1781-1784: the upper limits assigned for these agree closely with those obtained later by Le Verrier, and Lagrange proceeded as far as the knowledge then possessed of the masses of the planets permitted. Three papers on the method of interpolation, 1783, 1792 and 1793: the part of finite differences dealing therewith is now in the same stage as that in which Lagrange left it. Fundamental treatise Over and above these various papers he composed his fundamental treatise, the Mecanique analytique. In this book, he lays down the law of virtual work, and from that one fundamental principle, by the aid of the calculus of variations, deduces the whole of mechanics, both of solids and fluids. The object of the book is to show that the subject is implicitly included in a single principle, and to give general formulae from which any particular result can be obtained. The method of generalised co-ordinates by which he obtained this result is perhaps the most brilliant result of his analysis. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a material system, as D'Alembert and Euler had done, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by a sufficient number of variables x, called generalized coordinates, whose number is the same as that of the degrees of freedom possessed by the system, then the kinetic and potential energies of the system can be expressed in terms of those variables, and the differential equations of motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. For example, in dynamics of a rigid system he replaces the consideration of the particular problem by the general equation, which is now usually written in the form where T represents the kinetic energy and V represents the potential energy of the system. He then presented what we now know as the method of Lagrange multipliers—though this is not the first time that method was published—as a means to solve this equation. Amongst other minor theorems here given it may suffice to mention the proposition that the kinetic energy imparted by the given impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum, and the principle of least action. All the analysis is so elegant that Sir William Rowan Hamilton said the work could be described only as a scientific poem. Lagrange remarked that mechanics was really a branch of pure mathematics analogous to a geometry of four dimensions, namely, the time and the three coordinates of the point in space; and it is said that he prided himself that from the beginning to the end of the work there was not a single diagram. At first no printer could be found who would publish the book; but Legendre at last persuaded a Paris firm to undertake it, and it was issued under the supervision of Laplace, Cousin, Legendre (editor) and Condorcet in 1788. Work in France Differential calculus and calculus of variations Lagrange's lectures on the differential calculus at ecole Polytechnique form the basis of his treatise Theorie des fonctions analytiques, which was published in 1797. This work is the extension of an idea contained in a paper he had sent to the Berlin papers in 1772, and its object is to substitute for the differential calculus a group of theorems based on the development of algebraic functions in series, relying in particular on the principle of the generality of algebra. A somewhat similar method had been previously used by John Landen in the Residual Analysis, published in London in 1758. Lagrange believed that he could thus get rid of those difficulties, connected with the use of infinitely large and infinitely small quantities, to which philosophers objected in the usual treatment of the differential calculus. The book is divided into three parts: of these, the first treats of the general theory of functions, and gives an algebraic proof of Taylor's theorem, the validity of which is, however, open to question; the second deals with applications to geometry; and the third with applications to mechanics. Another treatise on the same lines was his Le?ons sur le calcul des fonctions, issued in 1804, with the second edition in 1806. It is in this book that Lagrange formulated his celebrated method of Lagrange multipliers, in the context of problems of variational calculus with integral constraints. These works devoted to differential calculus and calculus of variations may be considered as the starting point for the researches of Cauchy, Jacobi, and Weierstrass. Infinitesimals At a later period Lagrange fully embraced the use of infinitesimals in preference to founding the differential calculus on the study of algebraic forms; and in the preface to the second edition of the Mecanique Analytique, which was issued in 1811, he justifies the employment of infinitesimals, and concludes by saying that: When we have grasped the spirit of the infinitesimal method, and have verified the exactness of its results either by the geometrical method of prime and ultimate ratios, or by the analytical method of derived functions, we may employ infinitely small quantities as a sure and valuable means of shortening and simplifying our proofs. Number theory His Resolution des equations numeriques, published in 1798, was also the fruit of his lectures at ecole Polytechnique. There he gives the method of approximating to the real roots of an equation by means of continued fractions, and enunciates several other theorems. In a note at the end he shows how Fermat's little theorem, that is where p is a prime and a is prime to p, may be applied to give the complete algebraic solution of any binomial equation. He also here explains how the equation whose roots are the squares of the differences of the roots of the original equation may be used so as to give considerable information as to the position and nature of those roots. Celestial mechanics The theory of the planetary motions had formed the subject of some of the most remarkable of Lagrange's Berlin papers. In 1806 the subject was reopened by Poisson, who, in a paper read before the French Academy, showed that Lagrange's formulae led to certain limits for the stability of the orbits. Lagrange, who was present, now discussed the whole subject afresh, and in a letter communicated to the Academy in 1808 explained how, by the variation of arbitrary constants, the periodical and secular inequalities of any system of mutually interacting bodies could be determined. Prizes and distinctions Euler proposed Lagrange for election to the Berlin Academy and he was elected on 2 September 1756. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1790, a Fellow of the Royal Society and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806. In 1808, Napoleon made Lagrange a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour and a Count of the Empire. He was awarded the Grand Croix of the Ordre Imperial de la Reunion in 1813, a week before his death in Paris, and was buried in the Pantheon, a mausoleum dedicated to the most honoured French people. Lagrange was awarded the 1764 prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his memoir on the libration of the Moon. In 1766 the Academy proposed a problem of the motion of the satellites of Jupiter, and the prize again was awarded to Lagrange. He also shared or won the prizes of 1772, 1774, and 1778. Lagrange is one of the 72 prominent French scientists who were commemorated on plaques at the first stage of the Eiffel Tower when it first opened. Rue Lagrange in the 5th Arrondissement in Paris is named after him. In Turin, the street where the house of his birth still stands is named via Lagrange. The lunar crater Lagrange and the asteroid 1006 Lagrangea also bear his name. Name: Breguet Biography: Abraham-Louis Breguet (10 January 1747 - 17 September 1823) Occupation:Horologist, Inventor Organization:Breguet Notable work:Tourbillon Mechanism Service: French court, British court Abraham-Louis Breguet was born in Neuchatel, but it was in Paris that he spent most of his productive life. No aspect of watchmaking escaped his study, and his inventions were as fundamental to horology as they were varied. Abraham-Louis Breguet (10 January 1747 - 17 September 1823), born in Neuchatel, then a Prussian principality, was a horologist who made many innovations in the course of a career in watchmaking in France. In his lifetime he was considered the leading watchmaker of his day, and he built up a clientele that included many leading public figures and members of the European nobility. Alongside his friend and contemporary John Arnold, Breguet is now widely acknowledged as one of the greatest horologists of all time. One of his famous ancestors was Jean Breguet (who died in 1593) a Protestant pastor in Neuchatel very much influenced by the ideas of John Calvin. He is the founder of the Breguet company, which is now the luxury watch division of the Swiss Swatch Group. His career started with a series of breakthroughs: the development of the successful self-winding perpetuelle watches, the introduction of the gongs for repeating watches and the first shock-protection for balance pivots. Louis XVI and his Queen, Marie-Antoinette, were early enthusiasts of Breguet’s watchmaking. Each watch from his workshops demonstrated the latest horological improvements in an original movement, mostly fitted with lever or ruby-cylinder escapements that he perfected. Abraham-Louis Breguet took refuge in Switzerland from the excesses of the French Revolution. He returned to Paris overflowing with the ideas that produced the Breguet balance-spring, his first carriage clock (sold to Bonaparte), the sympathique clock and its dependent watch, the tact watch, and finally the tourbillon, patented in 1801. Breguet became the indispensable watchmaker to the scientific, military, financial and diplomatic elites of the age. His timepieces ruled the courts of Europe. For his most celebrated clients, Breguet designed exceptional timepieces. For Caroline Murat, queen of Naples, he conceived in 1810 the world's very first wristwatch. Honours saluted his enormous contribution to horology. Appointed to the Board of Longitude and as chronometer-maker to the navy, he entered the Academy of Sciences and received the Legion of Honour from the hands of Louis XVIII. When he died in 1823, all mourned the architect of the greatest revolution in the science and art of time-keeping. Today more than ever, its capacity to innovate reflects a brand’s vitality. Breguet’s creativity and ingenuity have not dwindled over time, but have on the contrary steadily increased : witness the fact that since 1999, under the impetus of Nicolas G. Hayek and the current management of Marc A. Hayek, the list of patents registered during this recent period is now considerably longer than that of the founder’s inventions. Life Breguet was born in Neuchatel to Jonas-Louis Breguet and Suzanne-Marguerite Bollein. Breguet's father died in 1758, when he was ten, and his formal schooling ended when he was 12. Breguet's mother remarried to Joseph Tattet, who came from a family of watchmakers. Tattet had a showroom in Paris; the family tried for some time to entice the young Breguet into the trade, to no avail, but he eventually took to it with great interest and in 1762, aged 15, he was sent to be apprenticed to an unknown Versailles master watchmaker. At this time the Court had a great influence on the trade and the best watchmakers established themselves around Versailles. The young Breguet soon "astonished" his master with his aptitude and intelligence, and to further his education he took evening classes in mathematics at the Collège Mazarin under Abbe Marie, who became a friend and mentor to the young watchmaker. Through his role as tutor to the dukes of Angoulême and de Berri, Abbe Marie was able to arrange for Breguet to be introduced to King Louis XVI of France, and the king's interest in mechanics led to many royal commissions for the rising watchmaker, including a perpetuelle (self-winding watch), with which the king was especially pleased. Unfortunately, Marie met a tragic end, either through murder or suicide, and soon after Breguet lost both his mother and his step-father, leaving him to support himself and his younger sister. How he managed this in the period between his parents' deaths and the establishment of his business is unknown. Breguet was allowed to marry in 1775 after finishing his apprenticeship. He and his bride, Cecile Marie-Louise L'Huillier, set up their home and the Breguet watchmaking company; its first known address was at 51, quai de l'Horloge in the ?le de la Cite in Paris (by the 1920s this location was designated as #39). Ca. 1812 the firm's address was 79, quai de l'Horloge du Palais, although Salomons speculated that this might have been merely a change of number and name, not of actual location. By the year of Breguet's death in 1823 the firm also had a shop at 4, place de la Bourse, which is known because both addresses appear on the label of watch #4004. The firm later moved to Rue de la Paix and in the early 20th century to 2, rue edouard-VII. Breguet invented innovative escapements, including the tourbillon, automatic winding mechanisms, and the overcoil (an improvement of the balance spring with a raised outer coil). Within ten years Breguet had commissions from the aristocratic families of France and even the French queen, Marie-Antoinette. Cecile died in 1780. He met Abraham-Louis Perrelet in Switzerland and became a Master Clockmaker in 1784. In 1787 Abraham-Louis established a partnership with Xavier Gide, which lasted until 1791. Ca. 1792 the Duke of Orleans went to England and met John Arnold, Europe's leading watch and clockmaker. The Duke showed Arnold a clock made by Breguet, who was so impressed that he immediately travelled to Paris and asked Breguet to accept his son as an apprentice. As Breguet's fame gradually increased he became friendly with revolutionary leader Jean-Paul Marat, who also hailed from Neuchatel. Salomons' biography records that Marat and Breguet were at the house of a mutual friend one day when an angry crowd gathered outside, shouting "Down with Marat!", but Breguet contrived their escape by disguising Marat as an old woman, and they left the house arm in arm, unmolested. In 1793 Marat discovered that Breguet was marked for the guillotine, possibly because of his friendship with Abbe Marie (and/or his association with the royal court); in return for his own earlier rescue, Marat arranged for a safe-pass that enabled Breguet to escape to Switzerland, from where he travelled to England. He remained there for two years, during which time he worked for King George III. When the political scene in France stabilised, Breguet returned to Paris. In 1795 Breguet returned to Paris with many ideas for innovations in watch and clock making. He set up business again in Quai de l'Horloge and quickly established a reputation among the new wealthy classes in the Empire. Breguet did not staff his workshops in the traditional way, with unskilled apprentices, but instead sought out the finest available watchmakers in Paris, whom he employed to make watches to his own designs. At the 1798 Exposition des produits de l'industrie fran?aise Breguet was given an honorable distinction, the highest award, for "a free escapement with constant force, applicable to the improvement of both astronomical clocks and longitude clocks. This clock has the very singular effect of resetting the time in a watch." Circa 1807 Breguet brought in his son, Antoine-Louis (born 1776) as a business partner, and from this point the firm became known as Breguet et Fils Breguet had previously sent his son to London to study with the great English chronometer maker, John Arnold, and such was the mutual friendship and respect between the two men that Arnold, in turn, sent his son, John Roger, to spend time with Breguet. Breguet met another watchmaker Louis Moinet, recognised his worth at once, and the two men worked closely together. From 1811 on, Moinet became Breguet's personal adviser. Breguet became a member of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1814 and the following year gained an official appointment as chronometer-maker to the French Navy. He entered the French Academy of Sciences in 1816 as a full member, and received the Chevalier of the Legion of Honour from the hands of Louis XVIII in 1819. Breguet's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. In 1822 the future engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged sixteen, studied for some months with Breguet in Paris. Brunel had a French father so he spoke perfect French. According to Salomons' biography, Breguet was known for his kindness and good humour. It is recorded that if a workman came to Breguet with a finished piece of work and an invoice for payment, and Breguet was satisfied with the work, then if the invoice ended in a zero, Breguet would add a tail to the zero to make it a '9', thereby enabling the workman to be paid nine francs more than he had asked for. He was also known for his encouragement of his young apprentices, often advising them "Do not be discouraged, or allow failure to dishearten you." The business grew from strength to strength, and when Abraham-Louis Breguet died in 1823 it was carried on by Louis-Antoine. After Antoine-Louis retired in 1833 (he died in 1858) the business continued under Abraham-Louis' grandson Louis Fran?ois Clement Breguet (1804-1883); his great-grandson Louis Antoine (1851-1882) was the last of the Breguet family to run the business. Although he had two sons and a daughter, they did not enter the business, so he took on noted English watchmaker Edward Brown of Clerkenwell to look after the Paris factory. Brown eventually became his partner and, after Breguet's death, the owner and head of the company. His sons Edward and Henry Brown headed the firm into the 20th century and after Edward retired in the early 1900s, Henry became the sole proprietor. Works and influence Breguet made three series of watches, and the highest numbering of the three reached 5120, so in all it is estimated that the firm produced around 17,000 timepieces during Breguet's life. Because of his minute attention to detail and his constant experimentation, no two Breguet pieces are exactly alike. Following his introduction to the court, Queen Marie-Antoinette developed a fascination for Breguet's unique self-winding watch and Louis XVI of France bought several pieces. His achievements soon attracted a wealthy and influential clientele that comprised a veritable "Who's Who" of the period: Louis XVI and his Queen Marie-Antoinette, Napoleon Bonaparte, Josephine de Beauharnais, Louis XVIII, Alexander I of Russia, George IV of the United Kingdom, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Legend has it that it was the ill-fated French queen herself who commissioned Breguet's masterpiece, the "Marie Antoinette" (No. 160), which is now widely regarded as one of the most important and valuable timepieces ever made. In fact, it was commissioned in 1783 by a member of the Marie-Antoinette Guards, possibly as a gift for the queen, and it took almost twenty years to complete—work stopped for around seven years (1789-1795) during the period of Breguet's exile—and it was not finished until around 1802. Even by the standards of the day it was an astronomically expensive piece; the commission specifically called for every watch function and complication known at that time and the use of the most valuable materials (including gold, platinum, rubies and sapphires), with no limit placed on time or cost. Breguet company records indicate that the factory costs eventually came to the colossal sum of 30,000 francs - more than six times the cost of Breguet's other major work, (No. 92), which was sold to the Duc De Preslin for 4800 francs. The "Marie Antoinette" remained in the possession of the Breguet company until it was sold to Sir Spencer Brunton in 1887, eventually finding its way into the collection of Breguet expert David Lionel Goldsmid-Stern-Salomons in the 1920s. Breguet's most remarkable piece anticipated the wristwatch by a century; he designed this, together with his friend John Arnold, for Caroline Bonaparte, Queen of Naples, in 1810. Many honours recognised his enormous contribution to horology. Each watch from his workshops demonstrated the latest horological improvements in an original movement, mostly fitted with lever or ruby-cylinder escapements that he perfected. Breguet took refuge in Switzerland from the excesses of the French Revolution. He returned to Paris overflowing with the ideas that produced the Breguet balance-spring, his first carriage clock (sold to House of Bonaparte), the sympathique clock and its dependent watch, the tact watch, and finally the tourbillon, patented in 1801. Although Breguet is probably best known for his luxury watches and carriage clocks, he also made a number of important scientific clocks. In 1818 Lieutenant-General Thomas Brisbane, a keen amateur astronomer, purchased a Breguet mean-time regulator clock (No. 3180, 1815-1820). It is thought that Breguet originally made the clock for the French Commission of Longitude, but sold it to Brisbane for use in his observatory at Largs in Scotland. It cost Brisbane the considerable sum of 2,500 francs, and the fact he chose to buy French rather British, even in the nationalistic political climate of the early nineteenth century, gives some idea of how well regarded Breguet was internationally. Brisbane brought the clock to Australia in 1821 and it was installed in Australia's first astronomical observatory at Parramatta. The New South Wales government purchased the clock from Brisbane when he returned to England in 1825 and it remained in use there until the Parramatta observatory closed in 1847. It was put into storage for a decade before being reinstalled in the new government observatory at The Rocks, and was one of the few instruments that the new Government Astronomer, Rev. W. Scott, felt was good enough to use in the new observatory. It remained in use there for another 70 years, until it was replaced in 1912. The clock is now part of the collection of the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney. The Salomons Collection British philanthropist, scientist and MP Sir David Lionel Goldsmid-Stern-Salomons (1851-1925) developed a lifelong passion for horology and he became one of the leading authorities on Breguet and his timepieces. In 1921 he published the seminal volume, Breguet 1747-1823, the first major book on the subject, which included a biography, an analysis of Breguet's key inventions, listings of major pieces, and a detailed timeline of production, using examples from his own unique collection for illustrations. Over his lifetime, Salomons amassed the world's largest private Breguet collection, which ultimately grew to 124 pieces, including what are considered to be the two greatest examples of Breguet's watchmaking work - the "Marie Antionette" and the double-faced "Duc de Praslin" watches. In 1924 Salomons donated the "Duc de Praslin" (pictured at left) to the Musee des Techniques du Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers in Paris, but it was subsequently stolen. Fortunately, after three months of tinkering with the watch, the thief was apprehended when he took it to a renowned Parisian watch specialist for repair. After Salomons' death in 1925, his daughter Vera donated 57 of his best Breguet pieces, including the "Marie Antoinette" and a "Sympathiques" clock to the L.A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art in Jerusalem, which was founded by her brother. Salomons left the remainder of the collection to his wife, who eventually sold them at auction, although according to one account, she was initially rebuffed when she approached Sotheby's, because the staffer with whom she dealt could not believe that someone "off the street" could possibly have amassed such a collection. In 1980, British master horologist George Daniels (widely regarded as the most important watchmaker since Breguet) catalogued the Breguet watches and clocks in the museum, and published a study on them. Three years later, on the night of 15 April 1983, the Mayer Institute was burgled and 106 rare timepieces, including the entire Salomons collection, were stolen. The audacious multimillion-dollar theft was Israel's largest-ever robbery - by this time, the "Marie Antoinette" alone was valued at US$30 million. There was a substantial insurance payout, but the case remained unsolved until August 2006, when the perpetrator was revealed as Namaan Diller, a notorious Israeli burglar who had fled to the US after the break-in. Just before he died in 2004, Diller had confessed his crime to his wife, Nili Shamrat, and in August 2006 she attempted to sell a batch of the stolen items (including the "Marie Antoinette" watch and a Breguet "Sympathique" clock) back to the museum, although her initial asking price of $2 million was eventually cut down to just US$35,000. When police searched the couple's Los Angeles home, more of the missing items were found, and documents recovered led them to safes and storage units in France, the Netherlands and Israel; by 2008 all but ten of the items Diller stole from the Mayer Museum had been recovered. 2011 montre à tact discovery In 2011 a member of the public brought in a pocket watch to be assessed by the experts of the BBC TV series Antiques Roadshow at Blair Castle in Perthshire, Scotland. Roadshow expert Richard Price stated that the timepiece was an early Breguet montre à tact ("tactile watch"), dating from 1801. The watch was enclosed on both sides by discs covered with a blue translucent enamel over a Guilloche base machined in a chevron pattern. The front face was fitted with a single arrow-shaped hand in silver, encrusted with small diamonds, and the case was surrounded by twelve large diamonds enclosed by a wavy gold band, which was faced with lighter blue enamel. The enameled back hinged open to reveal a gold cover plate and a smaller two-handed watch face. The mechanism cover bore the engraved signature of Breguet and also bore the mark of Recordon, his London agent at the time (suggesting that it was originally made for an English client). The gold cover plate protected the mechanism, which bore another signature by Breguet, and the watch number. Price then revealed that a similar watch, in much worse condition and with all the gems stripped from it, had recently sold for over UK￡20,000. He declared the newly discovered Breguet to be the greatest watch he had ever seen in his 28 years with the programme, and assessed its value as at least UK￡50,000, although it may be worth considerably more - another example sold for US$288,000, while a montre à tact of very similar design, commissioned by Napoleon's wife Josephine de Beauharnais for her sister Hortense, was sold by Christie's in Geneva for US$1.3 million in 2007. Breguet invented the montre à tact in 1799. Although these single-hand "tact" watches are sometimes called "blind man's watches", few blind people of that era could have afforded such luxury items, and these timepieces were designed for Breguet's wealthiest clients. The montre à tact (touch watch) enabled them to tell the time without removing the watch from their pocket because, in that period, it was considered highly impolite to consult one's watch during a social gathering. The device also enabled owners to tell the time in the dark. This was done by turning the front disc clockwise until it went no further (because of the cam inside) and then feeling at which hour marker (indicated by the surrounding circle of jewels) the watch hand was positioned. In the case of the 2011 discovery, the 12 o'clock position was marked by the chain attachment. The watch was also fitted with a small internal dial with two normal hands so that the exact time could be read when the case was opened. Timeline of Breguet's works 1775-1780 Improved the automatic winding mechanism - his perpetual watch. 1783 Invented the gong for repeater watches (bells were used until then). 1783 Designed the apple-shaped (aiguilles à pomme) hands, known as 'Breguet' hands. These hollow, eccentric "moon" tip hands are a variant of the hands first used by Jean-Antoine Lepine, the only difference is that Lepine's hands were not eccentric. Since their invention, Breguet hands have graced watch and clock dials alike until today. 1787 Adopted and improved the lever escapement. Abraham-Louis Breguet used it in its definitive form from 1814 (this form is still in use). 1793 Developed a small watch showing the equation of time. 1790 Invented the 'pare-chute' anti-shock device. 1794 Invented a retrograde display mechanism. 1795 Invented the Breguet spiral (flat spiral balance spring with overcoil). 1795 Invented the "Sympathique" ('sympathetic') clock, a master carriage clock which rewinds and sets to time a detachable pocket watch. 1799 Invented the montre a tact ("tact") watch that could be read by feel in the pocket or the dark. 1801 Patented the tourbillon escapement, developed circa 1795. 1802 Invented the echappement naturel, a double-escape wheeled chronometer escapement that needed no oil. 1821 Developed the "inking" chronograph, in partnership with Frederick Louis Fatton. Generally speaking, Abraham-Louis Breguet was distinguished by the highest attention paid to aesthetic watch design. In 2009 the Louvre in Paris presented a major exhibition of Breguet's work, arranged chronologically, with 146 exhibits in eight sections that covered every phase of his career. Highlights included some of Breguet's most complicated watches: No. 45, which displays both the Gregorian and the Republican "decimal" calendars (Breguet made only three Republican calendar timepieces) No. 1160, the replica of the famous No. 160 "Marie-Antoinette", Perpetuelle self-winding watches multiple original tourbillons, including an unusual large-scale demonstration tourbillon later purchased by King George IV of the United Kingdom examples of the "pare-chute" shock-protection system, constant force escapements a superb Sympathique watch and clock set from the personal collection of Queen Elizabeth II. Name: Liniers Biography: Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires Position: 10th Viceroy of the Río de la Plata Political:party Royalist Allegiance: Spain Occupation:Naval officer Battles/wars:British invasions of the River Plate, Liniers Counter-revolution Santiago Antonio María de Liniers y Bremond, 1st Count of Buenos Aires, KOM, OM (July 25, 1753 - August 26, 1810) was a French officer in the Spanish military service, and a viceroy of the Spanish colonies of the Viceroyalty of the River Plate. Although born Jacques de Liniers in France, he is more widely known by the Spanish form of his name, Santiago de Liniers. He was popularly regarded as the hero of the reconquest of Buenos Aires after the first British invasion of the River Plate. As a result of his success, he was appointed as viceroy, replacing Rafael de Sobremonte. It was unprecedented for a viceroy to be replaced without the King's direct intervention. But he was confirmed in office by Charles IV of Spain. He defended the settlement against a second British invasion and a mutiny that sought to replace him. He was replaced in 1809 by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, appointed as viceroy by the Junta of Seville, and retired from public activity. But when the May Revolution took place, Liniers decided to come out of his retirement and organized a monarchist uprising in Córdoba. Liniers was forced to flee, but was eventually captured, and executed without trial. Biography Early life Santiago de Liniers y Bremond, Cavalier of the Order of Saint John, Cavalier of the Order of Montesa, Captain in the Spanish Royal Navy was born in Niort, France, as Jacques, 4th son of Jacques Joseph Louis, comte de Liniers (1723-1785) and captain of the French Navy, and Henriette Therèse de Bremond d'Ars (1725-1770). The Liniers family was a noble French family, known since the 11th century. One of its ancestors, Guillaume de Liniers, died in the Battle of Poitiers (1356). Eight members were Cavaliers of the Order of Saint John. In 1765, when Jacques was 12 years old, he entered the military school at the Order of Malta. (As a younger son, he was unlikely to inherit the title and land, so was sent to military school in order to have a career.) After three years, he graduated with the Cross of Cavalier (1768). He was commissioned as a Sub-Lieutenant of Cavalry in the Royal-Piemont Regiment in France. Serving the Spanish Crown In 1774 Liniers requested dismissal and re-enlisted as a volunteer in the campaigns against the Moors in Algiers. He benefited from the third Pacte de Famille (1761), which allowed Frenchmen to take part in Spanish military campaigns with equal rights and requirements as the Spaniards. At the campaign's conclusion, Liniers took an exam as a Midshipman in Cádiz, to serve as a volunteer for the Spanish Crown. In 1775 he earned the rank of Ensign in the Spanish Navy. In 1776, under the orders of Pedro de Cevallos, Liniers sailed to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and took part on the occupation of Santa Catarina Island in Brazil and the attack on Colonia del Sacramento (modern day Uruguay). In 1779, Liniers was an officer on the San Vicente. Spain joined the Franco-American alliance in the American Revolutionary War as a renewal of the Bourbon Family Compact. The San Vicente was part of the Spanish-French naval squadron fighting against the Royal Navy in South America. Liniers distinguished himself during the American Revolution. In 1780, with a few sloops, he captured a three-masted ship of 24 guns. In 1782, he distinguished himself particularly in the siege of Port Mahon: under fire, he moved to where two British ships had collided, which were laden with arms and ammunition. He captured the ships and conveyed them to the Spanish lines. He was promoted to Frigate Captain. A few months later Liniers took part in a new expedition, this time against the city of Algiers, in North Africa, which was the main base of the Barbary corsairs, with the aim of forcing them to stop piracy and the Barbary slave trade. As the campaign did not go well for the Spanish navy, Madrid tried to negotiate instead. Liniers was entrusted with this mission. The king of Tripoli was delighted with Liniers, and agreed to free several European prisoners. The Barbary pirates associated with North Africa had long been attacking European shipping in the Mediterranean, and had taken numerous prisoners over the years. The Spanish court rewarded Liniers for this diplomatic success, promoting him to the rank of captain and entrusting him with the command of the Río de la Plata in 1788 to organize a flotilla of gunships. Liniers took with him his son Luis and his first wife, Juana de Menviel, whom he had married in Málaga. She died two years later in 1790. Liniers married again, this time in Buenos Aires, to María Martina Sarratea, daughter of one of the richest merchants of Buenos Aires. First British Invasion The Napoleonic Wars expanded to South America. Britain gained naval supremacy over France with its victory at the battle of Trafalgar. France attacked Britain economically by imposing the Continental System, locking the continent to British trade. Needing new markets, Britain invaded Buenos Aires and Montevideo, two Spanish colonies in South America (Spain was allied to France in the war). Home Riggs Popham attempted to invade Buenos Aires, without official orders. He knew the risk: if he succeeded, Britain would honour his deed, but if he failed, he would be condemned for it. June 23, 1806, a British expeditionary force of 1,700 men landed on the left bank of the Río de la Plata and invaded Buenos Aires, which had been abandoned by the Viceroy. Liniers remained in the city in disguise, staying in the Dominican convent. At the altar of the Virgin, he vowed to return with the colours (flags) of the British. He escaped to Montevideo and, with the help of its governor Pascual Ruiz Huidobro, galvanized the people, raising a force of 1,200 volunteers. He embarked with this liberation army on a few schooners, which joined a French privateer corvette. Landing on August 4, Liniers and his men rushed across the marshes to Buenos Aires. The city was recovered after fierce street fighting that ended with the storming of the cathedral, which had been fortified by the British. British General William Carr Beresford capitulated and offered his sword; true to Liniers's vow, British colours (those of the Highlanders regiment and Green St. Helena) were transferred to the church of the convent of the Dominicans, where they are still held. Designation as viceroy After the victory, the society stayed on military alert, suspecting that the British might counterattack. The Buenos Aires Cabildo called an open cabildo to discuss the next steps, including the actions to take regarding viceroy Sobremonte. They decided to prevent the viceroy from returning to the city, and appoint Liniers, who was regarded as a hero, as commander-in-chief. Sobremonte accepted, and moved to Montevideo. Liniers drafted all the male population capable of bearing arms, including African slaves, into the defense of the city. He arranged for each regiment to vote for its officers. All the lead in the city was confiscated (even pipes and cutlery) to be melted into ordnance. The Cabildo requested other cities to lend gunpowder, and the horses were trained to ignore the noise of cannon shots. A new British task force, much larger than the first one, arrived the next year. It was led by Samuel Auchmuty, later replaced by John Whitelocke. This time they attacked Montevideo, which fell under their domination. The Real Audiencia of Buenos Aires decided to depose Sobremonte from his role as viceroy, confirmed Liniers as commander-in-chief, and appointed him as interim viceroy. It was an unprecedented action. Second British Invasion Once the Banda Oriental had been secured, the British prepared the attack on Buenos Aires. They were aware that the city was prepared for the invasion, but the forces were greater than in the first one, 23 ships and 11,000 soldiers. John Whitelocke, leader of the British forces, moved to Buenos Aires next to the River. Liniers left the city to battle him, being defeated, but managed to retreat and return to Buenos Aires. álzaga, assuming that Liniers had died, put his defense plans in motion, and the morale of the troops rose when Liniers returned alive. The British forced an entry into the city and encountered strong resistance, with many British battalions eventually being overwhelmed, while others tried to resist at strategic points. Whitelocke suggested a truce, which was rejected by Liniers, who also attacked the British ships within cannon range. Whitelocke's defeat was complete, and Liniers demanded that all British forces be removed from the territories of Viceroyalty, including the Banda Oriental, in no more than 2 months, as well as an exchange of prisoners. Whitelocke accepted the conditions and surrendered. Government There was a large number of celebrations after the victory against the British. Liniers was officially appointed as viceroy in May 1808, and awarded the title of "Count of Buenos Aires". However, this victory of the Argentine people which was obtained without any military help from Spain led to a new political situation in which some will for independence started to emerge. In this configuration, Liniers who appeared to be a fantastic leader during the emergency crisis began to be criticized by the different parties including the conservative members of the Cabildo, led by álzaga. On one side, Spanish leaders criticized the new power of the Argentine people issued from the formation of criollo armies, and thought that Spanish influence was in danger. On the opposite side, criollo people who were asking for more independence, had some difficulty understanding the perfect sense of loyalty of a navy officer issued from old French nobility who intended to respect his oath to the king of Spain. In this context, every action coming from Liniers became a source of criticism. As an example, his relation with Ana Perichon "la pericona" was severely pointed out, forcing him to lock her at her home and later to deport her to colonial Brazil. In the same spirit, his French birth became highly controversial when France invaded Spain, and started the Peninsular War, which included the removal of the Spanish king and queen by the French occupying forces. Despite the clear statements by Liniers of remaining loyal to the Spanish Empire and his refusal to accept Joseph Bonaparte as king, his political enemies created rumours that he was plotting to accept Bonaparte. They also promoted in the Río de la Plata the xenophobia that was taking place in Spain against the French, as an indirect means to attack Liniers and lower his prestige. The arrival of Sassenay, an agent of Napoleon seeking recognition for Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain, boosted rumors and controversy. The criollo peoples promoted the Carlotist project, which tried to crown Charlotte of Spain, sister of Ferdinand, as Regent of the Spanish territories in the Americas, under a Constitutional monarchy. The project did not achieve success. The news of the creation of the Junta of Seville was seen by both criollos and peninsulars as a chance to create similar governments locally, but they had different perspectives on the political line such governments should have. Javier de Elío, governor of Montevideo and allied with álzaga, created a Junta in the city. álzaga set off a mutiny to do the same in Buenos Aires, but the forces under the command of Cornelio Saavedra defeated it and kept Liniers in power. álzaga was jailed and the military bodies that took part in the mutiny were dissolved, which left only military bodies loyal to the criollos. The Junta of Seville appointed a new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros. Some Criollos proposed Liniers to resist the replacement with the forces under his command. It was considered that only a rightful king could appoint viceroys, and despite the circumstances of his designation Liniers had been confirmed in office by Charles IV; whereas Cisneros, appointed just by the Junta, may have lacked such legitimacy. However, Liniers rejected the proposal, and gave up government without resistance. After leaving government, he retired from politics and moved to Córdoba province, settling in the town of Alta Gracia. However, he came out of his retirement shortly after, when news of the May Revolution arrived to the province. Counterrevolution and execution Main article: Liniers Counter-revolution The governor of Córdoba, Juan Antonio Gutierrez de la Concha, called for a meeting of the social elite of Córdoba, Liniers included, in order to discuss reactions towards the Primera Junta. At this time, Liniers's father-in-law, Martín de Sarratea, wrote a letter to ask him to stay away from the counterrevolution, which he refused in the name of honor and respect to his word. The Córdoba Cabildo gave recognition instead to the Regency Council of Cádiz, and Cisneros secretly gave authorization to Liniers to raise the viceroyalty against the Junta. Liniers wrote to other Royalist leaders, trying to organize the forces to fight against Buenos Aires. The Junta decided that, among the many enemies that could threaten it, Córdoba was the most dangerous, so an army led by Ortiz de Ocampo was sent to fight against it. However, there was no fighting: the counterrevolutionary army was severely damaged by espionage, desertions, and sabotage. The mere proximity of the troops from Buenos Aires caused the complete dispersion of the army gathered by Liniers. Liniers and the other top personnel of the counterrevolution tried to flee in multiple directions, but Ocampo captured them all. Ocampo refused to execute the prisoners, aware of their popularity, so he delivered them to Buenos Aires as prisoners instead. The Junta feared the effect that the entry of Liniers into the city might have, so Juan Jose Castelli was sent, with orders to replace Ocampo and execute the prisoners. The execution took place at Cabeza de Tigre, on the border between Santa Fe and Córdoba. Legacy Liniers had been recognized in life with a street of Buenos Aires named after him, after the triumph against the British invasions. However, after the counterrevolution and the new number of heroes of the Argentine War of Independence, most names of such streets were modified in 1822, during the government of Martín Rodríguez. The former Liniers street consisted of the modern Defensa and Reconquista streets. The higher recognition to the heroes of the War of Independence stayed, but Liniers got renewed recognition with time. The Buenos Aires neighborhood of Liniers is named after him, as well as the Santiago de Liniers municipality in the Misiones Province. In 1861, Queen Isabella II of Spain formally requested Liniers's body from the Argentine Government. The remains were brought back to Spain and solemnly buried in the Panteón de Marinos Ilustres of the island of San Fernando, Cádiz. At this time, Liniers's descendants received the hereditary title of "Conde de la Lealtad" (Count of Loyalty). His house at Alta Gracia was abandoned after his death, and bought in 1820 by Jose Manuel Solares. His family kept it for a long time, until it was expropriated in 1969 and turned into a museum in 1977. It was declared heritage of humanity by UNESCO on December 2, 2000. One of the best known portraits of Liniers is La Reconquista de Buenos Aires, by Charles Fouqueray. El último virrey, a novel by Horacio Salduna, is based on Liniers' life. Name: Yermolov Biography: Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov(4 June 1777- 23 April 1861) Position: commander of the artillery of the Russian armies. Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: General of the Infantry He distinguished himself at the Battle of Borodino, where he was lightly wounded leading a counterattack that recaptured the Great Redoubt. For his courage, Yermolov received the Order of St. Anna (1st class). On 3 December 1812, he was recalled to the main headquarters where he became the Chief of Staff of the Russian army. Three weeks later, he was appointed commander of the artillery of the Russian armies. During the European campaigns of 1813 and 1814, Yermolov was in charge of the artillery corps of the allies. This is how Baddeley described him in 1908: "In person no less than in character Yermolov impressed all who came near him as one born to command. Of gigantic stature and uncommon physical strength, with round head set on mighty shoulders and framed in shaggy locks, there was something leonine in his whole appearance, which, coupled with unsurpassed courage, was well calculated to excite the admiration of his own men and strike terror into his semi-barbarous foes. Incorruptibly honest, simple, even rude in his habit, and of Spartan hardihood, his sword was ever at his side, and in city as in camp he slept wrapped only in his military cloak, and rose with the sun." Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov (Russian: Алексей Петрович Ермолов, IPA: ; 4 June 1777 - 23 April 1861) was a Russian Imperial general and war criminal of the 19th century who commanded Russian troops in the Caucasian War. He served in all the Russian campaigns against the French, except for the 1799 campaigns of Alexander Suvorov in northern Italy and Switzerland. During this time he was accused of conspiracy against Paul I and sentenced to exile. Two years later he was pardoned and brought back into service by Alexander I. Yermolov distinguished himself during the Napoleonic Wars at the Battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, Borodino, Kulm, and Paris. Afterwards he led the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. Early life Yermolov was born on 4 June 1777 in Moscow to a Russian noble family from the Oryol gubernia. He graduated from the boarding school of the Moscow University and enlisted in the Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment on 16 January 1787. Four years later, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the Nizhegorod Dragoon Regiment with the rank of captain. He briefly taught at the Artillery and Engineer Cadet Corps in 1793 before being sent to fight the Polish insurgents in the Polish campaign of 1794. He participated in the assault on Praga and received the Order of St. George (4th class) on 12 January 1795. The next year, Yermolov took part in the Persian Campaign along the Caspian Sea. However, he was arrested on 7 January 1799 for alleged participation in conspiracy against Tsar Paul I and spent two years in exile to Kostroma, where he taught himself Latin. After the assassination of Paul I in 1801, the new emperor, Alexander I, pardoned Yermolov, who returned to the military and began studying the works of Alexander Suvorov, whose disciple he now considered himself. Yermolov was appointed to the 8th Artillery Regiment on 13 May 1801; he then transferred to the horse artillery company on 21 June 1801. Napoleonic Wars His own military genius blossomed during the Napoleonic Wars. During the 1805 Campaign, Yermolov served in the rear and advance guards and distinguished himself at Amstetten and Austerlitz. For his actions, he was promoted to colonel on 16 July 1806. The following year, he participated in the campaign in Poland, serving in Prince Bagration's advance guard. He distinguished himself commanding an artillery company in numerous rearguard actions during the retreat to Landsberg as well as in the Battle of Eylau. In June 1807, Yermolov commanded horse artillery company in the actions at Guttstadt, Deppen, Heilsberg and Friedland, being awarded the Order of St. George (3rd class, 7 September 1807). He was promoted to major general on 28 March 1808 and was appointed inspector of horse artillery companies. In early 1809, he inspected artillery companies of the Army of the Danube. Although his division took part in the 1809 campaign against Austria, Yermolov commanded the reserves in Volhynia and Podolsk gubernias, where he remained for the next two years. In 1811, he took command of the guard artillery company and in 1812, became the Chief of Staff of the 1st Western Army. During the 1812 Campaign, Yermolov took part in the retreat to Smolensk and played an important role in the quarrel between Generals Barclay de Tolly and Bagration. He opposed Barclay's strategy and appealed to Emperor Alexander I to replace him with Bagration. After the Russian armies united on 2 August, Yermolov fought at Smolensk and Lubino (Valutina Gora) for which he was promoted to lieutenant general on 12 November 1812 with seniority dating from 16 August 1812. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Borodino, where he was lightly wounded leading a counterattack that recaptured the Great Redoubt. For his courage, Yermolov received the Order of St. Anna (1st class). During the rest of the campaign, he served as a duty officer in the headquarters of the main Russian army and fought at Maloyaroslavets. In October-November 1812, Yermolov served in the advance guard under Miloradovich and fought at Vyazma and Krasnyi. In late November, he commanded one of the detachments in the advance guard under General Rosen taking part in the combats on the Berezina. On 3 December 1812, he was recalled to the main headquarters where he became the Chief of Staff of the Russian army. Three weeks later, he was appointed commander of the artillery of the Russian armies. During the European campaigns of 1813 and 1814, Yermolov was in charge of the artillery corps of the allies. His able command proved crucial to their success in the Battle of Kulm. In 1813, Yermolov fought at Lützen, where he was accused of insubordination and transferred to command the 2nd Guard Division. He then fought at Bautzen, commanding the Russian rearguard during the retreat, and at Kulm where he was decorated with the Prussian Iron Cross. In 1814, he distinguished himself in the battle around Paris and was awarded the Order of St. George on 7 April 1814. Caucasus Further information: Russian conquest of the Caucasus Yermolov's main tasks were to secure Russia's hold over Georgia and the khanates recently taken from Persia, to occupy the Caucasus range separating the new territories from the rest of the Empire and to subdue the 'savage' and hostile Muslim tribes inhabiting it. But first he had another, most urgent task: Yermolov had to travel on a mission to Tehran, to evade the execution of Alexander I's promise to restore to Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar part of the territories acquired by Russia in the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813 During his tenure as commander-in-chief in the Caucasus, Yermolov (by that time promoted to the rank of full artillery general) was responsible for robust Russian military policies in Caucasus, where his name became a byword for brutality. In a reply to the outraged Alexander I, he wrote, "I desire that the terror of my name shall guard our frontiers more potently than chains or fortresses." He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in Georgia and commander of the Independent Georgian Corps on 21 April 1816. His promotion to the position was seen as a personal insult by his superiors and earned him many enemies at home. He proved himself an able administrator and successfully negotiated with Persia in 1818, receiving promotion to general of infantry on 4 March 1818. In 1817, he fortified a ford on the Sunzha river and founded the fortress of Grozny the following year. After repelling an attack by the highlanders, he undertook a punitive raid against them. His decisive measures did succeed in keeping many of the allied tribes loyal. For ten years he was both commander-in-chief of the Georgian armies and the imperial ambassador to Persia. His independent character would often lead him to conflicts with the Ministry of War, exacerbated by the personal antagonism of many of its members. He was adored by his soldiers, often fraternising with them, and generally successful in combatting the highlanders of Dagestan, but failed to prevent multiple uprisings. When, in 1825, Yermolov found out that Alexander Griboyedov was about to be arrested on charges relating to the Decembrist revolt, he warned him of it, enabling Griboyedov to destroy some compromising papers and avoid arrest. Yermolov's career came to an abrupt end in 1827 and he was replaced with Nicholas I's favorite Ivan Paskevich. The exact reasons are unclear, but he was disliked by Nicholas and was blamed for not keeping the tribes in check. As Professor Moshe Gammer writes: Far from subduing the population, as his admirers up to the present have asserted, his activities rather intensified hatred to Russia, stiffened resistance to it and helped to enhance the role of Islam, in the form of the spread of the Naqshbandi tariqa (Sufi brotherhood) which would leave now resistance in the eastern part of the Caucasus and for some periods of time in some of its western parts too. Yermolov was discharged on 7 December 1827 with a full pension. However, four years later, Nicholas restored him in the rank (6 November 1831) and appointed him to the State Council; Yermolov's rank of general of infantry was confirmed in 1833. Retirement During the last 30 years of his life, Yermolov lived in seclusion at his manor near Oryol. He was asked to lead a peasant militia during the Crimean War but declined on account of poor health. He died on 23 April 1861 in Moscow and was buried at the Trinity Church in Oryol. Yermolov left very interesting and valuable memoirs on his service in 1796-1816. His Zapiski (Memoirs) are divided into three parts covering his early career, the Napoleonic Wars, and his service in the Caucasus. They were published posthumously in two volumes Awards In addition to the decorations already mentioned, Yermolov was decorated with the Russian Orders of St. Andrew the First Called, of St. Vladimir (1st class), of St. Alexander Nevsky, of the White Eagle, and of St. Anna (1st class); foreign orders received included the Prussian Orders of the Red Eagle (1st class) and the Pour le Merite, the Military Order of Maria Theresa (3rd class), the Baden Order of Karl Friedrich, the Persian Order of the Lion and the Sun, and two golden swords for courage (including one with diamonds). Impact and trivia Yermolov was one of the best artillery officers in the Russian army. He proved his abilities throughout the Napoleonic Wars and later in the Caucasus. However, he was also a shrewd and cunning courtier, who often intrigued against his superiors. Because of his enigmatic character, Yermolov was often described as the "Modern Sphinx". He proved himself a ruthless and effective ruler in the Caucasus. He was a character in Leo Tolstoy's 1869 novel War and Peace, and in Prokofiev's opera of the same name, based on the novel. Legacy Yermolov is a highly controversial historical figure. He is respected by Russian people for his military skills, and hated by many Caucasus nations for his brutality. In Russia, he was famous for military prowess, bravery and strategy. His charismatic leadership of imperial armies was romanticized in poems by Alexander Pushkin, Vasily Zhukovsky, and others. However, in the Caucasus (with the exception of Ossetia), Yermolov is infamous for atrocities he had committed. As Caucasus expert Charles King puts it: "Ermolov was a quintessential frontier conqueror. He was the first to employ a comprehensive strategy for the subjugation of the Caucasus highlands, and his brutal methods would be used, in one form or another, by tsarists, Bolsheviks, and Russian generals into the twenty-first century. "Ermolov was the most celebrated and, at the same time, the most hated of Russian commanders in the Caucasus theater. To St.Petersburg society he was the gallant, Latin-quoting senior officer. For generations of indigenous mountaineers he was the dreaded "Yarmul" who razed villages and slaughtered families. Although he gained the supreme confidence of one Tsar, Alexander I, he was treated with suspicion by another, Nicholas I. He was responsible for implementing a series of policies that were at the time hailed as vehicles for civilizing the benighted Caucasus frontier but today might very well be called state-sponsored terrorism." This is how Baddeley described him in 1908: "In person no less than in character Yermolov impressed all who came near him as one born to command. Of gigantic stature and uncommon physical strength, with round head set on mighty shoulders and framed in shaggy locks, there was something leonine in his whole appearance, which, coupled with unsurpassed courage, was well calculated to excite the admiration of his own men and strike terror into his semi-barbarous foes. Incorruptibly honest, simple, even rude in his habit, and of Spartan hardihood, his sword was ever at his side, and in city as in camp he slept wrapped only in his military cloak, and rose with the sun." Since 2000, Kalach-on-don has been operating a multi-purpose ship of the KC-104-02 project named after the hero of the Patriotic war of 1812 — "General Yermolov", as an object of intangible heritage that preserves the historical memory of the people. Battles/wars Ko?ciuszko Uprising Persian Expedition of 1796 Napoleonic Wars Battle of Amstetten Battle of Austerlitz Battle of Borodino Battle of Kulm Battle of Heilsberg Battle of Friedland Caucasian War Russo-Persian War (1826-28) Awards Order of St. Andrew Order of St. George Order of St. Vladimir Order of Saint Anna Order of St. Alexander Nevsky Order of the White Eagle Name: Bagration Biography: Pyotr Bagration (10 July 1765 - 24 September 1812) Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: General of the Infantry Commands held:Suvorov's vanguard during his Italian campaign，Suvorov's vanguard during his Swiss campaign，Lifeguard Jaeger Regiment，6th Chasseurs, Imperial Guard，Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard，Russian rearguard at Hollabrunn，Coalition right wing at Austerlitz，Russian rearguard at Eylau，Russian Army during Russo-Turkish War，Moldovan Army，Second Western Army，Left wing of the Russian forces at Borodino Pyotr Bagration (10 July 1765 - 24 September 1812) was a Russian general and prince of Georgian origin, prominent during the Napoleonic Wars. "Russia has no good generals. The only exception is Bagration."—Napoleon "Prince Bagration—the most excellent general, worthy of highest degrees."—Alexander Suvorov "Bagration—Lion of the Russian army."—Alexander Chernyshyov Bagration, a member of the Bagrationi dynasty, was born in Kizlyar or in Tbilisi. His father (Russian: Иван Александрович Багратион, romanized: Ivan Aleksandrovich Bagration) served as an officer in the Imperial Russian Army, in which Bagration also enlisted in 1782. Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration began his military career serving in the Russo-Circassian War of 1763-1864 for a couple of years. Afterwards he participated in a war against the Ottomans and the capture of Ochakov in 1788. Later he helped suppress the Ko?ciuszko Uprising of 1794 in Poland and capture Warsaw. During Russia's Italian and Swiss campaigns of 1799 against the French, he served with distinction under Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov. In 1805 Russia joined the coalition against Napoleon. After the collapse of the Austrians at Ulm in October 1805, Bagration won praise for his successful defense in the Battle of Sch?ngrabern (November 1805) that allowed Russian forces to withdraw and unite with the main Russian army of Mikhail Kutuzov. In December 1805 the combined Russo-Austrian army suffered defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz, where Bagration commanded the allied right wing against the French under Jean Lannes. Later he commanded Russian troops in the Finnish War (1808-1809) against Sweden and in another war against the Turks (1806-1812) on the Danube. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812, Bagration commanded one of two large Russian armies ( Barclay de Tolly commanded the other) fighting a series of rear-guard actions. The Russians failed to stop the French advance at the Battle of Smolensk in August 1812. Barclay had proposed a scorched-earth retreat that the Emperor Alexander I of Russia had approved, although Bagration preferred to confront the French in a major battle. Mikhail Kutuzov succeeded Barclay as Commander-in-Chief but continued his policy until the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) near Moscow. Bagration commanded the left wing around what became known as the Bagration flèches at Borodino, where he was mortally wounded; he died a couple of weeks later. Originally buried at a local church, in 1839 he was reburied on the battlefield of Borodino. Life Pyotr was born in 1765 to a prince of the Mukhrani branch of the Bagrationi dynasty, Colonel Prince Ivane Bagrationi, who was the eldest son of Prince Alexander, an illegitimate son of King Jesse of Kartli, which is now central Georgia. He studied Russian and German and was taught Persian, Turkish, Armenian, and Georgian by his father. However, unlike many other Russian aristocrats, he did not know French. Bagration personally identified himself as a "pure Russian" (chistoi russkoi). Pyotr joined the Imperial Russian Army in 1782, enlisting as a sergeant in the Kavsansk Rifles of the Astrakhan Infantry Regiment. His younger brother Roman joined the Chuguevsk Cossack regiment as a uryadnik (a Cossack NCO) at the age of thirteen in 1791. Both would go on to become generals of the Imperial Russian Army. Bagration served for some years in the Russian-Circassian War. He participated in the Siege of Ochakov (1788). In 1792 he was commissioned as a Captain and transferred to the Kyiv Cavalry Regiment that year as a second Major, transferring as a full first Major to the Sofiiskii Carabineers on 15 May 1794. He served in the military campaign to suppress the Polish Ko?ciuszko Uprising of 1794. He received successive promotions to Lieutenant-Colonel (26 October 1794), to Colonel (1798) and to Major-General (1799). His merits were recognized by Suvorov, whom he accompanied in the Italian and Swiss campaigns of 1799, winning particular distinction by the capture of the town of Brescia. From 1798 to 1799, he commanded the 6th Chasseurs; from 1801 to 1802, he commanded the Chasseurs of the Imperial Guard; then from 1802 to 1805, he served as GOC Jager Brigade He was the alleged lover of Emperor Paul's daughter Catherine. In 1800 Paul recognized the title of "Prince (Knyaz) Bagration" for Pyotr in Russia, and unexpectedly married him off to Countess Catherine Pavlovna Skavronskaya, the favourite niece of Grigory Potemkin and one of the Empress Maria's ladies-in-waiting. Bagration and Catherine had been casually involved, but the marriage was a failure. The young and lovely Catherine soon preferred travelling and, in 1805, fled to Vienna, where her salon and running affair with Prince Clemens von Metternich—who called her "the Naked Angel"—permitted her to serve as an important agent of Russian intelligence and diplomacy. Bagration was obliged by the emperor to claim their daughter, Marie-Clementine, as his own and to subsidize thousands of rubles of Catherine's debts. He had a reputation as a heavy gambler, as well, and was forced to sell estates to cover losses that rose as high as 80,000 roubles. In the wars of 1805 Bagration's achievements appeared even more brilliant. When Napoleon ordered Murat to break an armistice he had just signed with Bagration, the general was able to successfully resist the repeated attacks of forces five times his own numbers under Murat and Lannes at Sch?ngrabern (16 November) near Hollabrunn. Though Bagration lost half of the men under his command, their stand protected the retreat of the main army under Kutuzov to Olmutz. When Kutuzov was overruled and forced into battle at Austerlitz (2 December), Bagration commanded the advance guard of the Prince Liechtenstein's column and defended the allied right against Lannes while the left attacked Napoleon's deliberately undefended right flank. He was promoted to Lieutenant-General in 1805, and in 1807 fought bravely and obstinately at the battles of Eylau (7 February), Heilsberg (11 June), and Friedland (14 June). He was successful as commander of both Russia's Finnish Campaign in 1808 and Turkish Campaign in 1809. In the former, he captured the ?land Islands by a daring march across the frozen Gulf of Finland. His rapid transfer to the distant Moldavian front against the Ottoman Empire has been seen as a reprimand for an alleged affair with the tsarevna Catherine, who was married off shortly thereafter. While there, he led the Russian army at Rassowa and Tataritza and was promoted to full General of Infantry. In 1812, Bagration commanded the 2nd Army of the West. A few days before Napoleon's invasion on 24 June, he suggested to Alexander I a pre-emptive strike into the Duchy of Warsaw. Defeated at Mogilev (23 July), Bagration led his forces to join the 1st Army at Smolensk under Barclay de Tolly, to whom he ceded overall command of both armies on 2 August. Bagration led the left wing at the Battle of Borodino (7 September) where he constructed many flèches which, due to a shortage of engineer officers, were poorly-built. During the battle, he received a mortal wound and later died on 24 September, in the village of Simi, which belonged to his aunt. It is said that, while wounded, Bagration kept giving orders to the troops without knowing that the Russian army was abandoning Moscow. When he finally heard the truth, Bagration was so shocked that he rapidly stood up, totally forgetting about his grave wound. Such an act was too much for his severely wounded body and it quickly cost Bagration his life. Napoleonic Wars Battles of Hollabrunn and Austerlitz In the course of the War of the Third Coalition, Napoleon's defeat of General Mack's Austrian army at Ulm on 19 October 1805 led Kutuzov to consider withdrawing and uniting his forces with reinforcements arriving at Brünn. Kutuzov ordered Bagration to guard Vienna with just a single regiment to stall a possible French assault. The French marshals Murat and Lannes made a false armistice claim to position themselves near the Danube at Vienna. When the guards were distracted they rushed over the bridge to secure the town. Kutuzov was in hurry to unite his army with the Russian troops commanded by Buxhoeveden, so he needed a diversion to delay the French advance. Bagration then took command of the Russian army's rearguard to do so. His combined Russo-Austrian force numbered less than 7,500 men facing a foe more than five times the size. Bagration took up a position 6 km north of Hollabrunn, on the hill north above the small town of Sch?ngrabern, and formed a huge line to trick the French into believing the entire Russian army stood before them. In fact, Marshal Murat hesitated to attack and later even agreed to an offer from Bagration to negotiate an armistice, halting the entire French advance without informing Napoleon. This delay gave Kutuzov enough time to save his army. When word reached Napoleon he was enraged at Murat's obstinate behaviour and ordered him to resume the attack immediately, ending the armistice on 16 November. The vanguard of Lannes's and Murat's 45,000 men attacked Bagration's position repeatedly but were repelled each time, unable to take the hill for some six hours. General Bagration personally led some of the counter-attacks, which drove the French back. Even though his force suffered heavy casualties and destruction seemed inevitable, Bagration managed to manoeuver his remaining troops out of the area and unite with the rest of the Coalition army at Brunn on 18 November 1805. His actions prevented the Russian army from being cut off and destroyed. Just two weeks later, on 2 December 1805, the opposing armies would meet at Austerlitz. This time Bagration assumed command over the Coalition army's 13,000 men strong right-wing, opposing Lannes' equally strong French left-wing. When the coalition army started to rout, Bagration too ordered his men to retreat after not achieving any progress against Marshal Lannes, who had the support of elements of Marshal Murat's forces, even though his men fought bravely and fiercely. The battle was lost at that point. While Bagration saw no other option but to commence a strategic withdrawal, Marshal Murat refused Lannes' suggestion to further pursue him so that his corps wouldn't suffer further losses. Battle of Eylau General Bagration demonstrated his skills as military commander particularly during the brutal Battle of Eylau which took place in East Prussia on 7 and 8 February 1807 during the War of the Fourth Coalition. After destroying the Prussian army at Jena (October 1806), Napoleon was pursuing Russian forces under Marshal Kamensky. In a series of inconclusive clashes, the French did not reach their ultimate goal of destroying the enemy, while the Russians successfully continued retreating. However, on 7 January 1807 General Levin August, Count von Bennigsen assumed overall command of the Russian forces and carried out a successful surprise attack on the French left-wing against Marshal Ney and further against Marshal Bernadotte. Bernadotte managed to evade destruction by winning the Battle of Mohrungen (25 January 1807) and by retreating. Napoleon saw an opportunity to envelop Bennigsen's unprotected left-wing by instructing Bernadotte to keep retreating and allowing his army to cut off the Russians from their own retreat. By a stroke of luck, a group of Cossacks intercepted a French messenger carrying Napoleon's orders to Bernadotte and quickly reported to General Bagration. Bagration then informed Bennigsen, who immediately halted his offensive and retreated. The French pursued, and after several engagements finally confronted the entire Russian army at Eylau on 7 February 1807. Bagration occupied high ground a mile in front of the town, facing Marshal Soult's IV Corps and Marshal Murat's cavalry. The combined French forces assaulted the plateau, but Bagration's heavily outnumbered troops repulsed them. The general demanded bitter resistance from his men to gain time for Bennigsen's heavy artillery to pass through Eylau and join the main Russian force. During the afternoon the French were reinforced by Marshal Augereau's corps and the Imperial Guard, making up about 45,000 soldiers in all. Under pressure from greatly superior numbers, Bagration finally conducted an orderly retreat to join the main Russian army. Russian forces under General Barclay de Tolly covered the retreat. Despite a clear numerical advantage, the French were not able to achieve a greater victory than eventually driving Bagration's small force off the plateau. Bagration's delaying action and skilful withdrawal enabled the Russian army to escape destruction and consolidate for a decisive battle. In 1946, Soviet authorities renamed the town of Preu?isch Eylau as Bagrationovsk in honour of Pyotr Bagration and of his remarkable skills as a tactician. Finnish War Initial Assault During the Finnish War from 1808 to 1809 Bagration commanded the 21st division of the Russian forces under Buxhoeveden. Not wanting to wait until Sweden had concentrated a large army in Finland, The Russian Empire took initiative and decided to take action. On the night of 9 (21) September (February 1808) Russian troops crossed the border to Finland and launched an offensive. Bagration's 21st division was forming the Russian centre and moving ahead to quickly seize H?meenlinna, Tampere and Pori. Under the pressure of the swift advance, the Swedish forces began a hasty retreat to the depths of Finland and were pursued relentlessly. Bagration's men had to endure worst weather conditions, severe frost, snowstorms and forest debris. Also, the retreating Swedes were constructing obstacles and destroyed any possible food source as well as roads. Nevertheless, Bagration's division overcame those obstacles and took all objectives, H?meenlinna on 22 February (6 March), Tampere on 1 March (13) and Pori on 6 (18) March 1808. Bagration managed to advance over a distance of 200 km and capture three cities in just eight days and securing the way to the Gulf of Bothnia. His manoeuvre split the Swedish forces in two, a northern and southern group, providing the Russians with the possibility to strike each group one after another. Bagration correctly assessed the situation that the main Swedish force was in the north and intended to turn his division for an attack. But the commander in chief Buxhoveden foiled that plan by miscalculating the situation and assaulting the southern Swedish group, which had itself fortified in numerous fortifications, with his superior force, including the 21st division of Bagration. This allowed the main Swedish force to retreat unharmed to Oulu. Despite that Bagration, himself still achieved success by capturing the strategically important Turku province. In September 1808 Bagration became ill and was forced to leave the theatre of operation. He was keenly interested in the events and hastily returned as soon as he became fit for service again. Upon arrival he was appointed commander of the Russian forces defending the west coast of Finland. Swedish assault on Turku Battle for the ?land Islands In 1809, the Russian command had decided to take the war to the territory of Sweden to finally crush her army. The Russian army was divided into three operational groups commanded by Bagration, Barclay de Tolly and Pavel Shuvalov . Bagration's 17,000-strong corps consisted of 30 infantry battalions, four cavalry squadrons, 600 Cossacks and 20 guns. The main assault was to be carried out by a daring march across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia from Turku, reaching and capturing the heavily fortified ?land Islands, which were garrisoned by about 10,000 Swedish troops, before continuing on the frozen Sea towards Stockholm. Bagration carefully planned his campaign and managed to supply his troops with fresh food, warm clothes, ammunition and weapons. The expedition was ready on 26 February (10 March) 1809 and began the next day. The offensive against the ?land was carried out in five attack columns: four engaged in a frontal assault while the fifth bypassed ?land from the south. The Swedish troops did not put up much resistance, preferring to retreat to the major ?land island, from where they intended to stop Bagration's advance. To do so, the Swedish commander-general Carl von D?beln proposed negotiations for an armistice. Bagration refused, convinced that the sole purpose of von D?beln's offer was to delay his movements. After completing negotiations, he ordered his troops to advance at an even faster pace. Fearing an encirclement, General von D?beln abandoned the ?land Islands. Pursued by Bagration's troops, the retreat quickly turned into a devastating rout, leaving ammunition, weapons and equipment behind. To intimidate the Swedes, Bagration ordered a 400-man cavalry detachment under Major General Yakov Kulnev to pursue the Swedes to their own shores. Kulnev managed to take the Swedish town of Grisslehamn, which was just 70 km away from Stockholm. This unexpected turn of events brought shock and confusion to the Swedish leadership and population, who were surprised to hear of Russian troops on Swedish soil. Stockholm was fortified and an army quickly put together and sent to intercept an enemy that was not actually there. The plan worked beyond Bagration's expectations as the psychological impact of Kulnev's incursion into Sweden was decisive for the course of the entire war. Simultaneously the other Russian corps also reached their goals so that the Swedish side found itself forced into peace talks after losing all its claims in Finland. Bagration was highly praised for his conduct of the campaign and was promoted to full general of infantry. French Invasion of Russia Battle of Smolensk Battle of Borodino Main article: Battle of Borodino Tactics and doctrine Bagration, heavily influenced by Alexander Suvorov, was an innovative tactician who favoured mobile offensive warfare even though many of the battles he was engaged in with the French were of a defensive nature. He refused what he perceived as obsolete positioning tactics and instead would give the Russian army strategic objects and tactical manoeuvers, always going for the quick confrontation, where speed and accuracy were most important, to deny the enemy any chance to react, respond or even organize. This led to much tension and rivalry between him and general Barclay de Tolly, who was given overall command and relied mostly on the search for adequate positions to entrench and wait for the enemy. Bagration's applied doctrines were ahead of time solid concepts for both offensive and defensive warfare, as even his retreats were conducted in equally good and impressive fashion, given the sometimes impossible odds he was facing. Bagration's strategic views defined also his insights about the character of tactical military action. It is possible to discern these insights, for example, by considering the famous order to the forces of the 2nd Western Army, dated 25 June 1812. In the order, written by Bagration with his own hand, instructions were given concerning actions to be taken against the French armies if they invaded Russian territory. He wrote: For us, it is necessary to attack them bravely, quickly, not to become engaged in shooting matches; artillery must fire precisely, irregular armies must try to surround their flanks and rear.... The regular cavalry attacks quickly, but as a part of concerted action, without dividing into small bodies. Squadrons must support each other in the attack, not forgetting to provide for reserves and flanks. The cavalry should be located under the chess order. —?Pyotr Bagration Attacks were to be conducted with troops formed in columns: Commanders of Corps must try to turn all attention to attacking the enemy with bayonets, using columns, and to attack until the enemy retreats. The horse artillery should operate energetically, as should cavalry, but harmoniously and without the slightest confusion. It is especially necessary when the enemy has strong reserves and may frustrate our attacking forces; for that we must try to have our forces in columns and in readiness, and as soon as everyone is driven into flight, then the Cossacks must prick and harass them, with the regular forces in close and harmonious support. —?Pyotr Bagration Bagration recommended deployment of the forces in a battle array that was not too closely packed, but sufficiently so to permit soldiers to feel each other's presence with their elbows. In case of counter-attacks by enemy cavalry, Bagration advised the use of battalion masses and squares, or "carres". "When the enemy cavalry attacks infantry, it takes only a minute to form either a column closed on all sides, or a battalion in a 'carre'." With the purpose of increasing the enthusiasm of armies, all attacks were to be made with a shout, and during the approach the drums were to be beaten and music to be played. Similar insights are reflected in a number of Bagration's other orders, instructions and letters. In particular, as the characteristic of his tactical perspective, the "Manual for Infantry Officers on the Day of Battle" may serve as an example. This document was prepared on the basis of the "Manual to Officers of the Narva infantry Regiment," authored by M.S. Vorontsov in 1812. According to military historian P. Simansky, Vorontsov's manual "was strongly influenced by Suvarov's precepts, and was appraised by the most favorite disciple of Suvarov, Prince Bagration; it was slightly corrected by him, as in some places it concerned only Narva infantry Regiment, and then in July 1812 it was dispatched to all units of the 2nd Army." The "Manual to Infantry Officers on the Day of Battle" recognized the offensive as the fundamental form of combat. The principal manifestation of offensive combat was the bayonet attack, concluded with a vigorous pursuit of the defeated enemy. This manual considered in detail the question of action in separate lines and in columns and about conducting aimed fire. The necessity of maintenance by skirmishers of a close communication with their columns was specified; movement forward was to be determined only by an order of the chief of division or battalion. If it was necessary to operate on separate lines in forests, it was suggested to hold a reserve behind one of the flanks in order to have an opportunity to suddenly envelope the flank of a counter-attacking enemy. Attacks by enemy cavalry acting in separate lines were to be met by fire, having permitted the enemy to advance to within 150 paces; after that it would be necessary to divide into small groups of ten and to repulse the enemy by fire and bayonets until the approach of reinforcements. Upon approaching, reinforcements were to be redeployed from a column into square, firing on enemy cavalry from a distance of 150 paces. The "Manual" demanded that officers demonstrate constant care for their soldiers, to remind them of their duties and their oath, to explain what was required from them during military actions. Special attention was addressed to the maintenance of trust in the virtue of "Russian bayonets", a spirit of boldness, courage and persistence in the fight. "Persistence and courage," declared the "Manual", "have won more battles than all other military talents taken altogether." Dissemination of all rumors of disaster and panic, such as "We are cut off!", were categorically forbidden, under the threat of severe punishments. It was specified in the "Manual" that: "Brave people are never cut off; wherever the enemy goes, turn your breast to follow and defeat him." Thus, in the field of tactics, as well as in the field of strategy, Bagration acted as an innovator, a convinced supporter of decisive offensive action. He doggedly introduced advanced tactics; he dispensed with obsolete positional tactics and applied tactics of columns in a combination with separate lines. Paying great attention to the value of offensive combat, Bagration at the same time did not reject the opportunity to conduct defensive operations. He creatively approached planning for his assigned tasks, applying such forms of combat as provided exactly the right answers to particular circumstances. His practical legacy offers experience rich in the conduct of offensive battles as well as the development and practice of waging both advance and rear guard fights. Bagration was the unsurpassed master of organization of these extremely complex kinds of action. It was not by chance that, at the most crucial moments of the wars of 1799-1807, it was Bagration who was appointed to command the rear guards and advance guards of the Russian Army. The engagements conducted by Russian armies under Bagration's leadership during the Italian campaign of 1799, and also the advance and rear guard combats during the Swiss Campaign of 1799 and war between of Russia and France in 1805-1807, belong among the finest accomplishments in Russian military art. Bagration built a process of education and training of soldiers on the basis of the system developed by A.V. Suvorov. He paid great attention to the training and education of troops to develop soldiers with courage and initiative, capable of carrying out orders quickly and skillfully. Bagration constantly worried about his soldiers' health, and that they should be well clothed and fed on time. S.G.Volkonsky, who during the Franco-Russian conflict of 1806-1807 was frequently in Bagration's group, wrote: ... I visited several times an avant garde where many of my friends were serving at Prince Bagration's headquarters. The hospitable manner of the Prince with subordinates, amicable relations between themselves, harmony, cleanliness in tents, the fresh and pleased appearance of the lower grades, proved the Prince's good treatment and attitude toward them, and in all hearts the pledge of general trust in him. —?Sergei Volkonsky While showing a concern for the soldiers, however, Bagration at the same time demanded the maintenance of high military discipline, considering it to be the foundation of military service. "In military service," he wrote, "the first objective is order, subordination, discipline, unanimity and friendship". First of all, Bagration was extremely demanding of himself. "...To execute the will of the sovereign, of the emperor and my commanders is the most sacred obligation which I follow and obey at every step of my service... I love soldiers, I respect their bravery, and equally I demand order and discipline." Armies under Bagration's command were always distinguished by high discipline and, in some sense, this was one of the main reasons for their brilliant victories over their enemies. Honours On 15 October 1800, Bagration was granted the hereditary title of a Prince of the Russian Empire (Kniaz Bagration) by the Emperor Paul I. He was also awarded the Orders of St Andrew (1810), of St. Alexander Nevsky (1807), of the St Vladimir, 1st class (1809), of the St Anna, 1st class (1800), the St George 2nd class (1805) and made a Commander of the Order of St John of Jerusalem (1800). He was further honoured with a gold sword of honour for bravery (1808). Bagration's foreign awards also included the Prussian Orders of the Red Eagle (1807) and the Black Eagle (1807), the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa, 2nd class (1799) and the Sardinian Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus, 1st Class (1799). He is portrayed with a supporting role in Leo Tolstoy's epic 1869 novel War and Peace. In the novel's 2016 adaptation, he is played by Pip Torrens. Tsar Nicholas I had a monument erected in his honour on the battlefield of Borodino. The general's remains were transferred to the place where he had fallen and remain there to this day. The grave was blown up during World War II (reputedly, the local museum authorities were able to save only shreds of bone and cloth from the grave) but has since then been restored. Joseph Stalin chose Bagration as the name of the Soviet offensive launched on 22 June 1944 that defeated the German Army Group Centre and drove the forces of Nazi Germany out of what is now Belarus. After the war, the Soviet Union annexed northern East Prussia, and the until-then German town of Preu?isch Eylau—the scene of the 1807 battle—was renamed Bagrationovsk in his memory. In Moscow, the Bagration Bridge, which commemorates the 850th year of the city is named in his honour. An asteroid 3127 Bagration and Moscow Metro station Bagrationovskaya are named after Prince Bagration. In the 20th and 21st centuries, at least 15 ships associated with the name of P.I. Bagration. Name: Dwyer Biography: Michael Dwyer(1772-1825)，"the Wicklow chief" Allegiance: Society of the United Irishmen Battles/wars:1798 rebellion，Guerrilla Campaign 1799-1803 Michael Dwyer (1772-1825) was an insurgent captain in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, one of the few survivors of Vinegar Hill，leading the United Irish forces in battles in Wexford and Wicklow., Following the defeat and dispersal of the rebel hosts, in July 1798 Dwyer withdrew into the Wicklow Mountains, and to his native Glen of Imaal, where he sustained a guerrilla campaign against British Crown forces. The failure in July 1803 of the rising in Dublin planned by Anne Devlin, his cousin, and by Robert Emmet, with which he had hoped to coordinate, and the internment of virtually all his extended family, disposed "the Wicklow chief" to accept terms. With his closest lieutenants he was transported to New South Wales, Australia as an unsentenced exile and free man in 1806. In Sydney in 1807, he was twice imprisoned and twice tried, but ultimately acquitted, of plotting an Irish insurrection against the British rule in New South Wales. As a result of the Rum Rebellion in 1808, he was reinstated as a free man in New South Wales. He was appointed Chief of Police in Liverpool, Sydney in 1813. In 1825 due to the alledged non payment of a ￡100 debt, he was committed to a debtors' prison where he contracted dysentery. He was released on May 24th, 1825. Just three months later he died on the 23rd August, 1825 at the age of 53, never having seen his four youngest children since leaving them in Ireland. In 1898 his remains were re-interred in Waverly Cemetery, Sydney. A crowd of over 200,000 attended the re-interment of Michael Dwyer. Family Michael Dwyer was the eldest of four brothers and three sisters in the Catholic family of John Dwyer of Camara in Imaal and Mary Byrne, daughter of Charles Byrne of Cullentragh. At Ballyhubbock school in Imaal, Dwyer received his education from its master, a man whom Dwyer greatly admired for his patriotism. In 1784, John Dwyer moved his family to Eadestown in Imaal where they reared sheep, on land procured for them with the help of Robert Emmet's family. In October 1798 he married Mary Doyle of Knockandarragh. They had four children, all of whom were to be left in Ireland with his sister when later they faced a perilous journey into exile in Australia. 1798 rebellion Dwyer joined the Society of United Irishmen in the spring of 1797. When the rebellion broke on 23 May 1798, the loyalist yeomanry sought to terrorise the population into submission, executing Dwyer's republican uncle John Dwyer of Seskin along with thirty-five others on Dunlavin Green. Dwyer made his way to Mount Pleasant near Tinahely where the United Irishmen of Wicklow were gathering under Billy Byrne. As captain under General Joseph Holt (a United Irishman from a Protestant, loyalist family) in battles at Arklow, Vinegar Hill, Ballyellis and Hacketstown. Under Holt's leadership, he withdrew to the safety of the Wicklow Mountains in mid-July, when rebels could no longer operate openly following their defeat in the disastrous midlands campaign. Dwyer and Holt tied down thousands of troops. Command fell to Dwyer when, following news of the defeat of the French landing force at the Ballinamuck in September 1798, Holt sought terms and surrendered in November Guerrilla campaign Dwyer and his men began a campaign targeting local loyalists and yeomen, attacking small parties of the military and eluding any major sweeps against them. His force was strengthened by many deserters from the government's conscript militia, who headed to Wicklow as the last rebel stronghold and who became the dedicated backbone of his force, as they could not be expected to be included in any future offer of amnesty. Due to the constant hunt for him, Dwyer was forced to split and reassemble his forces and hide amongst civilian sympathisers to elude his pursuers. He relied on a large and extended kin network that included the families of Anne Devlin and Hugh Vesty Byrne of Kirikee, allowing him to develop a series of dugouts, caves and safe houses. In a massive military campaign to catch him, the government constructed a "Military Road" from Glencree to Imaal, along with five Military barracks to protect it. On 15 February 1799 at Dernamuck, he and about a dozen comrades were sheltering in three cottages when an informer led a large force of British soldiers to the area. The cottages were quickly surrounded, the first two surrendering, but, following consultation, Dwyer and his men decided to fight on in the third one, Miley Connell's cottage, after negotiating the safe passage of women and children. In the hopeless gunfight which followed, the cottage caught fire and only Dwyer remained unwounded. At this stage, Dwyer's comrade, Antrim man Sam McAllister, stood in the doorway to draw the soldiers' fire on him, which allowed Dwyer to slip out and make an incredible escape. Dwyer and Robert Emmet Dwyer later made contact with Robert Emmet and was apprised of plans for his revolt but was reluctant to commit his followers to march to Dublin unless the rebellion showed some initial success. The subsequent failure of Emmet's rising led to a period of repression and renewed attempts by the Government to wipe out Dwyer's forces. Methods adopted included attempts to deny him shelter among the civilian population by severely punishing those suspected of harbouring his men, the offer of huge rewards for information, the assigning of thousands of troops to Wicklow, and the building of a series of barracks at Glencree, Laragh, Glenmalure and Aghavannagh and a military road through county Wicklow. In December 1803, Dwyer finally capitulated on terms that would allow him safe passage to America but the government reneged on the agreement, holding him in Kilmainham Jail until August 1805, when they transported him to New South Wales (Australia) as an unsentenced exile. Australia Dwyer arrived in Sydney on 14 February 1806 on the Tellicherry and was given free settler status. He was accompanied by his wife Mary and their eldest children and also by his companions, Hugh 'Vesty' Byrne and Martin Burke, along with Arthur Devlin and John Mernagh. He was given a grant of 40.5 ha (100 acres) of land on Cabramatta Creek in Sydney. Although he had originally hoped to be sent to the United States of America, Michael Dwyer was later quoted as saying that "all Irish will be free in this new country" (Australia). This statement had been used against him and he was arrested in February 1807 and imprisoned. On 11 May 1807, Dwyer was charged with conspiring to mount an Irish insurrection against British rule. An Irish convict stated in court that Michael Dwyer had plans to march on the seat of Government in Australia, at Parramatta. Dwyer did not deny that he had said that all Irish will be free but he did deny the charges of organising an Irish insurrection in Sydney. Dwyer had the powerful support of Australia's first Jewish policeman, John Harris, who expressed the opinion in court that he did not believe that Dwyer was organising a rebellion against the Government in Sydney. On 18 May 1807, Dwyer was found not guilty of the charges of organising an Irish insurrection in Sydney. Governor William Bligh disregarded the first trial acquittal of Michael Dwyer. Bligh who regarded the Irish and many other nationalities with contempt, organised another trial for Michael Dwyer in which he was stripped of his free settler status and transported to Van Diemens Land (Tasmania) and Norfolk Island. After Governor Bligh was overthrown in the Rum Rebellion in 1808, the new Governor of New South Wales, George Johnston, who was present at Dwyer's acquittal in the first trial, ordered that Michael Dwyer's freedom be reinstated. Michael Dwyer was later to become Chief of Police (1813-1820) at Liverpool, New South Wales but was dismissed in October for drunken conduct and mislaying important documents. In December 1822 he was sued for aggrandising his by now 620-acre farm. Bankrupted, he was forced to sell off most of his assets, which included a tavern called "The Harrow Inn", although this did not save him from several weeks incarceration in the Sydney debtors' prison in May 1825. Here he evidently contracted dysentery, to which he succumbed in August 1825. Originally interred at Liverpool, his remains were reburied in the Devonshire Street Cemetery, Sydney, in 1878, by his grandson John Dwyer, Dean of St Mary's Cathedral. In May 1898 the coincidence of the planned closure of the cemetery and centenary celebrations for the 1798 rebellion suggested the second re-interment of Dwyer and his wife in Waverley Cemetery, where a substantial memorial was erected in 1900. The massive crowds attending Dwyer's burial and the subsequent unveiling of the monument testified to the unique esteem in which Irish-Australians held the former Wicklow hero. Dwyer had seven children and has numerous descendants throughout Australia. In 2002, in Bungendore near Canberra, a family reunion took place, with Michael Dwyer's descendants joining descendants of related Australian Irish families, the Donoghoe's and the Doyles. In 2006, a reunion also took place to mark the 200th anniversary of the arrival of the Tellicherry in Botany Bay. One of Michael Dwyer's sons was the owner of The Harp Hotel in Bungendore, New South Wales in circa 1838. Dwyer's nephew, John Donoghoe (1822-1892), built The Old Stone House, Molongolo Rd, Bungendore, in circa 1865. This dwelling is a strongly constructed Bungendore landmark and a monument to pioneering and hard-working Irish Australian settlers. Commemoration On 9 December 1900, a monument was erected in memory of Billy Byrne, Michael Dwyer, General William J. Holt, and William Michael Byrne, at the Market Square in Wicklow, facing the courthouse. The monument was designed by the Dublin architect Thomas Coleman and executed by the Dublin sculptor George Smyth. 'Dwyer's Cottage', or the 'Dwyer-McAllister Cottage', as it is more formally known, was acquired by the Irish State from the Hoxey family on 22 August 1948. President Seán T. O'Kelly was present at a ceremony to mark the occasion. At least two Gaelic Athletic Association clubs bear Dwyer's name: Keady Michael Dwyer's GFC is a club in County Armagh, and Michael Dwyers is a juvenile club in County Wicklow. Cultural depictions Dwyer is depicted as one of the few survivors of Vinegar Hill in the 2015 American musical "Guns of Ireland". Name: Raevsky Biography: Nickolay Nickolaevich Raevsky(September 25 1771 — September 28 1829) Position: General of Cavalry Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: General Nikolay Nikolayevich Raevsky (Николай Николаевич Раевский; September 25 1771 — September 28 1829) was a Russian general and statesman who achieved fame for his feats of arms during the Napoleonic Wars. His family left a lasting legacy in Russian society and culture, especially his several children and his close relationship with the Decembrists. He began his military service very early and in the age of 20 for his military merits was promoted to the rank of Colonel. He took part in wars with Turkey, Poland, Persia and afterwards with France (1805-1807) and Sweden (1808-1809).In the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812 he commanded a Corps and distinguished himself in the siege of Silistria. The military skills and courage of Raevsky became apparent show best of all in the war of 1812. On July,23, 1812 in the battle at Saltanovka village to the South of the city of Mogilev the children of Raevsky took part too.This battle was described by his grandson N.M.Orlov. "Nickolay Nickolaevich took his two sons to the Army with him. The older son, Alexander, was 16 and the yonger, Nickolay, was only 11. And these teenagers served to the Fatherland in the age when children usually sit at desks in school. In the battle at Saltanovka they were with their father. In the moment of the offensive attack to the French batteries Raevsky took them with him in at the head of the column of the Smolensk regiment, and he led by the hand his younger son Nickolay... The heroic example of the commander and his sons filled the troops with enthusiasm the soldiers who had lingered under the enemy case-shot, rushed forward and overrun the enemy"Owing to the courage and fortitude of Raevsky's soldiers the Army of Bagration was able to cross the Dieper without losses and came to Smolensk.At Smolensk Raevsky commanded the 7-th Army Corps. On August,4 he for twenty four hours together with the 27-th Division of General D.P.Neverovsky defended the city heroically against the outnumbered enemy forces.In the Borodino battle the 7-th Corps of Raevsky defended the redoubt that was attacked by the big French forces. This redoubt was called "The Battery of Raevsky".Afterwards Raevsky fought very brave in the battles at Maloyaroslavets and Krasnoe. In 1813 and 1814 Raevsky took part in many battles in the foreign campaign of the Russian Army.After the war and coming back to Russia he commanded the 4-th Corps that was in the 2-nd Army in the South of Russia till 1825. There he organized for soldiers "the school of mutual education" in that the ideas of Decembrists were propagandized. In 1826 he was recalled from the Army and he became a member of the State Council. Both sons of Raevsky - Colonels Nickolay and Alexander and his brother V.Raevsky were involved in the case of Decembrists. Raevsky was very popular among Decembrists and they planned make him a member of the Temporary Government if there revolt would win. Early life Nikolay Raevsky was born in Saint Petersburg. He descended from the Rayevsky noble family which has claimed remote Scandinavian and Polish-Lithuanian ancestry. One of Peter the Great's great grandmothers came from the Raevsky family. Nikolay's grandfather, Semyon Raevsky, was the Prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The family rose to prominence in Russia when Raevsky's father, Colonel Nikolay Semyonovich Raevsky, commander of the elite Izmaylovsky Regiment, married Ekaterina Samoylova. Ekaterina was a lady-in-waiting and close friend of Empress Catherine II, and a niece of the Empress’ influential favorite, Prince Potemkin. Ekaterina's brother was the general and statesman, Count Alexander Samoylov. Nikolay Semyonovich Raevsky was killed in action during the Russo-Turkish War (1768-74) at Ia?i, dying several months before the birth of his son, General Nikolay Raevsky. Not long after the Colonel's death, the Empress arranged for Raevsky's mother to marry a wealthy landowner, Lev Davydov, who proved to be a generous stepfather. Raevsky was enrolled in the Leib-Guard Semyonovsky Regiment at a very early age. On 30 April 1777 he was promoted to sergeant and on 1 January 1786 to ensign. On 23 February 1789 he was transferred to the Nizhegorodsky Dragoon Regiment with the rank of premier-major. With this regiment he took part in the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792 and distinguished himself at Bendery and Akkerman. In recognition of his valor, Raevsky was promoted on 1 September 1790 to lieutenant colonel and became the chief of a Cossack regiment. After the peace treaty was concluded, he took part in the Polish-Russian War of 1792 with the Nizhegorodsky Dragoon Regiment. For this campaign he received on 28 June 1792 the Order of St. George of the 4th degree and the gold sword with an inscription for bravery. When the war with Persia erupted in 1796, Raevsky, under command of Count Valerian Zubov, took part in the taking of Derbent and in other engagements. Upon his ascension to the throne, Emperor Paul I recalled the army back to Russia, and had Raevsky dismissed from the military because of his relationship to Prince Potemkin, whom Paul detested. After Paul's murder, and Alexander I's assumption of the throne, Raevsky rejoined the army and was promoted to the rank of Major General. Napoleonic Wars After Russia's failures at the outbreak of the Napoleonic wars, Raevsky returned into the field on 25 April 1807. He served with Prince Pyotr Bagration in the vanguard of the Russian army. During the campaign of 1806-1807, Raevsky distinguished himself in numerous battles, and was awarded the Order of St. Vladimir of the 3rd degree. Raevsky, who had sustained a wound in the Battle of Heilsberg, commanded chasseurs of the advance-guard in the Battle of Friedland. After the Treaty of Tilsit was concluded, Raevsky fought in the Finnish War, and was present at every major engagement. For this campaign, Raevsky received the Order of St. Vladimir of the 2nd degree and obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. The war over, he followed Count Nikolay Kamensky to the Moldavian army, which took part in the Russo-Turkish War, 1806-12. His bold leadership made itself felt in the taking of Silistra. During Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, Raevsky led the 7th Infantry Corps, a part of the 2nd Army led by Prince Pyotr Bagration. In the advance-guard, Raevsky was responsible for delaying Davout's advance towards Moscow. After the Battle of Saltanovka, he retreated to Smolensk, where he took part in the battle for the city. During the Battle of Borodino, he protected the right wing of the Russian Army, better known as the Raevsky Redoubt, winning the Order of St. George of the 3rd degree. Later he pursued La Grande Armee and took part in the Battle of Maloyaroslavets and Battle of Krasnoi, in which he helped defeat Marshal Ney. Raevsky commanded the Grenadier Corps and protected the retreat of main forces during the Battle of Bautzen. After Austria and Prussia joined the Allies, Raevsky's corps joined the Bohemian Army commanded by Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg. He received the Order of St. Vladimir of the 1st degree for the Battle of Kulm. Near Wachau, he was seriously injured. For his feats of arms he was promoted Full General (October 8, 1813) and received the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa of the 3rd degree. When the Russian army entered Saxony, Raevsky was forced to return to Russia because of his poor health. Having recovered from his illness, Raevsky rejoined the army during the battle of Leipzig, commanding two grenadier corps. When at the Rhine, he took over command from Peter Wittgenstein and leading this army during the taking of Paris. After Napoleon's defeat, General Raevsky was given the honor of entering Paris at Alexander I's side (March 31, 1814). Later years and family In 1794, Raevsky married Sofia Alexandrovna Konstantinova, the granddaughter and heiress of the scientist Mikhail Lomonosov. Sofia brought with her a substantial dowry, consisting of an estate at Oranienbaum with over six thousand serfs. The Raevskys had six children, two sons and four daughters. After the Napoleonic Wars ended, Raevsky settled with his family at Boltyshka, an estate left to him by his stepfather. Boltyshka was a large estate near the banks of the Dnieper River in Kirovohrad Oblast, Ukraine; the land was fertile and there were over ten thousand serfs to cultivate it. In May 1821, during a visit to the Caucasus, Raevsky befriended a young Alexander Pushkin and traveled with him to the Crimea. Alexander Pushkin became a friend of the familiy of Raevsky, especially in the Southern exile of the poet (1821-1822).Pushkin would form close friendships with Raevsky's sons, his sons-in-law, and his half-brother, Vasily Davydov - all members of the Southern Society that helped plot the Decembrist Revolt of 1825. The General's eldest son, Alexander, served as the model for the protagonist of Pushkin's poem The Demon. While Raevsky's daughter Maria's youthful frolics inspired Pushkin to write some of the most famous lines in Russian literature ("Eugene Onegin", I-XXXIII). Raevsky's daughter, Maria was the wife of Decemrist S.G.Volkonsky. Raevsky's favorite child, Maria, was wed at the age of nineteen to Prince Sergey Volkonsky, a wealthy, liberal aristocrat, who had fought alongside General Raevsky during the Napoleonic Wars. Raevsky's eldest daughter, Ekaterina, married the wealthy young General Mikhail Fyodorovich Orlov, also a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars. Once interested in discussion of liberal reforms, western democracy, and the teachings of the Enlightenment philosophers, by 1825 Raevsky had abandoned his youthful idealism, rejecting the notion that Russia could be anything other than an absolute monarchy. Both of Raevsky's sons and his son-in-law, Mikhail Orlov, withdrew from the Southern Society long before the Decembrist Revolt occurred, and took no part in the uprising. Raevsky's half-brother, Vasily Davydov, and Prince Volkonsky, remained in the Society. They were arrested along with their fellow conspirators days after the uprising in December 1825, and were taken to Saint Petersburg. They were held for several months, interrogated, tried, and sentenced to hard labor and exile in Siberia. Against her father's wishes, Maria fought for the right to accompany her husband to Siberia, and managed to personally persuade the Emperor to allow her to share Prince Volkonsky's exile. The Volkonskys would remain in Siberia for more than thirty years. They were only allowed to return to European Russia after the death of Nicholas I, having received a pardon from his son, Alexander II. Maria's courage, and that of the other Decembrist wives, was romanticized by Nekrasov in the poem "Russian Women". Raevsky died at Boltyshka four years after the Decembrist Revolt, a broken and embittered man, of pneumonia contracted while travelling to petition the Emperor for leniency on his daughter's behalf. As he lay dying, he is said to have looked at a portrait of his daughter Maria and whispered: "That is the most remarkable woman I have ever known in my life." Memory Since 2014, the FSUE Rosmorport Azovo-Chernomorsky Basin Branch has been operating a tugboat named in honor of the brave hero of the Patriotic War of 1812 - ?General Rayevsky?, as an intangible heritage that preserves the historical memory of the people. Name: Andrei Biography: Andrei Nikolayevich Bolkonsky Prince Andrei Nikolayevich Bolkonsky (Russian: Андрей Николаевич Болконский) is a brilliant young man from a noble family in Leo Tolstoy's 1869 novel War and Peace.His wife, Lise, is pregnant with their first child. He despises the silly, shallow world of St Petersburg society. When 1812 war breaks out, he enlists as an adjutant on General Kutuzov’s staff and often lead the charge and lead the line infantry in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy .Although leaves his wife at his fierce father’s remote country estate,for Andrei, it’s the chance he has been waiting for to find glory and purpose. He is the son of famed Russian general Nikolai Bolkonsky, who raises Andrei and his sister Maria Bolkonskaya on a remote estate. Andrei is best friends with Pierre Bezukhov. Possible prototype He is possibly based on Tolstoy's cousin Prince Sergey Volkonsky, who was a hero of the Napoleonic Wars and later a Decembrist. However, author Laura Jepsen explains that unlike "many of the other characters for whom the author found living prototypes, Prince Andrei is entirely fictitious". Life and death At the beginning of the novel, the handsome and intellectual Andrei, disillusioned with married life and finding his wife preoccupied with trivialities, becomes an officer in the Third Coalition against his idol, Napoleon Bonaparte. When he goes to war, he leaves his pregnant wife, Lise, at Bald Hills in the countryside with his father and sister. Andrei is wounded at the Battle of Austerlitz. He has an epiphany while lying on the battlefield gazing up at the vastness of the blue sky, realising the triviality of human affairs under the immobile eyes of nature and that he has the potential to be happy. Shortly afterwards, Andrei is rescued from the battlefield by Napoleon, who takes a liking to him, although Andrei no longer sees him as a great man but as "...a small, insignificant man compared with what was happening between his soul and this lofty, infinite sky with clouds racing across it...with his petty vanity and joy in victory." However, Prince Andrei is not listed among the dead or the officers taken prisoner, leading his father and sister to assume the worst. Neither inform Lise that he is unaccounted-for, fearing to cause her any anxiety in the final stages of her pregnancy. Andrei arrives, fully recovered, while his wife is in labour and sees her briefly before she dies in childbirth. The child, a boy, survives. Andrei, who, despite everything, had cared deeply for his wife (as he confides later to Pierre), is guilt-stricken and depressed. Completely disillusioned with his former wartime ambitions, Andrei spends the following few years at home, raising his son and serving under his father. In 1809, Andrei is recalled to Petersburg, where he is formally introduced to Countess Natasha Rostova for the first time. Andrei wishes to marry Natasha, but his father expresses concern: he does not wish to see his son rush into a marriage with a woman half his age, and socially below him. Old Prince Bolkonsky demands that they wait a year before marrying. Andrei proposes marriage to Natasha, who happily accepts, though she is upset by the one-year wait. In the meantime Andrei decides to tour Europe. In Andrei's absence however, Natasha develops an infatuation with the libertine Prince Anatole Kuragin. She breaks off the engagement with Andrei and plans to elope with Kuragin. Natasha is stopped by her cousin Sonya and Marya Dmitrievna, who suspect Anatole's intentions. They later find out from Pierre Bezukhov that Anatole is already secretly married to a Polish woman. Andrei wants to take revenge on Kuragin, who flees after Pierre warns him. Not having found Kuragin and in the light of Napoleon's 1812 invasion, he decides to join the army again. When Kutuzov is appointed commander-in-chief, he offers Andrei a position in his personal staff. Andrei declines as he is a well-liked regimental commander, considering his role there to be more important than what he could possibly accomplish as a staff officer. During the Battle of Borodino he is hit by an exploding shell and seriously wounded in the stomach. While in agony, he sees Anatole, whose leg is amputated due to war wounds, and realizes that he has the capability to forgive both Anatole and Natasha, and that he still loves her. He is driven back to Moscow, where Sonya (Natasha's cousin) notices him when the Rostovs are helping transport wounded soldiers. Eventually, Natasha discovers him, and they are reunited. She tries to nurse him back to his health. Although Prince Andrei's wounds begin to heal and health slowly returns, he eventually loses the will to live and dies in Natasha and Mary's care. Character development Prince Andrei is one of the most elaborated personages in the novel, together with Count Pierre Bezukhov, to whom he serves as a philosophical opposite. He is introduced as a slightly cynical character, disillusioned in his marriage by what he sees as the simple-mindedness of his wife. He's depicted as an atheist, sceptical of his sister Marya's strong religious beliefs. Andrei enlists in the army and desperately tries to reach a high rank because he believes history is made at the top of command. He often dreams of being in command of the army and wishes he could make his imaginative plans become a reality. Andrei is shown to have great respect for Napoleon, as his view on historic events being the will of a few important people is embodied best by Napoleon. While lying wounded on the Austerlitz battlefield, Andrei meets Napoleon and realizes the nature of his hero, who is excited by the carnage on the battlefield. He loses his belief in the importance of single personages compared to the whole world. After his return home and the death of his wife, Andrei becomes more cynical, losing his interest in war and politics. The Battle of Austerlitz made him see the chaos in war, and the inability of even the great figures of history to change the course of events. Focusing completely on the education of his son, he only enters public service under his father because the latter wished so. A visit by Pierre Bezukhov, who recently joined the {Freemason}s and attempts to explain his philosophies to the pessimistic and disillusioned Andrei, makes Andrei realise that his life is not over yet. Although Pierre's philosophies fail to convince him, he finds joy in his life again. Andrei regains the will to live and becomes more optimistic. During this period he is also shown to be fairly humanist, he frees his serfs and tries to improve their living conditions under influence of the thoughts Pierre expressed to him. Reflecting on his experiences at Austerlitz, he now becomes convinced that in order to prevent the chaos on the battlefield he experienced, the military code needs to be changed. After meeting Natasha Rostova, he becomes enchanted with her liveliness, which contrasts with his life after the death of his wife. He proposes to her but his father disapproves, and suggests that Andrei should wait a year and receive treatment abroad for his wound. While Andrei is away, Natasha disgraces herself by attempting to elope with Anatole Kuragin. Andrei is too proud to forgive her. When back in the army, Andrei realises that his previous visions on historic events were false, that the course of historic events is not decided by the actions of a few, as he thought before Austerlitz, nor by the laws (he tried to change) by which they operate, but by the decisions and actions of every single individual. He adopts the same deterministic view of history that Tolstoy himself expresses in the narrative chapters. For this reason he declines to join Kutuzov's staff to remain in command of his regiment, where he feels his actions are just as important, if not more important, than trying to change the course of events from a distance. In the hospital at the Borodino, Andrei meets Kuragin, on whom he wanted to take revenge. However, seeing the horribly wounded Kuragin's suffering makes him realise the meaning of forgiveness and absolute love. Recovering from his wound, he starts believing that the love he felt for his former enemy Kuragin, is the same love expressed in the Gospels. Following this change, he starts to recover and meets Natasha again, whom he forgives stating he loves her now more than ever. After having a dream that parallels dying with awakening in a new reality, he loses his will to live and dies. Name: Wittgenstein Biography: Peter Wittgenstein (17 January 1769 -11 June 1843) Names:Louis Adolph Peter German: Ludwig Adolf Peter Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: General-Field Marshal Commands: 6th Corps Religion:Lutheranism After the death of Kutuzov Wittgenstein was appointed the Commander-in-Chief of Russian and Prussian Forces Count Field-Marshal Petr Christianovich Wittgenstein was born in 1768, he was a descendant of an ancient German family. He began his milirary service in the Guards, in 1795 he was a volunteer in the Corps of Derfelden in Lithuania and distinguished himself in the battle at Ostrolenka and the assault of Prague. Then he served in the Caucasus, took part in seizing of Derbent and after if was sent to St.Petersburg with the keys of this captured city. In 1800 he was appoined the commander of a regiment, but in January,1800 he was dismissed and in November he got a regiment again (the Elizavegrad Hussar regiment). He took active part in the campaigns of 1805-1807. In the war of 1812 he commanded the 1-st Infantry Corps and on June,15 he met the Frech at Vilkomir. During the retreat of the Russian Army from the fortified Drissa camp Wittgenstein with the Corps numbered of 20,000 covered the ways to St.Petersburg and acted against the Corps of Oudinot and Macdonald and was wounded in the battles of Golovchitsa and Polotsk. On July,18 (30) the vanguard of Wittgenstein's Corps under the command of General Kulnev attacked the French at Yakubovo in spite of their superior forces. During the battle Verdie's Division came to the aid of Legrand, but two Russian chasseur regiments and a horse artillery company came to reinforce Kulnev's forces. The Russians attacked again the next morning . Marshal Oudinot moved his reserves against the centre and left flank of the Russian troops, but the Russians repulsed them successfully with heavy and accurate artillery fire, further confusing the French. The Russians troops then attacked the French swiftly along the whole line, overrunning them and hurled them back to Kliastitsy. The attempt of the French to organize an active defense on the right bank of the Nisha river had failed. In the battle at Kliastitsy the 2nd battalion of Pavlovsky's grenadier regiment distinguished itself most of all. The grenadiers "passed under the strong enemy's fire along the flaming bridge" and forced the French out of the town with bayonets. The Pavlovsky regiment had a glorious history and battle tradition. Men who were tall, brave, and skilled in military service, were chosen for the grenadier detachments. Grenadiers usually protected the flanks of the regular troops. They were armed with smooth-bore guns and half-sabres, and wore a high cap - "mitra" with a copper frontal part with the double-headed eagle on it. At the beginning of the 19th century in the other grenadier regiments, the mitre was replaced by a shako. But these changes didn't concern the Pavlovsly regiment, because Alexander I wanted to reward "courage and bravery of the regiment in many battles" and ordered it to retain the caps "in such condition as they were after the battle, and if some of them are damaged, it'll be the memorial of distinguished courage..." After the falling of Moscow Wittgenstein reinforced his Corps with 40 thousands of militiamen of the St.Petersburg Militia and at October, 7 seized Polotsk and on October,18 defeated the united Corps of Victor and Saint Siere and after it went to join Chichagov's troops and took part in pursuing of the French Army after the Berezina battle. At February, 27 , 1813 he entered into Berlin defending it of the troops of Vice-King Eugene. After the death of Kutuzov Wittgenstein was appointed the Commander-in-Chief of Russian and Prussian Forces, but after the unsuccessful battles at Lutzen and Bauzen he handed over the command to Barclay de Tolly. He took part in the battles at Dresden and Leipzig. After entering the Allies into France he was defeated in the Nancy battle and in the battle at Bar Sur Aube (February,15, 1814) he was heavily wounded. In 1818 he was appointed the commander of the 2-nd Army and in the beginning of the Turkish war he was a Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in the Europian part of Turkey, but in 1829 he was dismissed for reasons for health. In 1834 the Prussian King gave Wittgenstein the title of High Prince. Wittgenstein died in 1842. Louis Adolph Peter, 1st Prince of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Ludwigsburg-Berleburg (German: Ludwig Adolf Peter Fürst zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg; Russian: Пётр Христиа?нович Ви?тгенштейн, tr. P?tr Christiánovi? Vítgen?tejn; 17 January 1769 - 11 June 1843), better known as Peter Wittgenstein in English, was a Prince of the German dynasty Sayn-Wittgenstein and Field Marshal in the Imperial Russian Army during the Napoleonic wars. Early life Born Ludwig Adolf Peter Graf zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Ludwigsburg-Berleburg, he was descended from a family of ruling German Counts whose seat was in Berleburg (present day North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). His parents were Count Christian Louis Casimir of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Ludwigsburg and his first wife Countess Amalie Ludowika Finck von Finckenstein. Military career Enrolled as a sergeant in the Semyonovsky Regiment of the Imperial Russian Army at the age of 12 in 1781, Wittgenstein began actual military service as a Wachtmeister in the Life Guard Horse Regiment in 1789. In 1793 he gained promotion to Major in the Ukrainian light cavalry regiment. He fought with the unit in the Ko?ciuszko Uprising of 1794. Promoted to the rank of colonel in 1798, and to major general in 1799, in 1800 he took command of the Mariupolski Hussars Regiment. In 1805 he fought at Austerlitz, in 1806 against the Turks, and in 1807 against Napoleon at Friedland and against the Swedes in Finland. In the war of 1812 he commanded the right wing of the Russian Army in the First and Second battle of Polotsk. This fighting decided the fate of Saint Petersburg and earned Wittgenstein the title of "Saviour of Saint-Petersburg". Emperor Alexander I of Russia awarded him the Order of St. George. He tried to combine with Pavel Chichagov at the Battle of Berezina (November 1812), and later combined with the Prussian army corps under Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg. In the campaign of 1813 in January he took over the command of the Russian army after Kutuzov's death in April 1813, and commanded the Russian army at Lützen and Bautzen. But after the defeats of the Spring campaign, he laid down this command and led an army corps during the Battle of Dresden (August 1813) and the Battle of Leipzig (October 1813). In the campaign of 1814 he led the 6th Corps under Schwarzenberg, and was severely wounded at Bar-sur-Aube (27 February 1814). In 1823 he was promoted Field Marshal, and in 1828 he was appointed to command the Russian army in the war against Turkey. But ill-health soon obliged him to retire. In 1834 King Frederick William III of Prussia granted him the title of Fürst (Prince) zu Sayn-Wittgenstein. Family On 27 June 1798 he married Countess Antonia C?cilie Snarska and had in this marriage 11 children. He died on 11 June 1843 in Lemberg, where he looked after estates of his son Ludwig. Battles/wars Ko?ciuszko Uprising Persian Expedition of 1796 Storming of Derbent Napoleonic wars War of the Third Coalition Battle of Amstetten Battle of Dürenstein Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) War of the Fourth Coalition Russian Campaign Battle of Klyastitsy First Battle of Polotsk Second Battle of Polotsk Battle of Chashniki Battle of Smoliani Battle of Berezina War of the Sixth Coalition Battle of Lützen Battle of Bautzen Battle of Dresden Battle of Bar-sur-Aube Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829) Name: Suvorov Biography: Alexander Suvorov(24 November 1729 or 1730 - 18 May 1800) Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: Field Marshal and Generalissimo of the Russian Empire. Suvorov emphasized the role of bayonet charge in his book " Science of Victory," He never lost a single battle he had commanded. Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov (Russian: Алекса?ндр Васи?льевич Суво?ров, romanized: Aleksándr Vasíl'evi? Suvórov)was a Russian general in service of the Russian Empire. He was Count of Rymnik, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, Prince of Italy, and the last Generalissimo of the Russian Empire. Suvorov is considered one of the greatest military commanders in Russian history and one of the great generals of the early modern period. He was awarded numerous medals, titles, and honors by Russia, as well as by other countries. Suvorov secured Russia's expanded borders and renewed military prestige and left a legacy of theories on warfare. He was the author of several military manuals, the most famous being The Science of Victory, and was noted for several of his sayings. Several military academies, monuments, villages, museums, and orders in Russia are dedicated to him. Born in Moscow, he studied military history as a young boy and joined the Imperial Russian Army at the age of 17. During the Seven Years' War he was promoted to colonel in 1762 for his success on the battlefield. When war broke out with the Bar Confederation in 1768, Suvorov captured Kraków and defeated the Poles at Lanckorona and Sto?owicze, bringing about the start of the Partitions of Poland. He was promoted to general and next fought in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Kozludzha. Becoming the General of the Infantry in 1786, he commanded in the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 and won crushing victories at the Battle of Rymnik and Siege of Izmail. For his accomplishments, he was made a Count of both the Russian Empire and Holy Roman Empire. Suvorov put down a Polish uprising in 1794, defeating them at the Battle of Maciejowice and storming Warsaw. While a close associate of Empress Catherine the Great, Suvorov often quarreled with her son and heir apparent Paul. After Catherine died of a stroke in 1796, Paul I was crowned Emperor and dismissed Suvorov for disregarding his orders. However, he was forced to reinstate Suvorov and make him a field marshal at the insistence of the coalition allies for the French Revolutionary Wars. Suvorov was given command of the Austro-Russian army, captured Milan, and drove the French out of Italy through his triumphs at Cassano d'Adda, Trebbia, and Novi. Suvorov was made a Prince of Italy for his deeds. Afterwards, he was ordered to head to Switzerland to assist allied operations. He was cut off by Andre Massena and later became surrounded in the Swiss Alps by the French after an allied Russo-Austrian army he was supposed to reinforce suffered defeat at Zurich. Suvorov led the strategic withdrawal of Russian troops dealing with French forces four times the size of his own and returned to Russia with minimal casualties. For this exploit, he became the fourth Generalissimo of Russia. He died in 1800 of illness in Saint Petersburg. Early life and career Alexander Suvorov was born into a noble family originating from Novgorod at the Moscow mansion of his maternal grandfather Fedosey Manukov. His father, Vasiliy Suvorov, was a general-in-chief and a senator in the Governing Senate, and was credited with translating Vauban's works into Russian. His mother, Avdotya Fyodorovna (nee Manukova), was the daughter of Fedosey Manukov. According to a family legend his paternal ancestor named Suvor had emigrated from Karelia, Sweden with his family in 1622 and enlisted at the Russian service to serve Tsar Mikhail Feodorovich (his descendants became Suvorovs). Suvorov himself narrated for the record the historical account of his family to his aide, colonel Anthing, telling particularly that his Swedish-born ancestor was of noble descent, having engaged under the Russian banner in the wars against the Tatars and Poles. These exploits were rewarded by Tsars with lands and peasants. This version, however, was questioned recently by prominent Russian linguists, professors Nikolay Baskakov and Alexandra Superanskaya , who pointed out that the word Suvorov more likely comes from the ancient Russian male name Suvor based on the adjective suvory, an equivalent of surovy, which means "severe" in Russian. Baskakov also pointed to the fact that the Suvorovs' family coat of arms lacks any Swedish symbols, implying its Russian origins. Among the first of those who pointed to the Russian origin of the name were Empress Catherine II, who noted in a letter to Johann von Zimmerman in 1790: "It is beyond doubt that the name of the Suvorovs has long been noble, is Russian from time immemorial and resides in Russia", and Count Semyon Vorontsov in 1811, a person familiar with the Suvorovs. Their views were supported by later historians: it was estimated that by 1699 there were at least 19 Russian landlord families of the same name in Russia, not counting their namesakes of lower status, and they all could not descend from a single foreigner who arrived only in 1622. Moreover, genealogy studies indicated a Russian landowner named Suvor mentioned under the year 1498, whereas documents of the 16th century mention Vasily and Savely Suvorovs, with the last of them being a proven ancestor of General Alexander Suvorov. The Swedish version of Suvorov's genealogy had been debunked in the Genealogical book of Russian nobility by V. Rummel and V. Golubtsov (1887) tracing Suvorov's ancestors from the 17th-century Tver gentry. In 1756 Alexander Suvorov's first cousin, Sergey Ivanovich Suvorov, in his statement of background (skazka) for his son said that he did not have any proof of nobility; he started his genealogy from his great-grandfather, Grigory Ivanovich Suvorov, who 'served as a dvorovoy boyar scion at Kashin. Another origin theory is that Suvorov was of partial Armenian descent. As a boy, Suvorov was a sickly child and his father assumed he would work in civil service as an adult. However, he proved to be an excellent learner, avidly studying mathematics, literature, philosophy, and geography, learning to read French, German, Polish, and Italian, and with his father's vast library devoted himself to intense study of military history, strategy, tactics, and several military authors including Plutarch, Quintus Curtius, Cornelius Nepos, Julius Caesar, and Charles XII. This also helped him develop a good understanding of engineering, siege warfare, artillery, and fortification. He tried to overcome his physical ailments through rigorous exercise and exposure to hardship. His father, however, insisted that he was not fit for the military. When Alexander was 12, General Gannibal, who lived in the neighborhood, overheard his father complaining about Alexander and asked to speak to the child. Gannibal was so impressed with the boy that he persuaded the father to allow him to pursue the career of his choice. Suvorov entered the army in 1748 and served in the Semyonovsky Life Guard Regiment for six years. During this period he continued his studies attending classes at Cadet Corps of Land Forces. He gained his first battle experience fighting against the Prussians during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). After repeatedly distinguishing himself in battle Suvorov became a colonel in 1762, aged around 33. Suvorov next served in Poland during the Confederation of Bar, dispersed the Polish forces under Pu?aski, and captured Kraków (1768), paving the way for the first partition of Poland between Austria, Prussia and Russia, and reached the rank of major-general. The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 saw his first successful campaigns against the Turks in 1773-1774, and particularly in the Battle of Kozluca, he laid the foundations of his reputation, becoming a lieutenant-general in 1774. His later earned victories against the Ottomans bolstered the morale of his soldiers who were usually outnumbered. His astuteness in war was uncanny and he also proved a self-willed subordinate who acted upon his own initiative. For "unauthorized actions against the Turks," Suvorov was tried and sentenced to death but Tsarina Catherine the Great refused to uphold the verdict, proclaiming "winners can't be judged." In 1774, Suvorov was dispatched to suppress the rebellion of Pugachev, who claimed to be the assassinated Tsar Peter III, but arrived at the scene only in time to conduct the first interrogation of the rebel leader, who had been betrayed by his fellow Cossacks and was eventually beheaded in Moscow. The next year, he married into the influential Golitsyn family. Battles against the Ottoman Empire From 1774 to 1786, Suvorov served in the Kuban, the Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland, and Russia itself. He became General of the Infantry in 1786, upon completion of his tour of duty in the Caucasus. In 1778, he prevented a Turkish landing in the Crimea, thwarting another Russo-Turkish war. He commanded the Russian troops in the Crimea from 1782 to 1784. In 1783 he suppressed the Kuban Nogai Uprising. On behalf of Empress Catherine II, he organized the resettlement of Armenian migrants displaced from Crimea and gave them permission to establish a new city, named Nor Nakhichevan by the Armenians. From 1787 to 1791 he again fought the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 and won many victories; he was wounded twice at Kinburn (1787), took part in the siege of Ochakov, and in 1789 won two great victories at Foc?ani and by the river Rymnik, where a Russo-Austrian force of 25,000 routed 100,000 Turks within a few hours, losing only 500 men in the process. In both these battles an Austrian corps under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg participated, but at the battle of Rymnik, Suvorov was in command of the whole allied forces. For the latter victory, Catherine the Great made Suvorov a count with the name "Rymniksky" in addition to his own name, and the Emperor Joseph II made him a count of the Holy Roman Empire. Suvorov led the Siege of Izmail in Bessarabia on 22 December 1790. His capture of the reputedly unconquerable fortress played a vital role in Russia's victory in the war. Turkish forces inside the fortress had the orders to stand their ground to the end and haughtily declined the Russian ultimatum. Their defeat was seen as a major catastrophe in the Ottoman empire. An unofficial Russian national anthem in the late 18th and early 19th centuries "Grom pobedy, razdavaysya!" (Let the thunder of victory sound!) commemorates Suvorov's victory and 24 December is today commemorated as a Day of Military Honour in Russia. Suvorov announced the capture of Ismail in 1791 to the Empress Catherine in a doggerel couplet. Battles against Polish uprising Immediately after the peace with the Ottoman Empire was signed, Suvorov was again transferred to Poland, where he assumed the command of one of the corps and took part in the Battle of Maciejowice, in which he captured the Polish commander-in-chief Tadeusz Ko?ciuszko. On November 4, 1794, Suvorov's forces stormed Warsaw and captured Praga, one of its boroughs. The decisive Battle of Praga broke the spirits of the defenders and soon put an end to the Ko?ciuszko Uprising. Though Suvorov ordered his men to spare non-combatants and the evacuation of townspeople, as he did before, after the battle spread to the streets and the insurgents hid in civilian houses, vowing to fight to the last man, many civilians died along with the rebels or were massacred in revenge for the slaughter of the Russian Garrison in Warsaw, when two thousand Russian military servicemen stationed in Warsaw were massacred by Polish soldiers and armed mobs, who played a major role in the attack, and cut with spikes and axes. In Praga, 9,000 rebels and 7,000 civilians or up to 20,000 rebels and civilians died. Despite the rage of his troops, however, thousands of Poles were taken alive and most of those captured in Praga were soon released by Suvorov: 10,000 out of 12,860. Similar figures appear in the writings of Major General Lev Engelgardt, who served under Suvorov: 14,680 captured, of whom 8,000 were released the next day. The practice of releasing thousands of Polish prisoners of war by Suvorov shortly after the battle is confirmed by a letter of State Secretary Dmitry Troschinsky to Count Alexander Vorontsov on 24 November 1794, "Count Suvorov has rendered great services by taking Warsaw, but is unbearably annoying with his inconsistent orders there. All Poles in general, not excluding the main rioters, are being released by him to their homes". The fact that thousands of Poles were taken alive and released soon afterwards on the orders of Suvorov is also evident in other documents, such as the report sent by Suvorov to Count Pyotr Rumyantsev on 7 November, regarding the fate of some of the captives, "Polish Praga prisoners with 3 generals, staff and ober-officers, up to 500, and lower ranks, up to 4,000, as well as the artillery that got in our hands, 101 guns, today will be sent to Varkovic at Kiev. Out of the captured insurgents and defending townspeople, more than 6,000 have been released". 500 captured Polish staff and ober-officers were released by Suvorov en route to Kiev, as is confirmed by the autobiography of Major General Sergey I. Mosolov, who escorted them in 1794. After the victory, Suvorov sent a report to his sovereign consisting of only three words: "Hurrah, Warsaw's ours!" (Ура, Варшава наша!). Catherine replied in two words: "Hurrah, Field-Marshal!" (rus. Ура, фельдмаршал!—that is, awarding him this title). Suvorov remained in Poland until 1795, when he returned to Saint Petersburg. But his sovereign and friend Catherine II died in 1796, and her son and successor Paul I dismissed Suvorov in disgrace. As in Praga, Suvorov soon released most of his Polish captives, numbering 25,469, which caused a critical remark from the Russian State Secretary, and in his report to Catherine II recommended not to levy a contribution on the Polish capital. To prevent any further excesses, Suvorov ordered his troops stationed in Poland to keep "serenity, quietness and friendliness" and prohibited them, under the threat of punishment, from oppressing the local population or even showing any forms of disrespect towards the Polish people of all ranks. Suvorov's Italian campaign Main article: Italian and Swiss expedition Suvorov remained a close confidant of Catherine, but he had a negative relationship with her son and heir apparent Paul. As a prince, Paul became fanatically interested in the flashy but dysfunctional uniforms, parades, drills, and common corporal punishments of the Prussian Army. He even had his own regiment of Russian soldiers whom he dressed up in Prussian-style uniforms and paraded around. Suvorov was strongly opposed to these uniforms and had fought hard for Catherine to get rid of similar uniforms that were used by Russians up until 1784. When Catherine died of a stroke in 1796, Paul I was crowned Emperor and brought back these outdated uniforms. Suvorov was not happy with this and disregarded Paul's orders to train new soldiers in this Prussian manner, which he considered cruel and useless. Paul was infuriated and dismissed Suvorov, exiling him to his estate Konchanskoye near Borovichi and kept under surveillance. His correspondence with his wife, who had remained at Moscow for his marriage relations had not been happy, was also tampered with. It is recorded that on Sundays he tolled the bell for church and sang among the rustics in the village choir. On week days he worked among them in a smock-frock. In February 1799, Paul I, worried about the victories of France in Europe during the French Revolutionary Wars and at the insistence of the coalition leaders, was forced to reinstate Suvorov as field marshal. Suvorov was given command of the Austro-Russian army and sent to drive France's forces out of Italy. Suvorov and Napoleon never met in battle because Napoleon was campaigning in Egypt at the time. However, Suvorov erased practically all of the gains Napoleon had made for France during 1796 and 1797, defeating some of the republic's top generals: Moreau at Cassano d'Adda, MacDonald at Trebbia, and Joubert at Novi. He went on to capture Milan and became a hero to those opposed to the French Revolution. French troops were driven from Italy, save for a handful in the Maritime Alps and around Genoa. Suvorov himself gained the rank of "Prince of the House of Savoy" from the King of Sardinia. After the victorious Italian theater, Suvorov planned to march on Paris, but instead was ordered to Switzerland to join up with the Russian forces already there and drive the French out. The Russian army under General Korsakov was defeated by Massena at Zürich before Suvorov could reach and unite with them. Surrounded by Massena's 80,000 French troops, Suvorov with a force of 18,000 Russian regulars and 5,000 Cossacks, exhausted and short of provisions, led a strategic withdrawal from the Alps while fighting off the French. His host hoped to make its way over the Swiss passes to the Upper Rhine and arrive at Vorarlberg, where the army, much shattered and almost destitute of horses and artillery, went into winter quarters. When Suvorov battled his way through the snow-capped Alps his army was checked but never defeated. Suvorov refused to call it a retreat and commenced a trek through the deep snows of Panix Pass and into the 9,000-foot mountains of the Bündner Oberland, by then deep in snow. Thousands of Russians slipped from the cliffs or succumbed to cold and hunger, eventually escaping encirclement and reached Chur on the Rhine, with the bulk of his army intact at 16,000 men. For this marvel of strategic retreat, earning him the nickname of the Russian Hannibal, Suvorov became the fourth Generalissimo of Russia. He was officially promised a military triumph in Russia, but Emperor Paul cancelled the ceremony and recalled the Russian armies from Europe. Early in 1800, Suvorov returned to Saint Petersburg. Paul refused to give him an audience, and, worn out and ill, the old veteran died a few days afterwards on 18 May 1800, at Saint Petersburg. Suvorov was meant to receive the funeral honors of a Generalissimo, but was buried as an ordinary field marshal due to Paul's direct interference. Lord Whitworth, the British ambassador, and the poet Gavrila Derzhavin were the only persons of distinction present at the funeral. Suvorov lies buried in the Church of the Annunciation in the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, the simple inscription on his grave stating, according to his own direction, "Here lies Suvorov." Progeny and titles Suvorov's full name and titles (according to Russian pronunciation), ranks and awards are the following: "Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Suvorov, Prince of Italy, Count of Rymnik, Count of the Holy Roman Empire, Prince of Sardinia, Generalissimo of Russia's Ground and Naval forces, Field Marshal of the Austrian and Sardinian armies". Seriously wounded six times, he was the recipient of the Order of St. Andrew, the Apostle First Called, Order of St. George the Bringer of Victory First Class, Order of St. Vladimir First Class, Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, Order of St. Anna First Class, Grand Cross of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, (Austria) Order of Maria Teresa First Class, (Prussia) Order of the Black Eagle, Order of the Red Eagle, the Pour le Merite, (Sardinia) Order of the Revered Saints Maurice and Lazarus, (Bavaria) Order of St. Gubert, the Golden Lioness, (France) United Orders of the Carmelite Virgin Mary and St. Lazarus (on 20. April 1800), (Poland) Order of the White Eagle, the Order of Saint Stanislaus. Suvorov was married to Varvara Ivanovna Prozorovskaya of the Golitsyn family and had a son and daughter, but his family life was not happy and he had an unpleasant relationship with his wife due to her infidelity. Suvorov's son, Arkadi Suvorov (1783-1811) served as a general officer in the Russian army during the Napoleonic and Turkish wars of the early 19th century, and drowned in the same river Rymnik in 1811 that had brought his father so much fame. The drowning of his son in the river is supported by Aleksey Yermolov's memoirs, as well as by the military historian Christopher Duffy. His grandson Alexander Arkadievich (1804-1882) served as Governor General of Riga in 1848-61 and Saint Petersburg in 1861-66. Suvorov's daughter Natalia Alexandrovna (1775-1844) known under her name Suvorochka married Count Nikolay Zubov. Assessment Russians have long cherished the memory of Suvorov as a great general. While on a campaign, he reportedly lived as a private soldier, sleeping on straw and contenting himself with the humblest fare. Suvorov considered victory dependent on the morale, training, and initiative of the front-line soldier. In battle he emphasized speed and mobility, accuracy of gunfire and the use of the bayonet, as well as detailed planning and careful strategy. He abandoned traditional drills, and communicated with his troops in clear and understandable ways. Suvorov also took great care of his army's supplies and living conditions, reducing cases of illness among his soldiers dramatically, and earning their loyalty and affection. He was seriously wounded six times in his military career. Suvorov's guiding principle was to detect the weakest point of an enemy and focus an attack upon that area. He would send forth his units in small groups as they arrived on the battlefield in order to sustain momentum. Suvorov utilized aimed fire instead of repeated barrages from line infantry and applied light infantrymen as skirmishers and sharpshooters. He used a variety of army sizes and types of formations against different foes: squares against the Turks, lines against Poles, and columns against the French. According to D.S. Mirsky, Suvorov "gave much attention to the form of his correspondence, and especially of his orders of the day. These latter are highly original, deliberately aiming at unexpected and striking effects. Their style is a succession of nervous staccato sentences, which produce the effect of blow and flashes. Suvorov's official reports often assume a memorable and striking form. His writings are as different from the common run of classical prose as his tactics were from those of Frederick or Marlborough." Mikhail Ivanovich Dragomirov (1830-1905) declared that he based his teaching on Suvorov's practice, which he held as representative of the fundamental truths of war and of the military qualities of the Russian nation. Suvorov considered Hannibal, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and Napoleon Bonaparte to be the greatest military commanders of all time. His high regard for Napoleon is interesting because he did not live to see the Napoleonic Wars. Suvorov is often compared to Napoleon, whom he was on opposing sides of during the late French Revolutionary Wars and desired to face in battle, but never did so because Napoleon was campaigning in Egypt while Suvorov was campaigning in Italy. Military historians often debate between Suvorov and Napoleon as to who was the superior commander. His political views were centered around enlightened monarchy. However, Suvorov had no interest in pursuing politics and made his disdain for the court lifestyle and tendencies of aristocrats well known: he lacked diplomacy in his dispatches, and his sarcasm triggered enmity among some courtiers. Legacy Suvorov was buried in Saint Petersburg in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. His grave stone states simply: "Here lies Suvorov". Within a year after his death, Paul I was murdered in his bedroom for his disastrous leadership by a band of dismissed officers and his son and successor Alexander I erected a statue to Suvorov's memory in the Field of Mars. He was famed for his military writings, the most well-known being The Science of Victory and Suzdal Regulations, and lesser-known works such as Rules for the Kuban and Crimean Corps, Rules for the Conduct of Military Actions in the Mountains (written during his Swiss campaign), and Rules for the Medical Officers. Suvorov was also noted for several of his sayings, including "What is difficult in training will become easy in a battle," "The bullet is a mad thing; only the bayonet knows what it is about," and "Perish yourself but rescue your comrade!" He taught his soldiers to attack instantly and decisively: "Attack with the cold steel! Push hard with the bayonet!" He joked with the men, calling common soldiers "brother," and shrewdly presented the results of detailed planning and careful strategy as the work of inspiration. A "Suvorov school" of generals who had apprenticed under him played a prominent role in the Russian military. Among them was future Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov who led the Imperial Russian Army against Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, including the French invasion of Russia. The Suvorov Museum opened in Saint Petersburg in 1900 to commemorate the centenary of the general's death. Apart from in St. Petersburg, other Suvorov monuments have feature in Foc?ani, Ochakov (1907), Sevastopol, Izmail, Tulchin, Kobrin, Novaya Ladoga, Kherson, Timanovka, Simferopol, Kaliningrad, Konchanskoye, Rymnik, Elm, Switzerland and in the Swiss Alps. During World War II, the Soviet Union revived the memory of many pre-1917 heroes in order to raise patriotism. Suvorov was the Tsarist military figure most often referred to by Joseph Stalin, who also adopted the rank of Generalissimo that Suvorov had previously held. The Order of Suvorov was established by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet on 29 July 1942 and is awarded to senior army personnel for exceptional leadership in combat operations against superior enemy forces. The town of Suvorovo in Varna Province, Bulgaria, was named after Suvorov, as was the Russian ship which discovered Suwarrow Island in the Pacific in 1814. Various currency notes of the Transnistrian ruble depict Suvorov. There is a Square in Tiraspol, Transnistria named after Suvorov, and another in Saint Petersburg. His prowess, military wisdom, and daring remain in high regard. Another of his many utterances, "Achieve victory not by numbers, but by knowing how" and "Train hard, fight easy. Train easy and you will have hard fighting" are well known in the Russian military. "Train hard, fight easy" became a Russian proverb. A bust of the Generalissimo is prominently displayed in the office of the Russian Minister of Defense. In Russia, there are 12 secondary-level military schools called Suvorov Military School that were established during the USSR. There is also a military school in Minsk named after Suvorov. Due to decommunization policies the street named after Suvorov in (Ukraine's capital) Kyiv was renamed after Mykhailo Omelianovych-Pavlenko in 2016. Literary references Poet Alexander Shishkov devoted an epitaph to Suvorov, while Gavrila Derzhavin mentioned him in Snigir (Bullfinch) and other poems, calling Suvorov "an Alexander by military prowess, a stoic by valor". Suvorov was mentioned by Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lermontov and in the numerous works of other Russian poets of the 18th and 19th centuries, such as Ivan Dmitriev, Apollon Maykov, Dmitry Khvostov, Kondraty Ryleyev, Vasili Popugaev. In 1795 poet and soldier Irinarkh Zavalishin , who had fought under the command of Alexander Suvorov, wrote a heroic poem titled "Suvoriada", celebrating Suvorov's victories. Suvorov is one of the characters in the drama "Antonio Gamba, Companion of Suvorov in the Alpine Mountains" by Sergey Glinka which commemorates the Swiss expedition of 1799. In British literature, Byron caricatured Suvorov in the seventh canto of Don Juan. In Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace, old Prince Nicholas Bolkonski says: "Suvorov couldn't manage them so what chance has Michael Kutuzov?" Tolstoy also refers to Suvorov later on in the book. Suvorov is also mentioned by Capt. Ryków in Adam Mickiewicz's poem Pan Tadeusz. Battles/wars Seven Years' War Siege of Olomouc Battle of Kunersdorf Raid on Berlin Siege of Kolberg War of the Bar Confederation Battle of Lanckorona Battle of Sto?owicze First Russo-Turkish War Battle of Kozludzha Kuban Nogai Uprising Second Russo-Turkish War Battle of Kinburn Siege of Ochakov Battle of Foc?ani Battle of Rymnik Siege of Izmail Ko?ciuszko Uprising Battle of Brest Battle of Maciejowice Battle of Praga War of the Second Coalition First Battle of Marengo Battle of Trebbia Battle of Novi Battle of Cassano Suvorov's Swiss expedition Battle of Gotthard Pass Awards Order of St. Andrew Order of St. George Order of St. Vladimir Order of St. Alexander Nevsky Order of St. Anna Order of the Black Eagle Order of the Red Eagle Order of the White Eagle Order of Sts. Maurice and Lazarus Order of St. John of Jerusalem Order of St. Hubert Order of St. Stanislaus Military Order of Maria Theresa Pour le Merite Name: Platov Biography: Matvei Platov (8 (19) August 1753 - 3 (15) January 1818) Position: General of Cavalry Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: general Count Matvei Ivanovich Platov was a Russian general who commanded the Don Cossacks in the Napoleonic wars and founded Novocherkassk as the new capital of the Don Host Province. Biography Platov was born in Pribilyanskoe and began his service in the Don Cossacks in 1766 becoming an yesaul in 1769. He distinguished himself in the 1771 Crimean campaign and was promoted to the command of a Cossack regiment in 1772. Between 1774 and 1784 he fought against the Crimean Tatars, in 1774 and again in 1782 serving under Alexander Suvorov in the Kuban Valley, Chechnya and Dagestan. In 1790 he was awarded the Order of St George (4th Class) for his participation in the capture of Ochakov, and after actions in Akkerman, Bender, and Kaushani for which he was promoted to brigadier general, he was awarded the Order of St George (3rd Class) for the storming of Izmail. For his bravery during the assault he was promoted to ataman of the Ekaterinoslav and Chuguev Cossacks, and on 12 January 1793 he was promoted to major-general. During 1796 he was awarded the Order of St. Vladimir (3rd class) and a golden sword for courage in the Persian Campaign. Disgraced by the Emperor Paul I of Russia as a result of rumours spread by the emperor's courtiers, he was exiled to Kostroma, but later confined to the Peter and Paul Fortress. However, after verifying his innocence, the Emperor awarded him the Commander's Cross of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. Unfortunately, this also led to his appointment to the ill-fated and ill-conceived Russian expedition to India in 1800. Although the expedition only reached Orenburg, Platov was promoted to Lieutenant-General and pokhidnii ataman (campaign leader) of the Don Cossacks with a transfer to their HQ at Novocherkask. Upon Alexander I's accession to the throne, he was appointed ataman of the Don Cossacks. In 1805, he ordered the Cossack capital to be moved from Starocherkassk to a new location, known as Novocherkassk. During the Polish campaign of 1806-1807, Platov commanded a Cossack corps and fought against the French at the battles of Eylau, Guttstadt and Friedland, receiving the orders of St.George (2nd class), of St. Alexander Nevsky, and the Prussian orders of the Black Eagle and of the Red Eagle. In 1808-1809, he was active against the Turks in the Danube valley, including at the Battle of Silistra, receiving for it the Order of St.Vladimir (1st class). On 11 October 1809 Platov was promoted to General of Cavalry. Soon after the end of the campaign he returned to the Don Host and continued the reorganisation of the local Cossack administration. In 1812, Platov supported General Bagration's 2nd Western Army with a Cossack corps at the Korelichi engagement, at Mir and at Romanovo, providing the rear guard during their retreat towards Mogilyov. During the Russian counter-attack at Smolensk Platov fought at Molevo Boloto. At the Battle of Borodino he, together with General of Cavalry Fyodor Ushakov, conducted a manoeuver against the French left (northern) flank, but failed to effectively threaten the French, resulting in Platov not receiving a decoration for the battle although ironically it was later disclosed that this raid had a dramatic effect on Napoleon, causing him to hold back the French Imperial Guard. He hounded the French during their retreat from Moscow in 1812, (for which he received the title of Count of the Russian Empire), and again after their defeat at the Battle of Leipzig 1813 in Saxony (see Battle of Altenberg, 28 September 1813). Platov later accompanied emperor Alexander to London where he was awarded a golden sword and an honorary degree by the University of Oxford. A full-length portrait was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence for the Waterloo Chamber created at Windsor Castle by George IV, then Prince Regent. Platov then settled in the Cossack capital of Novocherkassk where he established a school and was head of the local administration. He is buried in the Novocherkassk Cathedral. He died, aged 67, in Epanchitskoe (near Taganrog). The first monument to Platov, which existed from 1853 to 1923 in Novocherkassk, was replicated there in 1993. There are also equestrian monuments to him in Novocherkassk, Rostov-on-Don and Moscow. Gavrila Derzhavin dedicated the last of his odes to Platov's exploits. In Leskov's Levsha (1881), Don Cossack Platov is a prominent figure, even though his portrayal in that folk-styled tale is full of anachronisms. An international airport that serves Rostov-on-Don and opened in 2017 was named after Platov. From May 1813 to the present, at least 18 ships have been named after ataman of the Don Army M.I. Platov (see list of ships named Platov or Platoff). He was a son of a cossack starshina (foreman) and began his military service in a very young age. In 1772 he commanded a regiment and took part in the Russian-Turkish wars of 1769-1774 and 1787-1791. He distinguished himself in the operation at Kaushany and after in the battle at the river Kalalakh. For his merits in the assault of the Turkish fortress Izmail he was promoted to the rank of Major-General. In 1795 he was appointed a field ataman of cossacks and took part in the war against Persia. But in 1797 he was dismissed from the military service by an information against him, exiled to Kostroma and after it put into the Petropavloskaya Fortress. In January of 1801 he was appointed by Pavel the I-st to command the cossack troops in the march to India, that was planned by Pavel, but after the murder of Pavel the I-st, new Emperor Alexander the I-st abolished this march in March of the same year. Till 1806 Platov was occupied in main with economical matters of the Don Cossack Troops and with training of cossacks. Platov took part in the campaigns of 1806-1807 (Eylau, Friedland), after these battles he commanded the advanced cavalry detachments. In 1808-1809 he took part in the Russian-Turkish war, he commanded a corps and captured Gyrsovo. In 1809 he was promoted to the rank of General of Cavalry. In the war of 1812 he commanded all Cossack Troops and successfully covered the retreat of the Russian Army to Moscow. From the beginning of this war the Second Army of P.I.Bargation was in the hardest condition. It was pursued by the outnumbered French troops. Bagration ordered Platov and his cossacks to cover the retreat of his army and to defend the small town of Mir. On July,9, 1812 there was a hard battle between cossacks and the Polish uhlans of Rozhnetski. The cossacks used their favourite method - "venter", when they retreated at first and entrapped the enemies and then suddenly surrounded them. Platov pushed forward a piquet on the way to Mir in a forest, hid two hundreds of cossacks in a forest nearby. In the town there was only the regiment of V.A.Sysoev, and the other seven regiments we hidden in a castle and in a grove. The enemy van-guard overran the cossack piquet and bursted into Mir, but it was forced out by Sysoev's regiment. The uhlans charged again, but at this time they were attacked by the cossacks hidden in the grove. The Uhlans began to retreat, but two hundreds of cossacks blocked their way. This moment you can see in the picture above. Platov's success gave Bagration an opportunity to continue the march of his army to Bobruisk. In the Borodino battle he together with the Corps of F.Uvarov made a raid to the rear of the French Army. During the retreat of Napoleon's Army he acted very actively and fought successfull at Gorodnya, the Kolotsk Monastery, Gzhatsk, Smolensk and Dubrovna. Platov took part in the campaigns of 1813 - 1814 . He with his cossaks participated in the blockade of Danzig, after it he commanded a Corps and took part in the battle at Leipzig. In 1814 he captured Namur. After the war in 1814 he visited England, and there a state reception of him was given. In London he was presented a precious sabre, in Oxford he was given a honorary diploma of a Doctor; and also one of the new ships was named after him. In the last years of his life he lived in Novocherkassk, where after his death a monument to him was erected. Name: Gauss Biography: Carl Friedrich Gauss( 30 April 1777 - 23 February 1855) Alma mater:Collegium Carolinum,University of G?ttingen,University of Helmstedt Awards:Lalande Prize (1809),Copley Medal (1838) Fields:Mathematics and sciences Institutions:University of G?ttingen Gauss supported the monarchy and opposed Napoleon, whom he saw as an outgrowth of revolution. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and science. Sometimes referred to as the Princeps mathematicorum (Latin for '"the foremost of mathematicians"') and "the greatest mathematician since antiquity", Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science, and is ranked among history's most influential mathematicians. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in Brunswick (Braunschweig), in the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (now part of Lower Saxony, Germany), to poor, working-class parents. His mother was illiterate and never recorded the date of his birth, remembering only that he had been born on a Wednesday, eight days before the Feast of the Ascension (which occurs 39 days after Easter). Gauss later solved this puzzle about his birthdate in the context of finding the date of Easter, deriving methods to compute the date in both past and future years. He was christened and confirmed in a church near the school he attended as a child. Gauss was a child prodigy. In his memorial on Gauss, Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen wrote that when Gauss was barely three years old he corrected a math error his father made; and that when he was seven, solved an arithmetic series problem faster than anyone else in his class of 100 pupils. There are many versions of this story, with various details regarding the nature of the series - the most frequent being the classical problem of adding together all the integers from 1 to 100. (See also under "Anecdotes" below.) There are many other anecdotes about his precocity while a toddler, and he made his first groundbreaking mathematical discoveries while still a teenager. He completed his magnum opus, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, in 1798, at the age of 21—though it was not published until 1801. This work was fundamental in consolidating number theory as a discipline and has shaped the field to the present day. Gauss's intellectual abilities attracted the attention of the Duke of Brunswick, who sent him to the Collegium Carolinum (now Braunschweig University of Technology), which he attended from 1792 to 1795, and to the University of G?ttingen from 1795 to 1798. While at university, Gauss independently rediscovered several important theorems. His breakthrough occurred in 1796 when he showed that a regular polygon can be constructed by compass and straightedge if the number of its sides is the product of distinct Fermat primes and a power of 2. This was a major discovery in an important field of mathematics; construction problems had occupied mathematicians since the days of the Ancient Greeks, and the discovery ultimately led Gauss to choose mathematics instead of philology as a career. Gauss was so pleased with this result that he requested that a regular heptadecagon be inscribed on his tombstone. The stonemason declined, stating that the difficult construction would essentially look like a circle. The year 1796 was productive for both Gauss and number theory. He discovered a construction of the heptadecagon on 30 March. He further advanced modular arithmetic, greatly simplifying manipulations in number theory. On 8 April he became the first to prove the quadratic reciprocity law. This remarkably general law allows mathematicians to determine the solvability of any quadratic equation in modular arithmetic. The prime number theorem, conjectured on 31 May, gives a good understanding of how the prime numbers are distributed among the integers. Gauss also discovered that every positive integer is representable as a sum of at most three triangular numbers on 10 July and then jotted down in his diary the note: "ΕΥΡΗΚΑ! num = Δ + Δ + Δ". On 1 October he published a result on the number of solutions of polynomials with coefficients in finite fields, which 150 years later led to the Weil conjectures. Later years and death Gauss remained mentally active into his old age, even while suffering from gout and general unhappiness. For example, at the age of 62, he taught himself Russian. In 1840, Gauss published his influential Dioptrische Untersuchungen, in which he gave the first systematic analysis on the formation of images under a paraxial approximation (Gaussian optics). Among his results, Gauss showed that under a paraxial approximation an optical system can be characterized by its cardinal points and he derived the Gaussian lens formula. In 1845, he became an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands; when that became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851, he joined as a foreign member. In 1854, Gauss selected the topic for Bernhard Riemann's inaugural lecture "über die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen" (About the hypotheses that underlie Geometry). On the way home from Riemann's lecture, Weber reported that Gauss was full of praise and excitement. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1853. On 23 February 1855, Gauss died of a heart attack in G?ttingen (then Kingdom of Hanover and now Lower Saxony); he is interred in the Albani Cemetery there. Two people gave eulogies at his funeral: Gauss's son-in-law Heinrich Ewald, and Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen, who was Gauss's close friend and biographer. Gauss's brain was preserved and was studied by Rudolf Wagner, who found its mass to be slightly above average, at 1,492 grams, and the cerebral area equal to 219,588 square millimeters (340.362 square inches). Highly developed convolutions were also found, which in the early 20th century were suggested as the explanation of his genius. Religious views Gauss was a Lutheran Protestant, a member of the St. Albans Evangelical Lutheran church in G?ttingen. Potential evidence that Gauss believed in God comes from his response after solving a problem that had previously defeated him: "Finally, two days ago, I succeeded—not on account of my hard efforts, but by the grace of the Lord." One of his biographers, G. Waldo Dunnington, described Gauss's religious views as follows: For him science was the means of exposing the immortal nucleus of the human soul. In the days of his full strength, it furnished him recreation and, by the prospects which it opened up to him, gave consolation. Toward the end of his life, it brought him confidence. Gauss's God was not a cold and distant figment of metaphysics, nor a distorted caricature of embittered theology. To man is not vouchsafed that fullness of knowledge which would warrant his arrogantly holding that his blurred vision is the full light and that there can be none other which might report the truth as does his. For Gauss, not he who mumbles his creed, but he who lives it, is accepted. He believed that a life worthily spent here on earth is the best, the only, preparation for heaven. Religion is not a question of literature, but of life. God's revelation is continuous, not contained in tablets of stone or sacred parchment. A book is inspired when it inspires. The unshakeable idea of personal continuance after death, the firm belief in a last regulator of things, in an eternal, just, omniscient, omnipotent God, formed the basis of his religious life, which harmonized completely with his scientific research. Apart from his correspondence, there are not many known details about Gauss's personal creed. Many biographers of Gauss disagree about his religious stance, with Bühler and others considering him a deist with very unorthodox views, while Dunnington (admitting that Gauss did not believe literally in all Christian dogmas and that it is unknown what he believed on most doctrinal and confessional questions) points out that he was, at least, a nominal Lutheran. In connection to this, there is a record of a conversation between Rudolf Wagner and Gauss, in which they discussed William Whewell's book Of the Plurality of Worlds. In this work, Whewell had discarded the possibility of existing life in other planets, on the basis of theological arguments, but this was a position with which both Wagner and Gauss disagreed. Later Wagner explained that he did not fully believe in the Bible, though he confessed that he "envied" those who were able to easily believe. This later led them to discuss the topic of faith, and in some other religious remarks, Gauss said that he had been more influenced by theologians like Lutheran minister Paul Gerhardt than by Moses. Other religious influences included Wilhelm Braubach, Johann Peter Süssmilch, and the New Testament. Two religious works which Gauss read frequently were Braubach's Seelenlehre (Giessen, 1843) and Süssmilch's Gottliche (Ordnung gerettet A756); he also devoted considerable time to the New Testament in the original Greek. Dunnington further elaborates on Gauss's religious views by writing: Gauss's religious consciousness was based on an insatiable thirst for truth and a deep feeling of justice extending to intellectual as well as material goods. He conceived spiritual life in the whole universe as a great system of law penetrated by eternal truth, and from this source he gained the firm confidence that death does not end all. Gauss declared he firmly believed in the afterlife, and saw spirituality as something essentially important for human beings. He was quoted stating: "The world would be nonsense, the whole creation an absurdity without immortality." Though he was not a church-goer, Gauss strongly upheld religious tolerance, believing "that one is not justified in disturbing another's religious belief, in which they find consolation for earthly sorrows in time of trouble." When his son Eugene announced that he wanted to become a Christian missionary, Gauss approved of this, saying that regardless of the problems within religious organizations, missionary work was "a highly honorable" task. On 9 October 1805, Gauss married Johanna Osthoff (1780-1809), and had two sons and a daughter with her. Johanna died on 11 October 1809, and her youngest child, Louis, died the following year. Gauss plunged into a depression from which he never fully recovered. He then married Minna Waldeck (1788-1831) on 4 August 1810, and had three more children. Gauss was never quite the same without his first wife, and just like his father, grew to dominate his children. Minna Waldeck died on 12 September 1831. Gauss had six children. With Johanna (1780-1809), his children were Joseph (1806-1873), Wilhelmina (1808-1846) and Louis (1809-1810). With Minna Waldeck he also had three children: Eugene (1811-1896), Wilhelm (1813-1879) and Therese (1816-1864). Eugene shared a good measure of Gauss's talent in languages and computation. After his second wife's death in 1831 Therese took over the household and cared for Gauss for the rest of his life. His mother lived in his house from 1817 until her death in 1839. Gauss eventually had conflicts with his sons. He did not want any of his sons to enter mathematics or science for "fear of lowering the family name", as he believed none of them would surpass his own achievements. Gauss wanted Eugene to become a lawyer, but Eugene wanted to study languages. They had an argument over a party Eugene held, for which Gauss refused to pay. The son left in anger and, in about 1832, emigrated to the United States. While working for the American Fur Company in the Midwest, he learned the Sioux language. Later, he moved to Missouri and became a successful businessman. Wilhelm also moved to America in 1837 and settled in Missouri, starting as a farmer and later becoming wealthy in the shoe business in St. Louis. It took many years for Eugene's success to counteract his reputation among Gauss's friends and colleagues. See also the letter from Robert Gauss to Felix Klein on 3 September 1912. Personality Gauss was an ardent perfectionist and a hard worker. He was never a prolific writer, refusing to publish work which he did not consider complete and above criticism. This was in keeping with his personal motto pauca sed matura ("few, but ripe"). His personal diaries indicate that he had made several important mathematical discoveries years or decades before his contemporaries published them. Scottish-American mathematician and writer Eric Temple Bell said that if Gauss had published all of his discoveries in a timely manner, he would have advanced mathematics by fifty years. Though he did take in a few students, Gauss was known to dislike teaching. It is said that he attended only a single scientific conference, which was in Berlin in 1828. Several of his students became influential mathematicians, among them Richard Dedekind and Bernhard Riemann. On Gauss's recommendation, Friedrich Bessel was awarded an honorary doctor degree from G?ttingen in March 1811. Around that time, the two men engaged in a correspondence. However, when they met in person in 1825, they quarrelled; the details are unknown. Before she died, Sophie Germain was recommended by Gauss to receive an honorary degree; she never received it. Gauss usually declined to present the intuition behind his often very elegant proofs—he preferred them to appear "out of thin air" and erased all traces of how he discovered them. This is justified, if unsatisfactorily, by Gauss in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, where he states that all analysis (i.e., the paths one traveled to reach the solution of a problem) must be suppressed for sake of brevity. Gauss summarized his views on the pursuit of knowledge in a letter to Farkas Bolyai dated 2 September 1808 as follows: It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but the act of getting there, which grants the greatest enjoyment. When I have clarified and exhausted a subject, then I turn away from it, in order to go into darkness again. The never-satisfied man is so strange; if he has completed a structure, then it is not in order to dwell in it peacefully, but in order to begin another. I imagine the world conqueror must feel thus, who, after one kingdom is scarcely conquered, stretches out his arms for others. Career and achievements Algebra In his 1799 doctorate in absentia, A new proof of the theorem that every integral rational algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree, Gauss proved the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. Mathematicians including Jean le Rond d'Alembert had produced false proofs before him, and Gauss's dissertation contains a critique of d'Alembert's work. Ironically, by today's standard, Gauss's own attempt is not acceptable, owing to the implicit use of the Jordan curve theorem. However, he subsequently produced three other proofs, the last one in 1849 being generally rigorous. His attempts clarified the concept of complex numbers considerably along the way. Gauss also made important contributions to number theory with his 1801 book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (Latin, Arithmetical Investigations), which, among other things, introduced the triple bar symbol ≡ for congruence and used it in a clean presentation of modular arithmetic, contained the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, developed the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms, stated the class number problem for them, and showed that a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) can be constructed with straightedge and compass. It appears that Gauss already knew the class number formula in 1801. In addition, he proved the following conjectured theorems: Fermat polygonal number theorem for n = 3 Fermat's last theorem for n = 5 Descartes's rule of signs Kepler conjecture for regular arrangements He also explained the pentagramma mirificum (see University of Bielefeld website) developed an algorithm for determining the date of Easter invented the Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm for calculating the discrete Fourier transforms 160 years before Cooley and Tukey Astronomy On 1 January 1801, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered the dwarf planet Ceres. Piazzi could track Ceres for only somewhat more than a month, following it for three degrees across the night sky. Then it disappeared temporarily behind the glare of the Sun. Several months later, when Ceres should have reappeared, Piazzi could not locate it: the mathematical tools of the time were not able to extrapolate a position from such a scant amount of data—three degrees represent less than 1% of the total orbit. Gauss heard about the problem and tackled it. After three months of intense work, he predicted a position for Ceres in December 1801—just about a year after its first sighting—and this turned out to be accurate within a half-degree when it was rediscovered by Franz Xaver von Zach on 31 December at Gotha, and one day later by Heinrich Olbers in Bremen. This confirmation eventually led to the classification of Ceres as minor-planet designation 1 Ceres: the first asteroid (now dwarf planet) ever discovered. Gauss's method involved determining a conic section in space, given one focus (the Sun) and the conic's intersection with three given lines (lines of sight from the Earth, which is itself moving on an ellipse, to the planet) and given the time it takes the planet to traverse the arcs determined by these lines (from which the lengths of the arcs can be calculated by Kepler's Second Law). This problem leads to an equation of the eighth degree, of which one solution, the Earth's orbit, is known. The solution sought is then separated from the remaining six based on physical conditions. In this work, Gauss used comprehensive approximation methods which he created for that purpose. One such method was the fast Fourier transform. While this method is attributed to a 1965 paper by James Cooley and John Tukey, Gauss developed it as a trigonometric interpolation method. His paper, Theoria Interpolationis Methodo Nova Tractata, was published only posthumously in Volume 3 of his collected works. This paper predates the first presentation by Joseph Fourier on the subject in 1807. Zach noted that "without the intelligent work and calculations of Doctor Gauss we might not have found Ceres again". Though Gauss had up to that point been financially supported by his stipend from the Duke, he doubted the security of this arrangement, and also did not believe pure mathematics to be important enough to deserve support. Thus he sought a position in astronomy, and in 1807 was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Director of the astronomical observatory in G?ttingen, a post he held for the remainder of his life. The discovery of Ceres led Gauss to his work on a theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 as Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum (Theory of motion of the celestial bodies moving in conic sections around the Sun). In the process, he so streamlined the cumbersome mathematics of 18th-century orbital prediction that his work remains a cornerstone of astronomical computation. It introduced the Gaussian gravitational constant, and contained an influential treatment of the method of least squares, a procedure used in all sciences to this day to minimize the impact of measurement error. Gauss proved the method under the assumption of normally distributed errors (see Gauss-Markov theorem; see also Gaussian). The method had been described earlier by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805, but Gauss claimed that he had been using it since 1794 or 1795. In the history of statistics, this disagreement is called the "priority dispute over the discovery of the method of least squares." Geodetic survey In 1818 Gauss, putting his calculation skills to practical use, carried out a geodetic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover (Gaussian land survey ), linking up with previous Danish surveys. To aid the survey, Gauss invented the heliotrope, an instrument that uses a mirror to reflect sunlight over great distances, to measure positions. In 1828, when studying differences in latitude, Gauss first defined a physical approximation for the figure of the Earth as the surface everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity (of which mean sea level makes up a part), later called the geoid. Non-Euclidean geometries Gauss also claimed to have discovered the possibility of non-Euclidean geometries but never published it. This discovery was a major paradigm shift in mathematics, as it freed mathematicians from the mistaken belief that Euclid's axioms were the only way to make geometry consistent and non-contradictory. Research on these geometries led to, among other things, Einstein's theory of general relativity, which describes the universe as non-Euclidean. His friend Farkas Wolfgang Bolyai with whom Gauss had sworn "brotherhood and the banner of truth" as a student, had tried in vain for many years to prove the parallel postulate from Euclid's other axioms of geometry. Bolyai's son, János Bolyai, discovered non-Euclidean geometry in 1829; his work was published in 1832. After seeing it, Gauss wrote to Farkas Bolyai: "To praise it would amount to praising myself. For the entire content of the work ... coincides almost exactly with my own meditations which have occupied my mind for the past thirty or thirty-five years." This unproved statement put a strain on his relationship with Bolyai who thought that Gauss was "stealing" his idea. Letters from Gauss years before 1829 reveal him obscurely discussing the problem of parallel lines. Waldo Dunnington, a biographer of Gauss, argues in Gauss, Titan of Science (1955) that Gauss was in fact in full possession of non-Euclidean geometry long before it was published by Bolyai, but that he refused to publish any of it because of his fear of controversy. Theorema Egregium The geodetic survey of Hanover, which required Gauss to spend summers traveling on horseback for a decade, fueled Gauss's interest in differential geometry and topology, fields of mathematics dealing with curves and surfaces. Among other things, he came up with the notion of Gaussian curvature. This led in 1828 to an important theorem, the Theorema Egregium (remarkable theorem), establishing an important property of the notion of curvature. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring angles and distances on the surface. That is, curvature does not depend on how the surface might be embedded in 3-dimensional space or 2-dimensional space. In 1821, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Gauss was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. Magnetism In 1831, Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber, leading to new knowledge in magnetism (including finding a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, charge, and time) and the discovery of Kirchhoff's circuit laws in electricity. It was during this time that he formulated his namesake law. They constructed the first electromechanical telegraph in 1833, which connected the observatory with the institute for physics in G?ttingen. Gauss ordered a magnetic observatory to be built in the garden of the observatory, and with Weber founded the "Magnetischer Verein" (magnetic association), which supported measurements of Earth's magnetic field in many regions of the world. He developed a method of measuring the horizontal intensity of the magnetic field which was in use well into the second half of the 20th century, and worked out the mathematical theory for separating the inner and outer (magnetospheric) sources of Earth's magnetic field. Appraisal The British mathematician Henry John Stephen Smith (1826-1883) gave the following appraisal of Gauss: If we except the great name of Newton it is probable that no mathematicians of any age or country have ever surpassed Gauss in the combination of an abundant fertility of invention with an absolute rigorousness in demonstration, which the ancient Greeks themselves might have envied. It may seem paradoxical, but it is probably nevertheless true that it is precisely the efforts after logical perfection of form which has rendered the writings of Gauss open to the charge of obscurity and unnecessary difficulty. Gauss says more than once that, for brevity, he gives only the synthesis, and suppresses the analysis of his propositions. If, on the other hand, we turn to a memoir of Euler's, there is a sort of free and luxuriant gracefulness about the whole performance, which tells of the quiet pleasure which Euler must have taken in each step of his work. It is not the least of Gauss's claims to the admiration of mathematicians, that, while fully penetrated with a sense of the vastness of the science, he exacted the utmost rigorousness in every part of it, never passed over a difficulty, as if it did not exist, and never accepted a theorem as true beyond the limits within which it could actually be demonstrated. Anecdotes There are several stories of his early genius. According to one, his gifts became very apparent at the age of three when he corrected, mentally and without fault in his calculations, an error his father had made on paper while calculating finances. Another story has it that in primary school after the young Gauss misbehaved, his teacher, J.G. Büttner, gave him a task: add a list of integers in arithmetic progression; as the story is most often told, these were the numbers from 1 to 100. The young Gauss reputedly produced the correct answer within seconds, to the astonishment of his teacher and his assistant Martin Bartels. Gauss's presumed method was to realize that pairwise addition of terms from opposite ends of the list yielded identical intermediate sums: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, and so on, for a total sum of 50 × 101 = 5050. However, the details of the story are at best uncertain (see for discussion of the original Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen source and the changes in other versions), and some authors, such as Joseph J. Rotman in his book A First Course in Abstract Algebra (2000), question whether it ever happened. He referred to mathematics as "the queen of sciences" and supposedly once espoused a belief in the necessity of immediately understanding Euler's identity as a benchmark pursuant to becoming a first-class mathematician. Commemorations Main article: List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss From 1989 through 2001, Gauss's portrait, a normal distribution curve and some prominent G?ttingen buildings were featured on the German ten-mark banknote. The reverse featured the approach for Hanover. Germany has also issued three postage stamps honoring Gauss. One (no. 725) appeared in 1955 on the hundredth anniversary of his death; two others, nos. 1246 and 1811, in 1977, the 200th anniversary of his birth. Daniel Kehlmann's 2005 novel Die Vermessung der Welt, translated into English as Measuring the World (2006), explores Gauss's life and work through a lens of historical fiction, contrasting them with those of the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt. A film version directed by Detlev Buck was released in 2012. In 2007 a bust of Gauss was placed in the Walhalla temple. The numerous things named in honor of Gauss include: The normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution, the most common bell curve in statistics The Gauss Prize, one of the highest honors in mathematics gauss, the CGS unit for magnetic field In 1929 the Polish mathematician Marian Rejewski, who helped to solve the German Enigma cipher machine in December 1932, began studying actuarial statistics at G?ttingen. At the request of his Poznań University professor, Zdzis?aw Krygowski, on arriving at G?ttingen Rejewski laid flowers on Gauss's grave. On 30 April 2018, Google honoured Gauss in his would-be 241st birthday with a Google Doodle showcased in Europe, Russia, Israel, Japan, Taiwan, parts of Southern and Central America and the United States. Carl Friedrich Gauss, who also introduced the so-called Gaussian logarithms, sometimes gets confused with Friedrich Gustav Gauss (1829-1915), a German geologist, who also published some well-known logarithm tables used up into the early 1980s. Name: William III Biography: Frederick William III of Prussia( 3 August 1770 - 7 June 1840) Position: King of Prussia, Elector of Brandenburg House:Hohenzollern Religion:Calvinist (until 1817) Prussian United (after 1817) The king was said to be extremely shy and indecisive. His actions was always so slowly, and eventually led to the total defeat of the war with France in 1806. He also served as the Elector of Brandenburg of the Holy Roman Empire until August 6, 1806, when the empire was disintegrated under French attack. He could only hide and ran to Russia to the east to seek protection from Alexander. Frederick William III (German: Friedrich Wilhelm III.; 3 August 1770 - 7 June 1840) was King of Prussia from 16 November 1797 until his death in 1840. He was concurrently Elector of Brandenburg in the Holy Roman Empire until 6 August 1806, when the Empire was dissolved. Frederick William III ruled Prussia during the difficult times of the Napoleonic Wars. Steering a careful course between France and her enemies, after a major military defeat at Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, he was humiliated by Napoleon, and Prussia was stripped of recent gains and forced to pay substantial financial penalties. The king reluctantly joined the coalition against Napoleon in the Befreiungskriege. Following Napoleon's defeat, he took part in the Congress of Vienna, which assembled to settle the political questions arising from the new, post-Napoleonic order in Europe. His primary interests were internal, the reform of Prussia's Protestant churches. He was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of Churches. The king was said to be extremely shy and indecisive. His wife Queen Louise (1776-1810) was his most important political advisor. She led a mighty group that included Baron vom Stein, Prince von Hardenberg, Scharnhorst, and Count von Gneisenau. They set about reforming Prussia's administration, churches, finance, and military. He was the common ancestor of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (through Princess Charlotte) and Kaiser Wilhelm II (through Wilhelm I). Frederick William was born in Potsdam in 1770 as the son of Frederick William II of Prussia and Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was considered to be a shy and reserved boy, which became noticeable in his particularly reticent conversations, distinguished by the lack of personal pronouns. This manner of speech subsequently came to be considered entirely appropriate for military officers. He was neglected by his father during his childhood and suffered from an inferiority complex his entire life. As a child, Frederick William's father (under the influence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, Countess of Lichtenau) had him handed over to tutors, as was quite normal for the period. He spent part of the time living at Paretz, the estate of the old soldier Count Hans von Blumenthal who was the governor of his brother Prince Heinrich. They thus grew up partly with the Count's son, who accompanied them on their Grand Tour in the 1780s. Frederick William was happy at Paretz, and for this reason, in 1795, he bought it from his boyhood friend and turned it into an important royal country retreat. He was a melancholy boy, but he grew up pious and honest. His tutors included the dramatist Johann Engel. As a soldier, he received the usual training of a Prussian prince, obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became a lieutenant colonel in 1786, a colonel in 1790, and took part in the campaigns against France of 1792-1794. On 24 December 1793, Frederick William married Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who bore him ten children. In the Kronprinzenpalais (Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin, Frederick William lived a civil life with a problem-free marriage, which did not change even when he became King of Prussia in 1797. His wife Louise was particularly loved by the Prussian people, which boosted the popularity of the whole House of Hohenzollern, including the King himself. Frederick William succeeded to the throne on 16 November 1797. He also became, in personal union, the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchatel (1797-1806 and again 1813-1840). At once, the new King showed that he was earnest of his good intentions by cutting down the royal establishment's expenses, dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most oppressive abuses of the late reign. He had the Hohenzollern determination to retain personal power but not the Hohenzollern genius for using it. Too distrustful to delegate responsibility to his ministers, he greatly reduced the effectiveness of his reign since he was forced to assume the roles he did not delegate. This is the main factor of his inconsistent rule. Disgusted with his father's court (in both political intrigues and sexual affairs), Frederick William's first and most successful early endeavor was to restore his dynasty's moral legitimacy. The eagerness to restore dignity to his family went so far that it nearly caused sculptor Johann Gottfried Schadow to cancel the expensive and lavish Prinzessinnengruppe project, which was commissioned by the previous monarch Frederick William II. He was quoted as saying the following, which demonstrated his sense of duty and peculiar manner of speech: Every civil servant has a dual obligation: to the sovereign and the country. It can occur that the two are not compatible; then, the duty to the country is higher. At first, Frederick William and his advisors attempted to pursue a neutrality policy in the Napoleonic Wars. Although they succeeded in keeping out of the Third Coalition in 1805, eventually, Frederick William was swayed by the queen's attitude, who led Prussia's pro-war party and entered into the war in October 1806. On 14 October 1806, at the Battle of Jena-Auerst?dt, the French effectively decimated the Prussian army's effectiveness and functionality; led by Frederick William, the Prussian army collapsed entirely soon after. Napoleon occupied Berlin in late October. The royal family fled to Memel, East Prussia, where they fell on the mercy of Emperor Alexander I of Russia. Alexander, too, suffered defeat at the hands of the French, and at Tilsit on the Niemen France made peace with Russia and Prussia. Napoleon dealt with Prussia very harshly, despite the pregnant Queen's interview with the French emperor, which was believed to soften the defeat. Instead, Napoleon took much less mercy on the Prussians than what was expected. Prussia lost many of its Polish territories and all territory west of the Elbe and had to finance a large indemnity and pay French troops to occupy key strong points within the Kingdom. Although the ineffectual King himself seemed resigned to Prussia's fate, various reforming ministers, such as Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein, Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst, and Count August von Gneisenau, set about reforming Prussia's administration and military, with the encouragement of Queen Luise (who died, greatly mourned, in 1810). In 1813, following Napoleon's defeat in Russia, Frederick William turned against France and signed an alliance with Russia at Kalisz. However, he had to flee Berlin, still under French occupation. Prussian troops played a crucial part in the victories of the allies in 1813 and 1814, and the King himself traveled with the main army of Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, along with Alexander of Russia and Francis of Austria. At the Congress of Vienna, Frederick William's ministers succeeded in securing significant territorial increases for Prussia. However, they failed to obtain the annexation of all of Saxony, as they had wished. Following the war, Frederick William turned towards political reaction, abandoning the promises he had made in 1813 to provide Prussia with a constitution. Prussian Union of churches Main article: Prussian Union of churches Frederick William was determined to unify the Protestant churches to homogenize their liturgy, organization, and architecture. The long-term goal was to have fully centralized royal control of all the Protestant churches in the Prussian Union of churches. The merging of the Lutheran and Calvinist (Reformed) confessions to form the United Church of Prussia was highly controversial. Angry responses included a large and well-organized opposition. Especially the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia refused to abandon their liturgical traditions. The crown responded by attempting to silence protest. The stubborn Lutheran minority was coerced by military force, their churches' confiscation, and their pastors' imprisonment or exile. By 1834 outward union was secured based on common worship but separate symbols—the opponents of the measure being forbidden to form communities of their own. Many left Prussia. The King's unsuccessful counterattack worsened tensions at the highest levels of government. The crown's aggressive efforts to restructure religion were unprecedented in Prussian history. In a series of proclamations over several years, the Church of the Prussian Union was formed, bringing together the majority group of Lutherans and the minority group of Reformed Protestants. The main effect was that the government of Prussia had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop. In 1824 Frederick William III remarried (morganatically) Countess Auguste von Harrach, Princess of Liegnitz. They had no children. In 1838 the king distributed large parts of his farmland at Erdmannsdorf Estate to 422 Protestant refugees from the Austrian Zillertal, who built Tyrolean style farmhouses in the Silesian village. Death Frederick William III died on 7 June 1840 in Berlin, from a fever, survived by his second wife. His eldest son, Frederick William IV, succeeded him. Frederick William III is buried at the Mausoleum in Schlosspark Charlottenburg, Berlin. Name: Barclay Biography: Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly(27 December 1761 - 26 May 1818) Position: Baltic German field marshal and Minister of War of the Russian Empire Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: Field Marshal Commands held:Governor-General of Finland，Minister of War Barclay used a strategy of retreat leaving behind scorched earth from the beginning of the campaign in order to draw the French supply lines deep into Russian territory.Barclay implemented a number of reforms during this time that improved supply system in the army, doubled the number of army troops, and implemented new combat training principles. Prince Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (German: Fürst Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly; 27 December 1761 - 26 May 1818) was a Baltic German field marshal and Minister of War of the Russian Empire during Napoleon's invasion in 1812 and the War of the Sixth Coalition. Barclay implemented a number of reforms during this time that improved supply system in the army, doubled the number of army troops, and implemented new combat training principles. He was also the Governor-General of Finland. He was born into a German-speaking noble family from Livonia who were members of the Scottish Clan Barclay. His father was the first of his family to be accepted into the Russian nobility. Barclay joined the Imperial Russian Army at a young age in 1776, enlisting in the Pskov Carabineer Regiment. For his role in the capture of Ochakov in 1788 from the Ottomans, he was personally decorated by Grigory Potemkin. Afterwards he participated in Catherine the Great's Swedish War. In 1794, he took part in putting down the Ko?ciuszko Uprising in Poland and was again decorated for role in the capture of Vilnius. In 1806, Barclay began commanding in the Napoleonic Wars, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Pu?tusk that same year. He was wounded at the Battle of Eylau in 1807 while his troops were covering the retreat of the Russian army. Because of his wounds, he was forced to leave command. The following year, he carried out successful operations in the Finnish War against Sweden. Barclay led a large number of Russian troops approximately 100 km across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia in winter during a snowstorm. For his accomplishments, Barclay de Tolly was appointed Governor-General of the Grand Duchy of Finland. From 20 January 1810 to September 1812 he was the Minister of War of the Russian Empire. When the French invasion of Russia began in 1812, Barclay de Tolly was commander of the 1st Army of the West, the largest Army to face Napoleon. Barclay was appointed Commander-in-Chief and initiated a scorched earth policy from the beginning of the campaign, though this made him unpopular among Russians. After the Battle of Smolensk failed to halt the French and discontent among Russians continued to grow, Alexander I appointed Mikhail Kutuzov as Commander-in-Chief, though Barclay remained in charge of the 1st Army. However, Kutuzov continued the same scorched earth retreat up to Moscow where the Battle of Borodino took place nearby. Barclay commanded the right wing and center of the Russian army for the battle. After Napoleon's retreat, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a hero among Russians. He became Commander-in-Chief once again in 1813 after the death of Kutuzov and led the taking of Paris, for which he was made a Field Marshal. His health later declined and he died on a visit to Germany in 1818. Early life and family Michael Andreas was born as a son of Gotthard Barclay de Tolly (1734-1781) and his wife Margarethe Elisabeth von Smitten (1733-1771). Barclay de Tolly was a descendant of the Scottish Clan Barclay, with roots in Towie (Towy or Tolly; Scottish Gaelic: Tollaigh) in Aberdeenshire. He was born in Pomautsch , Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (present-day Pamū?is, ?iauliai County, Lithuania) and raised in Beckhof, Livonia, Russian Empire (now J?geveste, Estonia), which was his mother's family estate. The commonly accepted birth date of 27 December 1761 is actually the day of his baptism in the Lutheran church of the town Zaumel. He was a German-speaking descendant of a Scottish family, as his ancestor Peter Barclay had settled in Livonia in the 17th century. From 1765, the young Barclay de Tolly grew up in St. Petersburg and was raised by his aunt. Gregory Fremont-Barnes and Todd Fisher, who are amongst the world's leading Napoleonic-era scholars, state that this was a common occurrence amongst the German Protestants, and it gave the young man an exposure to higher society unavailable in the Baltic provinces. His grandfather Wilhelm Barclay de Tolly served as the mayor of Riga, while his father served in the Russian army before being admitted into the ranks of the Russian nobility by the Tsar. The future field marshal started his active service in the Imperial Russian Army in 1776, and he would spend the rest of his life with the military. He had two brothers who also served in the Russian army, Axel Heinrich Barclay de Tolly, a Major General of Engineers, and Erich Johann Barclay de Tolly, a Major of Artillery. Service history Barclay was enlisted in the Pskov Carabineer Regiment on 13 May 1776, and he achieved the rank of a cornet by May 1778. In the same year, he joined the Imperial jaeger regiments, and joined alongside the rest of his unit the army of Prince Potemkin. In 1788-1789, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792, Barclay served against the Turks, under the command of Victor Amadeus of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym. During this campaign, he distinguished himself in the taking of Ochakov and Akkerman. In 1789, he was transferred to the Finnish front during the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790, and four years later, he fought against the Poles. He was a lieutenant colonel by 1794 after serving as aide-de-camp to various senior officers in several campaigns. In that year, he was appointed commander of the Estland Jaeger Corps, and three years later commander of the 4th Jaeger Regiment, becoming its chief in 1799, soon after being promoted to general major for his service in the Polish Campaign of 1794. In the war of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a distinguished part in the Battle of Pultusk (December 1806) and was wounded at the Battle of Eylau (7 February 1807), where his conduct won him promotion to the rank of lieutenant general. After a period of convalescence, Barclay returned to the army and in 1808 commanded operations against the Swedes during the Finnish War. In 1809, he successfully marched over the frozen Gulf of Bothnia, which allowed him to surprise the enemy and seize Ume? in Sweden. For this exploit, immortalized by the Russian poet Baratynsky, he was made full general and Governor-General of Finland. A year later, he became Minister of War, retaining the post until 1813. Napoleon's invasion During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, Barclay assumed the supreme command of the 1st Army of the West, the largest of the Russian armies facing Napoleon. He used a strategy of retreat leaving behind scorched earth from the beginning of the campaign in order to draw the French supply lines deep into Russian territory and retreated to the village of Tsaryovo-Zaimishche between Moscow and Smolensk, although some consider the strategy merely an confluence of diverse circumstances and not attributable to the will of one man. Nevertheless, the Russians keenly opposed the appointment of a foreigner as commander-in-chief. His rivals spread rumors of his being Napoleon's agent, and the populace condemned him as a coward. Barclay was forced by his subordinates and the Tsar to engage Napoleon at Smolensk (17-18 August 1812). Napoleon forced Barclay to retreat when he threatened Barclay's only escape route. After losing the Holy City of Smolensk, the outcry of officers and civilians grew to a point where the Tsar could no longer ignore it. He appointed Kutuzov, previously a general at the battle of Austerlitz, as the over-all commander of the Russian forces. Barclay remained General of the 1st Army of the West. Barclay commanded the right flank at the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) with great valour and presence of mind and during the celebrated council at Fili advised Kutuzov to surrender unfortified Moscow to the enemy. His illness made itself known at that time and he was forced to leave the army soon afterwards. After Napoleon was driven from Russia, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a romantic hero, misunderstood by his contemporaries and rejected by the court. His popularity soared, and his honour was restored by the tsar. Foreign campaigns Barclay was re-employed in the field and took part in the German Campaign of 1813 and the French Campaign of 1814, which ended the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812-1814). After Kutuzov's death, he once again became commander-in-chief of the Russian forces at the Battle of Bautzen (21 May 1813), and in this capacity he served at Dresden (26-27 August 1813), Kulm (29-30 August 1813) and Leipzig (16-19 October 1813). In the latter battle, he commanded a central part of the Allied forces so effectively that the tsar bestowed upon him the title of count. Barclay took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and commanded the taking of Paris, receiving the baton of a Field Marshal in reward. In 1815 he again served as commander-in-chief of the Russian army, which after the Hundred Days occupied France, and he was made a prince at the close of the war. As his health grew worse, he left the military and settled down in his J?geveste manor (German exonym: Beckhof, Polish: Tepelshof) (in what is now southern Estonia). Barclay de Tolly died at Insterburg (Chernyakhovsk), East Prussia, on 26 May 1818 (14 May, Old Style) on his way from his Livonian manor to Germany, where he wanted to renew his health. His and his wife Helene Auguste Eleonore von Smitten's remains were embalmed and put into the mausoleum built to a design by Apollon Shchedrin and Vasily Demut-Malinovsky in 1832 in J?geveste. A grand statue of him was erected in front of the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg at the behest of Emperor Nicholas I. He is also commemorated by a modern statue in Riga, a full-size bronze-mounted statue by Vladimir Surovtsev in Chernyakhovsk, a bust monument in Tartu, and the so-called "Barclay's leaning house" in Tartu (which was acquired by his widow after his death). Personal life and family In 1791, Michael married his cousin, Auguste Helena Eleonora von Smitten (1770-1828), daughter of Hinrich Johann von Smitten (1731-1782) and Renata Helena von Stackelberg (1749-1786). After the extinction of the Barclay de Tolly princely line with his son Magnus on 29 October 1871 (17 October, Old Style), Alexander II allowed the field marshal's sister's grandson through female lineage, Alexander von Weymarn, to assume the title of Prince Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn on 12 June 1872 (31 May, Old Style). Awards and decorations Order of St. Andrew (7 September 1813) Order of St. George - Barclay de Tolly was the second of four full Knights of St. George in the history of the Order. This includes his contemporary, Kutuzov; 1st class (19 August 1813, № 11) - "For the defeat of the French at the Battle of Kulm 18 August 1813"; 2nd class bol.kr. (21 October 1812, № 44) - "For his part in the Battle of Borodino on 26 August 1812"; 3rd class (8 January 1807, № 139) - "In the great reward of bravery and courage, rendered in the battle against the French troops on December 14th at Pultusk, where he commanded the vanguard ahead pravago flank, with a special skill and prudence kept the enemy at all times of battle and overturned Nadezhda"; 4th class (16 September 1794, № 547) - "For outstanding courage, rendered against the Polish insurgents in the capture of fortifications and by the mountains. Villeneuve"; Gold Sword for Bravery with diamonds and laurels with the inscription" for 20 January 1814" (1814); Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class (15 September 1811), 2nd class (7 March 1807), 4th class (12 July 1788); Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (9 September 1809); diamonds added (9 May 1813); Order of St. Anna, 1st class (7 March 1807); Golden Cross for taking Ochakov (7 December 1788); Cross "For the victory of Eylau" (1807); Order of the Red Eagle (Prussia, 1807); Order of the Black Eagle (Prussia, 1813); Commander of the Military Order of Maria Theresa (Austria, 1813); Order of the Sword, 1st class (Sweden, 1814); Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, (France, 1815); Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, (UK, 1815); Sword with diamonds (UK, 1816); Military William Order, 1st class (Netherlands, 1815); Military Order of St. Henry, 1st class (Saxony, 1815); Order of Saint Louis, 1st class (France, 1816). Commemoratives and legacy The Nesvizhskiy 4th Grenadier regiment (the General-Field Marshal Prince Barklay-de-Tolli, Mikhail Bogdanovich's) was named for the Prince in 1880s. He was also the namesake of a short-lived Russian fortress in the Hawaiian Islands. A statue of Barclay de Tolly was erected in 2001 in the Esplanade gardens in Riga, evoking an earlier 1913 monument that was melted down for military use during World War I. Whereas his lineage as a Baltic-Scottish Baron (and as such: Non-Russian) had caused him to be derided by Russian historians in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century in favor of Kutuzov, his image as a leader has undergone a positive reassessment in recent years. The main-belt asteroid 4524 Barklajdetolli, discovered by Lyudmila Zhuravleva in 1981, was named in his honor. In the West Siberian river shipping company MRF RSFSR (Barnaul) operated steam tug Barclay. In 2013, JSC Aeroflot - Russian Airlines received the Boeing 777-300ER aircraft manufactured by the Boeing Corporation, named in honor of the outstanding Russian military leader - M. Barclay de Tolly. Battles/wars Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792) Siege of Ochakov Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790) Ko?ciuszko Uprising Battle of Praga Finnish War Napoleonic Wars Battle of Pu?tusk Battle of Eylau Battle of Smolensk Battle of Borodino Battle of Bautzen Battle of Dresden Battle of Kulm Battle of Leipzig Battle of La Rothière Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube Battle of Fère-Champenoise Battle of Paris Awards Order of St. George Name: Miloradovich Biography: Mikhail Miloradovich (October 12 1771 - December 27 1825) Position: Governor General of Saint Petersburg Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank: General of the Infantry Commands: Imperial Guard Miloradovich's battle style has always been known for being brave, quick and bold. Count Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich (Russian: Граф Михаи?л Андре?евич Милора?дович, Serbian: Гроф Михаил Андре?еви? Милорадови? Grof Mihail Andrejevi? Miloradovi?; October 12 1771 - December 27 1825), spelled Miloradovitch in contemporary English sources, was a Russian general of paternal Serbian origin, prominent during the Napoleonic Wars. He entered military service on the eve of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790 and his career advanced rapidly during the reign (1796-1801) of Emperor Paul I. He served under Alexander Suvorov during Italian and Swiss campaigns of 1799. Miloradovich served in wars against France and Turkey, earning distinction in the Battle of Amstetten (1805), the capture of Bucharest (1806), the Battle of Borodino (September 1812), the Battle of Tarutino (October 1812) and the Battle of Vyazma (November 1812). He led the reserves into the Battle of Kulm (August 1813), the Battle of Leipzig (October 1813) and the Battle of Paris (1814). Miloradovich attained the rank of General of the Infantry in 1809 and the title of count in 1813. His reputation as a daring battlefield commander (contemporaries called him "the Russian Murat" and "the Russian Bayard") rivalled that of his bitter personal enemy Pyotr Bagration, but Miloradovich also had a reputation for good luck. He boasted that he had fought fifty battles but had never been wounded nor even scratched by the enemy. By 1818, when Miloradovich was appointed Governor General of Saint Petersburg, the retirement or death of other senior generals made him the most highly-decorated active officer of the Russian army, holding the Order of St. George 2nd class, the Order of St. Andrew, the Order of St. Vladimir 1st class, the Order of St. Anna 1st class, the Order of St. John of Jerusalem and the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky with diamonds. A chivalrous man of boastful and flamboyant character, Miloradovich was a poor fit for the governorship. Vladimir Nabokov called him "a gallant soldier, bon vivant and a somewhat bizarre administrator"; Alexander Herzen wrote that he was "one of those military men who occupied the most senior positions in civilian life with not the slightest idea about public affairs". When news of the death of Alexander I reached Saint Petersburg, Miloradovich prevented the heir, the future Emperor Nicholas I, from acceding to the throne. From December 9 to December 25 1825, Miloradovich exercised de facto dictatorial authority, but he ultimately recognised Nicholas as his sovereign after the Romanovs had sorted out their confusion over the succession. Miloradovich had sufficient evidence of the mounting Decembrist revolt, but did not take any action until the rebels took over the Senate Square on December 26 1825. He rode into the rows of rebel troops and tried to talk them into obedience, but was fatally shot by Pyotr Kakhovsky and stabbed by Yevgeny Obolensky. Battles/wars Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790) Italian and Swiss expedition War of the Third Coalition Battle of AmstettenBattle of DürensteinBattle of AusterlitzRusso-Turkish War (1806-1812)Patriotic War of 1812Battle of BorodinoBattle of TarutinoBattle of MaloyaroslavetsBattle of VyazmaBattle of KrasnoiWar of the Sixth CoalitionBattle of KulmBattle of LeipzigAwards Order of St. George 2nd class,Order of St. Andrew,Order of St. Vladimir 1st class,Order of St. Anna 1st class,Order of St. John of Jerusalem,Order of St. Alexander Nevsky,Order of the Red Eagle,Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus,Iron Cross,Golden Weapon "For Bravery" (For the taking of Bucharest, 1806) Early years Mikhail Miloradovich was the son of Major General Andrei Miloradovich (1726-1798). The Russian branch of the Serb Miloradovich family was established in 1715, when Mikhail Miloradovich (the first) (Serbian Cyrillic: Михаило Милорадови?), one of three brothers recruited by Peter I to incite rebellion against the Turks four years earlier, fled from Herzegovina to Russia and joined Peter's service as a colonel. He was a commander of the Hadiach Regiment. Towards the end of Peter's reign he was imprisoned in connection with Pavlo Polubotok's treason case, but was spared from further misfortune by Peter's death. His grandson Andrey served thirty years in the Russian Army and later moved into civil administration as the Governor of Little Russia and the Chernigov governorate. The family owned lands in the Poltava Governorate; Mikhail inherited up to fifteen hundred serfs. Mikhail's father "enrolled" him in the military in his infancy, and later sent teenage Mikhail to study military sciences in the universities of K?nigsberg and G?ttingen, and in Strasbourg and Metz. According to Nikolai Leskov, the education was superficial: Leskov described Mikhail as a boy of "charming ignorance" who did not even master the French language properly, and said that his French was littered with the "most grave and curious mistakes" (an anecdote credited him with blending pittoresque and synagogue into "pittagogue"). Sixteen-year-old Mikhail returned to Russia in 1787, joined the army as a praporshchik (a junior commissioned officer rank) in the Izmaylovsky Regiment and was soon sent into action in the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790. Military career Italian and Swiss campaigns Further information: The Italian and Swiss expedition (1799-1800) Miloradovich did not earn any distinction in the war of 1788-1790, but he advanced rapidly in peacetime. A captain of the Guards in 1796, Paul I regarded him favorably and he was promoted to the rank of colonel in 1797 and major general and chief of the Apsheron Artillery Regiment in 1798. In the same year, he departed to join Alexander Suvorov's troops in Italy. He won Suvorov's unconditional trust for taking Lecco on the eve of the Battle of Cassano and for commanding the rearguard in the crossing of the Gotthard Pass. At Bassignana he changed three horses killed by the enemy but was not even scratched; at Altdorf he led assault infantry over a burning bridge. These and similar episodes, true or anecdotal, forged public opinion of Miloradovich as a daring and lucky field commander, an opinion that he himself cultivated for the rest of his life. Miloradovich was adored at home, but the French held a different opinion: Adolphe Thiers described Miloradovich as "a Servian , of brilliant valour, but absolutely destitute of military knowledge, dissolute in manners, uniting all the vices of civilization with all the vices of barbarism". Paul rewarded Miloradovich with the Order of St. Anne 1st class, the Order of St. John of Jerusalem and the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky. Suvorov, in violation of military codes, transferred Miloradovich from field troops to his staff as a "general in waiting"; Paul later cited this fact as a pretext to dismiss Suvorov. Friendship between Miloradovich and Paul's second son Constantine also dated back to the Swiss campaign. Constantine awarded Miloradovich a gilded sword with an inscription To my friend Miloradovich, which Miloradovich had with him on the day of his death. Amstetten and Austerlitz Further information: War of the Third Coalition Miloradovich played a key role in the Battle of Amstetten, where Mikhail Kutuzov ordered his three regiments to take a stand and provide relief for Pyotr Bagration's troops. "Above all, skillful maneuvering of the Russian force, including timely arrival of Miloradovich and his intelligent application of the reserve forces at his disposal, prevented the collapse of the rear guard". The action at Amstetten allowed Kutuzov to break contact with the French and prevented an all-out battle that would have been disastrous for the Russians. Reports of the battle by Miloradovich himself contradict the French accounts and are not corroborated by Bagration's laconic report: each side presented their own perspective, and Miloradovich had a particular penchant for glorifying his own actions. His action at Amstetten was rewarded with the Order of St. George 3rd class and promotion to lieutenant general. On November 11, 1805 Miloradovich attacked the French in the Battle of Dürenstein (referred to as the Battle of Krems in Russian sources), but the French withdrew before his corps could inflict significant damage. The Battle of Austerlitz saw Miloradovich in charge of the Russian part of a Russian-Austrian infantry column (2,875 out of 11,795 men), one of the four columns placed on Pratzen Heights, which had been abandoned by the French. Another, a larger part of the column was under Austrian command; the close presence of Kutuzov somewhat mitigated the perils of divided command. Tsar Alexander ordered this column to move before others were deployed; Kutuzov, unable to oppose the tsar, ordered Miloradovich to advance across the Goldbach Stream to Kobylnice, disregarding enemy action and difficult terrain. Hills and fog obstructed the view, and the column marched straight into the bulk of the French armies. Soult's troops mauled the mixed column and Miloradovich retreated. Alexander summoned his brother Constantine for help (although an alternative account by Bowden and Duffy asserts that Miloradovich contacted Constantine himself). Contrary to the popular view that "he was almost the only Russian general who obtained an advantage over the French" at Austerlitz, General Karl Wilhelm von Toll contested Miloradovich's actions, asserting that his column was the first to fall back and that it was Bagration, not Miloradovich, who saved the allied troops from annihilation. Russian-Turkish War Further information: Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) The war of 1806-1812 began with Russian occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia. After the Turks responded by taking Bucharest, Russian commander-in-chief Ivan Ivanovich Michelson dispatched Miloradovich to intervene. Miloradovich captured Bucharest on December 13 without significant resistance from the Turks and was rewarded with a golden sword with diamonds "For the taking of Bucharest". The Turks, manipulated by the French envoy Sebastiani, did not declare war until five days later. No large-scale action followed. In May 1807 Miloradovich tried to capture Giurgiu, but failed and fell back to Bucharest. On 2 June 1807, he redeemed himself by checking the Turkish advance at Obile?ti. The years 1808 and 1809 did not see any remarkable action either, but were marked by a dual intrigue among top Russian generals; at the top level, Mikhail Kutuzov was in conflict with Alexander Prozorovsky, while below them burned a feud between Miloradovich and Pyotr Bagration. Bagration temporarily succeeded Prozorovsky as commander-in-chief, but later both Miloradovich and Bagration lost their commands. At the beginning of 1810 Alexander recalled Miloradovich from front-line duty and tasked him with assembling a new army in Belarus. In April 1810 Miloradovich was appointed Governor of Kiev but soon tended his resignation. He was officially discharged in September 1810 but was called up for service in November, again, as Governor of Kiev. Napoleon's invasion of Russia Further information: French invasion of Russia At the beginning of the 1812 campaign, Miloradovich was tasked with assembling and training volunteer militia troops in the hinterland; he returned to action on the eve of the Battle of Borodino with 14,600 militiamen. Kutuzov appointed Miloradovich commander of front-line forces of the right (northern) flank, comprising Baggovut's Second Infantry Corps and Ostermann-Tolstoy's Fourth Infantry Corps. The battle plan required Miloradovich to protect the old Smolensk-Moscow road. On the day of the battle, September 7 , Kutuzov realised that enemy action was concentrated against his center and left flank and, at about 9 a.m., he ordered Miloradovich to march to the south and attack the French left flank. Riding in advance of his troops, Miloradovich was caught up in the heat of the battle for Semyonovskoe and, together with Barclay de Tolly, Yermolov and Rayevsky, sought refuge in the defences of the Fourth Division. Between 10 a.m. and 12 noon his troops took a stand in the center of the Russian line and held off French attacks, with Baggovut's corps seeing critical action around noon, and Ostermann's corps around 4 p.m. By the end of the battle, the French succeeded in forcing the Russians from their defences, and Miloradovich's troops fell back to the same Smolensk road from where they had started. Baggovut took a stand there and held the road until nightfall against ferocious attacks by Polish cavalry. After the battle, Miloradovich took command of the rearguard, sheltering Kutuzov's army from the advancing French. Enemy pressure prevented him from attending the Council in Fili that decided to surrender Moscow. Miloradovich, acting on behalf of Kutuzov, made a deal with Murat: if the French wanted Moscow intact, they had to allow Miloradovich free passage to the east, or face stubborn urban warfare. Hereford George wrote that "Murat apparently deemed it beneath his dignity to confer with a mere general" and that he left the talks to Sebastiani. According to Fyodor Glinka, however, Murat and Miloradovich negotiated directly with each other prior to the surrender of Moscow; Miloradovich contacted Sebastiani only after the French took Moscow and their cavalry engaged the Russian rear. Sebastiani honored the accord, called back the cavalry and allowed the safe retreat of two Russian regiments trapped between advancing French columns. Temporary loss of contact between Murat and the Russian rearguard allowed Kutuzov to make a westward turn: Murat kept on advancing south-east towards Bronnitsy while Kutuzov marched in the opposite direction. On September 20 , Kutuzov took defensive positions at Podolsk and dispatched Miloradovich to take position in front of the advancing French, 12 kilometers to the east. Four days later, Murat engaged Miloradovich and forced him to fall back to Krasnaya Pakhra (deliberately setting a trap, according to Glinka). Miloradovich barely escaped death or captivity when his headquarters were raided by French cavalry scouts on September 27 . On September 29 , Miloradovich successfully counterattacked Murat's corps at Chirikovo, taking one general de brigade prisoner. At this point, Kutuzov preferred to retreat further south; the main army marched to Tarutino, while Miloradovich, now having Ostermann-Tolstoy's corps under his command, retreated to a fallback position on the Chernishnya River, 8 kilometers north of Tarutino. Glinka wrote that from September 9 to October 5 Miloradovich was continuously fighting the French, including four significant battles, and lamented that few of his deeds reached the public eye: "He is not a hero of the Vedomosti, but a hero of history and of the future." During the standoff on the Chernishnya, Miloradovich had another person-to-person negotiation with Murat, while his own camp was filled with masses of French stragglers taken prisoner. Modern Russian historians criticized as indecisive his actions in the Battle of Tarutino (October 18 ), when poor coordination of Russian columns met its match in poor discipline of the French camp, but to contemporaries like Glinka and William Cathcart the battle was a clear success. After the Battle of Maloyaroslavets, Russian troops split into three pursuit columns, led by Miloradovich, Matvey Platov and Kutuzov himself. Miloradovich marched directly on Vyazma, occupied by four French corps (Beauharnais, Davout, Ney, Poniatowski), while Platov closed in on it from the north. On October 31 Miloradovich and Platov agreed to storm Vyazma. The Battle of Vyazma began at dawn of November 3 . Miloradovich quickly deployed front-line artillery that withstood Beauharnais's counterstrike and forced Davout's troops to take cover in the forest. Davout lost two hours taking a detour to reunite with Ney in Vyazma; at 2 p.m., when Miloradovich ordered a general assault, the French were already unable to resist. By 5 p.m. Miloradovich took control of the city, capturing French supply trains (but only three cannons). On November 15 Miloradovich's three corps, marching ahead of the retreating French, took position to the French rear near Krasny. Miloradovich began the three-day Battle of Krasnoi by capturing a large supply train and cutting Ney and Beauharnais off from Napoleon's army. The next day, Beauharnais exhausted his troops in a breakthrough and refused Miloradovich's invitation to surrender; at night the decimated remains of his corps escaped through the woods. On November 18 Ney made his own unsuccessful attempt to break through Miloradovich's defences. Miloradovich again offered honorable surrender, but Ney arrested the messenger and expended his 10th and 11th divisions in a frontal assault. At night his forces of 3,000 men escaped over the frozen Dnieper, but only 800 made it to Orsha. Miloradovich missed the opportunity to intercept the French crossing of Berezina by two days. In December 1812, Alexander awarded Miloradovich the Order of St. George, 2nd class. In line with Kutuzov's December Plan, Miloradovich led a Russian vanguard due west and took Warsaw on February 8 1813. Campaign of 1813-1814 Further information: War of the Sixth Coalition The appointment of Peter Wittgenstein as commander-in-chief of the united Russian and Prussian armies provoked open hostility from his new subordinates and, at the same time, from his seniors: Miloradovich, Barclay de Tolly, Langeron, Platov and Tormasov. Tormasov refused to obey Wittgenstein altogether and left the army, while Miloradovich stayed and became the "official speaker" for the opposition. The conflict burned until the failures at Lutzen and Bautzen compelled Wittgenstein to resign his command. Miloradovich and Constantine spent the remainder of the war, almost a year, in close cooperation and proximity as chiefs of infantry and cavalry reserves. In August 1813, after expiry of the Truce of Pl?switz, Miloradovich led the reserve force of 24,000 Guards and Grenadiers into Bohemia and Constantine followed him with 11,000 "splendid cavalry" and artillery. Together with Barclay's headquarters, they formed one of four allied columns that converged on Dresden but had not been brought into the action of the Battle of Dresden. Three days later they were employed against Vandamme in the Battle of Kulm, a "fortunate victory that conferred advantages beyond all calculations". On the eve of the Battle of Leipzig the forces of Miloradovich and Constantine, stationed near Margeborn, formed the reserve of the coalition army. In December 1813 they crossed the Rhine and headed into France. Miloradovich's actions in 1813 were rewarded with the Order of St. Andrew, the title of count and the right to wear Alexander's insignia on his shoulder, the first such honor ever granted in Russia. Miloradovich concluded the campaign of 1814, his last one, in Paris. After General Gorchakov's infantry overran the French defensive artillery, Miloradovich was the one to bring in twenty howitzers and open fire at the city. Governor of Saint Petersburg After the Treaty of Fontainebleau Alexander appointed Miloradovich commander of the Russian Imperial Guard; in 1818 Miloradovich became Governor of Saint Petersburg, assuming command of all the troops, police and civil administration of the imperial capital. He had the unconditional trust of Alexander, who could hardly have found a worse candidate for the job. As chief of police, Miloradovich controlled political surveillance and investigation in Saint Petersburg, but the events of 1825 demonstrated that he ultimately failed to respond to the real threat: he dismissed the evidence against the Decembrists, saying "It's all stuff; leave these young blockheads alone to read to each other their trash of miserable verses." His affection for the arts and his ex officio duty as a censor at the peak of the Golden Age of Russian Poetry resulted in frequent contacts with authors and actors, and, apart from his death and his actions during the disastrous flood of 1824, his administration was remembered largely through anecdotes and artists' memoirs of varying reliability. This was not uncommon for Russian commanders; Nikolay Raevsky said "They turned me into a Roman, Miloradovich into a great man, Wittgenstein into the saviour of the fatherland, and Kutuzov into Fabius. I am not a Roman, and neither are these gentlemen." Alexander Herzen who met Miloradovich in early childhood and fondly remembered him as a storyteller "with the greatest vivacity, with lively mimicry, with roars of laughter" ridiculed Miloradovich as an administrator yet called him "a warrior poet who understood poetry ... grand things are done by great means." Herzen's memoirs provide a number of anecdotes about Miloradovich the administrator (none of which could have been witnessed by the narrator). In 1820 Miloradovich interrogated Alexander Pushkin on suspicion of political propaganda. Pushkin's name had already become a blanket cover for all kinds of incendiary pamphlets and he was desperate to clear himself of dangerous misattributions. Pushkin said that he burned his "contraband poems" and recited some from memory. Miloradovich said "Ah, c'est chevaleresque", dismissed the charges and sent Pushkin on a well-paid tour of the south. Vladimir Nabokov noted that all of Pushkin's influential friends could not have saved him had it not been for Miloradovich's "amiable conduct of the whole affair". There was a rumor that Pushkin was flogged on orders of Miloradovich, who fought a duel with at least one person who repeated it. Author and publisher Nikolai Grech recounted another, less inspiring episode: in 1824 Miloradovich vigorously investigated an alleged breach of censorship rules at a printshop owned by Grech and Bezacque. Fifteen years earlier, when Miloradovich and Pyotr Bagration had a feud, Bezacque was Bagration's secretary and apparently became a lifelong enemy of Miloradovich. Grech easily refuted "factual evidence" and could have escaped unharmed, but Miloradovich brought his belated revenge down on Grech, inflicting on him a full police and court inquiry that dragged on until 1828. Miloradovich probably did not realise that the whole case was set up by Aleksey Arakcheyev and Mikhail Magnitsky to unseat Alexander Golitsyn . The lifestyle of the "bizarre administrator" was just as bizarre. Miloradovich lived alone in a luxurious apartment "in complete disarray coupled with the most exquisite taste", without a single bedroom; "I spend the night where I feel like", he used to say. Family fortune and rewards from the tsar could not match his spending, and he sold off most of his lands and serfs. Posthumous sale of his remaining estate barely covered his debts. Interregnum Further information: Russian interregnum of 1825 In the summer of 1823, Alexander I issued a secret manifest excluding Constantine from the order of succession and making Nicholas heir presumptive to the throne. Historians argue as to whether or not Miloradovich had been formally made aware of Alexander's decision. Only three men - Aleksey Arakcheyev, Alexander Golitsyn, and Archbishop Filaret - definitely knew the contents and whereabouts of the manifest; neither Constantine nor Nicholas knew the whole story.On December 9 1825, when news of Alexander's death in Taganrog reached Saint Petersburg, Miloradovich bullied Nicholas into pledging allegiance to Constantine, who was then living in Warsaw as viceroy of Poland. Golitsyn arrived at the palace later and announced the terms of Alexander's manifest, but Miloradovich persuaded the State Council that Nicholas was aware of it and that his pledge of allegiance to Constantine was effectively an act of abdication. Miloradovich then sent a messenger to Moscow with two instructions: to pledge allegiance to Constantin and to keep the original of Alexander's manifest secret and locked away. Faced with the question, "What if Constantine holds to his resignation?", Miloradovich allegedly responded, "When one has one hundred thousand bayonets in one's pocket, it is easy to speak with boldness". Correspondence between Saint Petersburg and Warsaw took two weeks, during which Miloradovich acted as de facto interrex and regularly assured Nicholas that "everything is quiet". Constantine firmly refused to reign and blessed his brother's accession to the throne, but for a while the hesitant Nicholas took no action. On the morning of December 24 , Nicholas received detailed reports of the brewing Decembrist revolt from Diebitsch and Chernyshov, and discussed the matter with Miloradovich and Golitsyn. According to Nicholas himself, the evidence was overwhelming. Miloradovich promised to mobilise all police resources but did nothing or, according to Korf, his "investigations remained completely fruitless. His researches had not discovered one person on whom suspicion could reasonably fall". The actions of Miloradovich during the interregnum were highly controversial and provoked fringe conspiracy theories placing him at the top of the Decembrist rebel ring. Mainstream historians provide different explanations of his motives, none of which supports the theory of "Decembrist Miloradovich": Mikhail Safonov suggested that there were three contenders for the throne: Constantin, Nicholas and their mother Maria Fyodorovna. Miloradovich supported Maria but in public he aligned with Constantine and later with Nicholas. A similar version has been fictionalised by Igor Bunich. Yakov Gordin suggested that Miloradovich acted as an independent dictator, using Constantine merely as a front. Andreeva supports a toned-down variation of Gordin's suggestion: that, regardless of Alexander's manifest, Miloradovich acted in good faith, supporting what he thought was the legitimate solution to a crisis. Revolt and death Main article: Decembrist revolt At 8 p.m. on December 25 , Nicholas declared himself emperor; at 7 a.m. the next morning, along with all senior statesmen present in Saint Petersburg, Miloradovich pledged his loyalty to Nicholas (Korf suggested that Miloradovich recognised Nicholas as early as December 24 ). Once again Miloradovich assured Nicholas that the city was "perfectly tranquil"; Alexander von Benckendorff other witnesses wrote that he was in his usual boastful, optimistic mood. Three hours later when Miloradovich enjoyed breakfast with Teleshova, general Neidhardt reported to Nicholas that the troops were marching towards the palace "in absolute mutiny". At about noon on December 26 Miloradovich, whom nobody had seen since the morning, reported to Nicholas on Palace Square. Witnesses disagree on whether he was mounted or on foot, but all accounts point to his extraordinary excitement and loss of self-control. According to Nicholas, Miloradovich told him: "Сеlа va mаl; ils marchent au Senat, mais je vais leur раrlеr" (French: "That is bad; they are marching toward the Senate, but I will talk to them"). Nicholas coldly responded that Miloradovich must do his duty as the military governor and calm his troops down. Miloradovich saluted, turned around, and headed to the barracks of the Mounted Guards. General Orlov of the Mounted Guards pleaded with Miloradovich to stay with the loyal troops but Miloradovich refused to take cover, mounted a horse and rode out to the rows of rebel troops, accompanied either by two aides or only by Bashutsky on foot. Miloradovich harangued the soldiers for obedience, showing Constantine's sword "to prove that he would have been incapable of betraying him". Safonov pointed out that, instead of executing the tsar's order to lead the Mounted Guards against the rebels, Miloradovich "disobeyed it in a most incredible way ... by going into the action alone." Between 12:20 and 12:30 Pyotr Kakhovsky shot Miloradovich point-blank in the back; "the bullet travelling up from below, from the back to the chest, tore the diaphragm, broke through all the parts and stopped beneath the right nipple". When Miloradovich slumped from his horse to the ground, Yevgeny Obolensky stabbed him with a bayonet. Miloradovich was taken to a nearby house, but by the time the surgeons arrived on the scene the marauders had stripped Miloradovich of his clothes, medals and jewelry. Medics removed the bullet (it was later delivered to Nicholas); Miloradovich remained conscious and dictated his last will in a letter to the tsar. There were three requests: to send His Majesty's regards to his relatives, to grant liberty to his serfs, and to "not forget the old Maikov". Miloradovich died around 3 a.m. on December 27 . After six days of lying in state, he was buried with honors at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. The investigation of the Decembrist revolt led to the hanging of Kakhovsky and four of his ringleaders; it did not reveal any illicit connection between the Decembrists and Miloradovich. The second killer, Obolensky, was stripped of his princely title and exiled to Siberia for thirty years. Nobility The Miloradovi? noble family is listed in the nobility of the Russian Empire. Name: Arakcheyev Biography: Aleksey Arakcheyev (October 4 1769 - May 3 [O.S. April 21] 1834) Position: Artillery inspector Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Rank:General Count Alexey Andreyevich Arakcheyev or Arakcheev (Russian: граф Алексе?й Андре?евич Аракче?ев) (October 4 1769 - May 3 1834) was a Russian general and statesman under the reign of Alexander I. He served under Paul I and Alexander I as army leader and artillery inspector respectively. He had a violent temper, but was otherwise a competent artillerist, and is known for his reforms of tzarist artillery known as the "System of 1805". After the Tsar's death and Nicholas I's coronation, he lost all his powers and properties. Early years Count Arakcheyev was born on his father's estate in Garusovo, in Vyshnevolotsky Uyezd (at the time a part of Novgorod Governorate, from 1796 of Tver Governorate). He was educated in arithmetic by a priest, and though he shone at arithmetic, he never mastered writing and grammar. In 1783, with the help of General Peter Ivanovich Melissino, Arakcheyev enrolled in the Shlyakhetny artillery school in Saint-Petersburg. By 1787 he had become a lieutenant instructor, and gave artillery and fortification lessons to Prince Nicholas Saltykov's sons. In 1791 he became the school's assistant director. In 1792 Saltykov recommended Arakcheyev to Pavel Petrovich, son of Catherine the Great and heir to the throne of Russia, who was in search for an artillery officer. Arakcheyev became chief artillery officer to the commandant of Gatchina. Paul I's reign Arakcheyev became noted for his ruthless manners and zealousness, and by 1794 he was Gatchina's artillery inspector and two years later, was also the infantry inspector under the Empress Catherine II. Catherine died in 1796 and Arakcheyev was at Tsar Paul's side during his accession. On November 7, 1796, Arakcheyev was promoted from colonel to major-general and appointed as the commandant of Saint-Petersburg's garrison. In April 1797, he was promoted to quartermaster-general, and received the title of baron from the Tsar. A year later, after an officer, Colonel Lehn, committed suicide, he was temporarily retired with the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1799 he was reinstated as Inspector-general of the Artillery position and quartermaster-general and given the title of count. He was disgraced and retired in 1800 after hiding misdeeds by his subordinates. His name had become synonymous with despotism, known in Russian as Arakcheyevshchina ('Arakcheyevism'). Alexander I's reign In May 1803, the new Tsar Alexander I restored his position as Inspector of the Artillery. During the first years he reorganized the artillery units, improved the officer training, and issued new regulations. After the lessons learned at the Battle of Austerlitz, where Russian artillery had performed poorly, Arakcheyev devised the "System of 1805". Under this arrangement, 6- and 12-pounder guns were employed throughout the army, as well as 2-, 10-, and 18-pounder licornes. Under the new system, a single Russian division had as much artillery as an entire French corps. A foot artillery battalion was composed of two light and two heavy companies. A light foot artillery company consisted of four 10-pounder licornes, four light and four medium 6-pounder guns; a heavy artillery company had four light and four heavy 12-pounder guns and four 18- and two 2-pounder licornes. Six light 6-pounder guns and six 10-pounder licornes made a company of horse artillery. Licornes were usually deployed on the flanks of the batteries. All these guns used a screw elevating mechanism instead of the old system of wedges and had an improved sighting apparatus. Promoted in January 1808 to Minister of War and inspector-general of the entire infantry and artillery, he once more reorganized the army and the grading of the army staff. In 1808 he created a publication called the "artillery periodical". During the Finnish War of 1808-9, Alexander ordered the army to invade Sweden across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia; only Arakcheyev was willing to undertake this task. By 1810, Arakcheyev had resigned from his Defense Minister's post and was sitting on the board of the Council of State as chairman in military science. During the Patriotic War of 1812, he oversaw recruitment and management of army supplies. He introduced several useful military reforms, which proved themselves during the wars of 1812-1814. Throughout his service, Arakcheyev was known for his meticulous following of the will of the tsar. I am the friend of the tsar and complaints about me can be made only to God. Starting in 1816, he organized military-agricultural colonies, an idea initially conceived by Alexander I. At first Arakcheyev tried to oppose them, but when he agreed, he did so with unrelenting rigor. The hardships of military service combined with the hardships of peasant life created terrifying conditions in those settlements. The ruthlessness he exhibited in the military extended to his home. The women peasants in Arakcheyev's own Gruzino estate near Novgorod were required to produce one child each year. Arakcheyev even ordered the hanging of all cats, on account of his fondness for nightingales. From 1815 to the tsar's death, Arakcheyev continued to be present around the emperor as member of the state council and an influential voice in the leader's entourage. During Alexander I's journeys abroad, Arakcheev would follow, giving his accord to every law passed. By 1823, he was 'at the height of his power' and was able to plot the downfall of his rival, Education Minister Prince Alexander Golitsyn, by enlisting the support of a firebrand priest, Archimandrite Photius, who accused Golitsyn of apostasy. He also forced the resignation of Pyotr Mikhailovich Volkonsky Later years After the death of Tsar Alexander I on December 1, 1825, and the coronation of Nicholas I, Arakcheyev lost all his positions in the government, such as member of the State Council and inspector of the army artillery and infantry. This led to his removal from the court and the exile to his estate of Gruzino near Novgorod. There he lived until his death in 1834, when he was interred in a local church. Furthermore, after Arakcheyev's death the tsar requisitioned his land and property due to the inability to find legal heirs. Personal life Arakcheyev purchased the Gruzino estate near Novgorod in 1788. He was in his thirties when he married 18-year-old Anastasia Vasilievna Khomutova. She liked parties and dances; he did not, was intensely jealous of her, and gave the servants a list of addresses forbidden to her. In the second year of the marriage, she left him and they never met again. Arakcheyev also had a long-term mistress, Nastasia Fedorovna Minkina. During his absence from their estate, she bore a son who had red hair, blue eyes, and resembled neither her nor Arakcheyev. The boy was named Mikhail Shumsky, and grew to be a troublesome drunkard. Minkina was so tyrannical that she was murdered by resentful servants. Arakcheyev was grief-stricken and unable to function at court for some time. There was also an 'unofficial peasant wife' who bore him two illegitimate sons, sent to be educated in the Corps des Pages Temper and "Arakcheevshchina" Arakcheyev is said to have executed two junior officers by having them buried up to their necks and leaving them to die of starvation and thirst. On another occasion he is said to have personally cut off another officer's head with his sword after a perceived infraction. "Arakcheevshchina" (Russian: аракчеевщина), roughly translated as "the Arakcheev regime", became a derogatory term for a military state, denoting "the atmosphere of reactionary repression closing over Russian society". Soviet authors routinely applied this label to characterize a regime of reactionary oppression. For instance, Joseph Stalin used the term "Arakcheevshchina" in 1950 to describe the situation fostered by Ivan Meshchaninov in the Soviet Institute of Language and Thought. In Popular Culture Arakcheyev features in Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace, when in 1809 Prince Andrei has an audience with him. Tolstoy portrays him as rude, abrupt, ungrammatical, with 'scowling brows, dull eyes and an overhanging red nose'. Name: Brunswick Biography: Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick(9 October 1735 - 10 November 1806) Position: Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Allegiance: Prussia Rank: Field Marshal House:Brunswick-Bevern Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (German: Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel; 9 October 1735 - 10 November 1806) was the Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and a military leader. His titles are usually shortened to Duke of Brunswick in English-language sources. He succeeded his father as sovereign prince of the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, one of the princely states of the Holy Roman Empire. The duke was a cultured and benevolent despot in the model of Frederick the Great, and was married to Princess Augusta, a sister of George III of Great Britain. He was also a recognized master of 18th century warfare, serving as a Field Marshal in the Prussian Army. During the Napoleonic Wars, he was mortally wounded by a musket ball at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806. Charles William Ferdinand was born in the town of Wolfenbüttel on 9 October 1735, probably in Wolfenbüttel Castle. He was the first-born son of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and his wife Philippine Charlotte. His father Charles I was the ruling prince (German: Fürst) of the small state of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, one of the imperial states of the Holy Roman Empire. Philippine Charlotte was the favourite daughter of King Frederick William I of Prussia and sister of Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great). As the heir apparent of a sovereign prince, Charles William Ferdinand received the title of Hereditary Prince (German: Erbprinz). He received an unusually wide and thorough education, overseen by his mother. In his youth he travelled in the Netherlands, France and various parts of Germany. In 1753 his father moved the capital of the principality back to Brunswick (German: Braunschweig), the state's largest city. (Wolfenbüttel had been the capital since 1432.) The royal family moved into the newly built Brunswick Palace. Early military career Further information: Seven Years' War § Europe 2 Charles William Ferdinand entered the military, serving during the Seven Years' War of 1756-63. He joined the allied north-German forces of the Hanoverian Army of Observation, whose task was to protect Hanover (in personal union with the Kingdom of Great Britain) and the surrounding states from invasion by the French. The force was initially commanded by the Anglo-Hanoverian Prince William, Duke of Cumberland. At the Battle of Hastenbeck (1757) Charles William Ferdinand led a charge at the head of an infantry brigade, an action which gained him some renown. The subsequent French Invasion of Hanover and Convention of Klosterzeven of 1757 temporarily knocked Hanover out of the war (they were to return the following year). Cumberland was recalled to Britain and the remaining allied north-German forces were placed under the command of Ferdinand of Brunswick, brother of Charles I, who easily persuaded his nephew Charles William Ferdinand to renew his military service as a general officer. Charles William Ferdinand was part of the allied Anglo-German force at the Battle of Minden (1759), and the Battle of Warburg (1760). Both were decisive victories over the French, during which he proved himself an excellent subordinate commander. He continued to serve in the army commanded by his uncle for the remainder of the war, which was generally successful for the north German forces. The hereditary prince's reputation improved throughout, and he became an acknowledged master of irregular warfare. Peace was restored in 1763. Marriage and travels The royal houses of the former Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg had traditionally married within the family, to avoid further division of their family lands under Salic law. By the time, Brunswick-Lüneburg had consolidated back into two states, Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover). The electorate was ruled by the Hanoverian branch of the family in personal union with the Kingdom of Great Britain. It was therefore arranged for Charles William Ferdinand to marry a British-Hanoverian princess: Princess Augusta of Great Britain, daughter of Frederick, Prince of Wales and his wife, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, and sister of the reigning King George III. In 1764, shortly after the Seven Years' War had ended, he travelled to London (landing at Harwich) to marry Princess Augusta. He received a rapturous welcome from the British people, thanks to his service with allied British troops during the war. The Parliament of Great Britain showed its gratitude by voting him a lump sum of ￡80,000 and an annual income of ￡3,000 as a wedding gift. However George III was less welcoming, and sought to express his displeasure through numerous small insults e.g. by lodging the prince at Somerset House, instead of one of the royal palaces; not providing him with a military guard; and instructing the servants at the wedding to wear old clothes. This merely served to exacerbate the enthusiasm of the public, particularly when the prince was suspected of turning his back on the unpopular monarch whilst attending an opera (a breach of social protocol). Charles William Ferdinand defied royal displeasure by meeting William Pitt the Elder (who had been prime minister during the war but resigned in 1761) and the other leaders of the parliamentary opposition. The wedding was completed, but as a result of these machinations the prince remained in Britain for only thirteen days. Over the next few years the couple embarked on a wide-ranging tour of Europe, visiting many of the major states. In 1766 they went to France, where they were received by both his allies and recent battlefield enemies with respect. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Marmontel. The couple next proceeded to Switzerland, where they met Voltaire. The longest stop on their travels was Rome, where they remained for a long time exploring the antiquities of the city under the guidance of Johann Winckelmann. During their travels the couple also met Pietro Nardini and in 1767 the prince had his portrait painted by Pompeo Batoni. After a visit to Naples they returned to Paris, and thence to Brunswick. Ruler of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Restoration of state finances His father, Charles I, had been an enthusiastic supporter of the war, but nearly bankrupted the state paying for it. As a result, in 1773 Charles William Ferdinand was given a major role in reforming the economy. With the assistance of the minister Feon?e von Rotenkreuz he was highly successful, restoring the state's finances and improving the economy. This made him hugely popular in the duchy. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, Charles William Ferdinand saw an opportunity to replenish the state's treasury by renting its well-trained army to Great Britain. In 1776, Charles I signed a treaty supporting Britain in the war, the first prince to do so. Under the terms of this treaty, Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel supplied 4,000 troops for service with the British armies in America, under the command of general Friedrich Adolf Riedesel. Riedesel was given command of all the German troops serving in the Saratoga campaign, under British general John Burgoyne. Burgoyne was defeated in the Battles of Saratoga (1777), and his troops were taken captive as the Convention Army. Although the terms of surrender allowed the Convention Army to give their parole and return to Europe, the American Continental Congress revoked the convention. The Convention Army was kept in captivity until the war ended in 1783. Reign Charles I died in 1780, at which point Charles William Ferdinand inherited the throne. He soon became known as a model sovereign, a typical enlightened despot of the period, characterized by economy and prudence. The duke's combination of interest in the well-being of his subjects and habitual caution led to a policy of gradual reforms, a successful middle way between the conservatism of some contemporary monarchs and the over-enthusiastic wholesale changes pursued by others. He sponsored enlightenment arts and sciences; most notably he was patron to the young mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, paying for him to attend university against the wishes of Gauss' father. He resembled his uncle Frederick the Great in many ways, but he lacked the resolution of the king, and in civil as in military affairs was prone to excessive caution. He brought Brunswick into close alliance with the king of Prussia, for whom he had fought in the Seven Years' War; he was a Prussian field marshal, and was at pains to make the regiment of which he was colonel a model one. The duke was frequently engaged in diplomatic and other state affairs. In August 1784 he hosted a secret diplomatic visit from Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach (Goethe was a member of Karl August's entourage). The visit was disguised as a family visit, but was in fact to discuss the formation of a league of small- and mid-sized German states as a counterbalance within the Holy Roman Empire to Habsburg Monarchy's ambitions to trade the Austrian Netherlands for the Electorate of Bavaria. This Fürstenbund (League of Princes) was formally announced in 1785, with the Duke of Brunswick as one of its members and commander of its military forces. The league was successful in forcing the Austrian Joseph II to back down, and thereafter became obsolete. The Swedish princess and diarist Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte visited Brunswick in 1799; she described the Duke as "witty, literal and a pleasant acquaintance but ceremonial beyond description. He is said to be quite strict, but a good father of the nation who attends to the needs of his people." In 1803 the process of German Mediatisation led to the acquisition of the neighbouring imperial abbeys of Gandersheim and Helmstedt, which were secularised. Military commander He was made a Prussian general in 1773. War of the Bavarian Succession From 1778 to 1779 he served in the War of the Bavarian Succession. Frederick II praised the prince personally for his conduct during the war. Invasion of the Netherlands Main articles: Patriottentijd and Prussian invasion of Holland In 1787 the Duke was made Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) in the Prussian army. Frederick William II of Prussia appointed him as commander of a 20,000-strong Prussian force which was to invade the United Provinces of the Netherlands (The Dutch Republic). The goal was to suppress the Patriots of the Batavian Revolution, restoring the authority of the stadtholder William V of the House of Orange. Much of the country was in open revolt against William, whose personal troops were unable to quell the Patriot militias and the various Dutch provinces refused to aid him. The Encyclop?dia Britannica described the Duke's invasion: "His success was rapid, complete and almost bloodless, and in the eyes of contemporaries the campaign appeared as an example of perfect generalship". The Patriots were out-manoeuvred and overwhelmed: their militias were unable to put up any real resistance, were forced to abandon their insurrection, and many Patriots fled to France. The Duke's forces entered the Netherlands on 13 September and occupied Nijmegen that day. The largest Patriot force, 7,000 men under the Rhinegrave of Salm, was quickly out-manoeuvred and forced to abandon Utrecht, which the Duke occupied on 16 September. The Prussian force captured Gorcum on the 17th after a short artillery bombardment, followed by Dordrecht on the 18th and Delft on the 19th. They entered The Hague on the 20th, from which the Patriots had been forced to withdraw following a loyalist insurrection on the 17th. Amsterdam, the last city occupied by the Patriots, surrendered on 10 October. The campaign had taken less than a month. William V was restored to power, which he was to hold until 1795. Both contemporaries and historians have praised the Duke's decisive campaign, in which he manoeuvred to concentrate his forces and achieve overwhelming local superiority, before moving on to the next city. He also received credit for the low number of casualties; one British observer suggested that "the sap of the trees was the only blood shed" (an exaggeration), referring to the wooden palisades and batteries constructed by both sides. War of the First Coalition At the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition in the early summer of 1792, Ferdinand was poised with military forces at Coblenz. After the Girondins had arranged for France to declare war on Austria, voted on April 20, 1792, the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and the Protestant King of Prussia Frederick William II had combined armies and put them under Brunswick's command. The Brunswick Proclamation Main article: Brunswick Manifesto The "Brunswick Proclamation" or "Brunswick Manifesto" that he now issued from Coblenz on July 25, 1792 threatened war and ruin to soldiers and civilians alike, should the Republicans injure Louis XVI and his family. His avowed aim was: to put an end to the anarchy in the interior of France, to check the attacks upon the throne and the altar, to reestablish the legal power, to restore to the king the security and the liberty of which he is now deprived and to place him in a position to exercise once more the legitimate authority which belongs to him. Additionally, the manifesto threatened the French population with instant punishment should they resist the Imperial and Prussian armies, or the reinstatement of the monarchy. In large part, the manifesto had been written by Louis XVI's cousin, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince de Conde, who was the leader of a large corps of emigres in the allied army. It has been asserted that the manifesto was in fact issued against the advice of Brunswick himself; the duke, a model sovereign in his own principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the French Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success of the enterprise. However, having let the manifesto bear his signature, he had to bear the full responsibility for its consequences. The proclamation was intended to threaten the French population into submission; it had exactly the opposite effect. In Paris, Louis XVI was generally believed to be in correspondence with the Austrians and Prussians already, and the republicans became more vocal in the early summer of 1792. Rather than assuring the continued existence of the French monarchy, Brunswick's proclamation would instead ensure its downfall; the manifesto was rapidly distributed in Paris on July 28, apparently by monarchists, who badly misjudged the effect it would have. The Brunswick Manifesto seemed to furnish the agitators with a complete justification for the revolt that they were already planning. When news spread of a combined Austrian and Prussian army led by Brunswick marching into French soil on the days after the Manifesto was publicized, the Paris populace, already incensed by the threat against the city, exploded into violence. The first violent action was carried out on August 10, when the Tuileries Palace was stormed. Invasion of France Main article: Battle of Valmy The Duke was disappointed that the British remained neutral. His initial advance into France was slowed by poor weather, the rough terrain of the Forest of Argonne, and an outbreak of dysentery among his troops. The Duke was less successful against the French citizens' army that met him at Valmy. Having secured Longwy and Verdun without serious resistance, he turned back after a mere skirmish in Valmy, and evacuated France. Initially the Duke intended to winter in the fortress of Verdun, before resuming the campaign in France the following spring. However Kellerman's forces outflanked him by advancing up the Rhine, recapturing French possessions there. The Duke abandoned Verdun on 8 October and Longwy on 22 October, before retreating back into Germany. When he counterattacked the Revolutionary French who had invaded Germany, in 1793, he recaptured Mainz after a long siege, but resigned in 1794 in protest at interference by Frederick William II of Prussia. War of the Fourth Coalition Main article: Battle of Jena-Auerstedt Prussia did not take part in the Second Coalition or Third Coalition against Revolutionary France. However, in 1806 Prussia declared war on France, beginning the War of the Fourth Coalition. Despite being over 70 years old, the Duke of Brunswick returned to command the Prussian army at the personal request of Louise, Queen of Prussia. By this stage the Prussian army was regarded as backward, using outdated tactics and with poor intelligence and communication. The structure of the high command has been particularly criticised by historians, with multiple officers developing differing plans and then disagreeing on which should be followed, leading to disorganisation and indecision. The duke commanded the large Prussian army at Auerstedt during the double Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on 14 October 1806. His forces were defeated by Napoleon's marshal Davout, despite the Prussians outnumbering the French around Auerstedt by two to one. During the battle he was struck by a musket ball and lost both of his eyes; his second-in-command Friedrich Wilhelm Carl von Schmettau was also mortally wounded, causing a breakdown in the Prussian command. Severely wounded, the Duke was carried with his forces before the advancing French. He died of his wounds in Ottensen on 10 November 1806. The duke's body was provisionally laid to rest in Christianskirche in 1806. It was later transferred for reburial in Brunswick Cathedral on 6 November 1819. Family On 16 January 1764, Charles married Princess Augusta of Great Britain, eldest sister of King George III. The couple were second cousins to each other, being great-grandchildren of George I of Great Britain. As such, they were not related in a particularly close degree, yet there had been many bonds of marriage between the House of Brunswick-Bevern and the House of Hanover, themselves both branches of the House of Welf. Some commentators have pointed to inbreeding as a possible cause for the fact that many of the couple's children suffered from physical, mental or psychological disabilities. Indeed, the duke was once moved to describe his children to von Massenbach as "mostly cripples in mind and body." Shortly after they married, the prince had the Schloss Richmond built for his wife. It was in English architectural style and with an English landscape garden, to remind her of her home. The duke and his wife Augusta had four sons and three daughters. Three of their four sons suffered from major debilities. Their eldest son, Karl Georg August (1766-1806) was named heir apparent, but suffered from a significant learning disability and was regarded as "well-nigh imbecile." Nevertheless, he was married in 1790 to Frederika of Orange-Nassau, daughter of William V, Prince of Orange, a gentle, good-hearted woman who remained devoted to him to the end. He died childless at the age of 40 in 1806, shortly before his father. The second son, Georg Wilhelm Christian (1769-1811), suffered from an even more severe learning disability than his elder brother. He was declared incapacitated and was excluded from the succession. He never married. The couple's third son was August (1770-1822). He was blind and was also excluded from the succession. He also never married. The fourth son, Friedrich Wilhelm (1771 - 16 June 1815), was sound of mind and body. He eventually succeeded his father, married and sired two sons. Frederick and Augusta also had three daughters, two of whom reached adulthood. Neither of them was disabled, but both of them had similar, disastrous trajectories in life. Both of them were married to future kings, both made extreme failures of their marriages, both had extremely acrimonious relations with their husbands, and both were accused by them of similar faults: adultery, uncouth behavior, absence of dignity, falsehood and utter fecklessness. The elder daughter, Auguste Caroline Friederike (1764-1788), was the wife of the future king Frederick I of Württemberg and mother of the future William I of Württemberg. She separated from her husband and died in Russia from complications that arose while giving birth in secret to an illegitimate child. The younger daughter, Caroline of Brunswick, was married in 1795 to her first cousin, the future George IV of the United Kingdom, and bore him a daughter, the ill-fated Princess Charlotte of Wales. On two occasions (1806 and 1818-19), her husband made serious efforts to divorce her on grounds of adultery, forming commissions of inquiry to indict her, and after he became king, he in fact caused the House of Lords to pass a bill of divorce citing adultery with an Italian commoner. However, the bill was never introduced in the House of Commons and the divorce was never finalized. Caroline died three weeks after she was physically prevented from entering Westminster Abbey to participate in her husband's coronation. The future Queen of Sweden, Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, described the ducal family thus: The Duchess is the sister to the King of England and a typical Englishwoman. She looked very simple, like a vicar's wife, has I am sure many admirable qualities, and is very respectable, but completely lacks manners. She makes the strangest questions without considering how difficult and unpleasant they can be.....The sons of the Ducal couple are somewhat peculiar. The (eldest) prince, chubby and fat, almost blind, strange and odd - if not to say an imbecile - attempts to imitate his father but only makes himself artificial and unpleasant. He talks continually, does not know what he says, and is in all aspects unbearable. He is accommodating but a poor thing, loves his consort to the point of worship, and is completely governed by her. The (second) son, Prince Georg, is the most ridiculous person imaginable, and so silly that he can never be left alone but is always accompanied by a courtier. The third son is also described as an original. I never saw him, as he served with his regiment. The fourth is the only normal one, but also torments his parents by his immoral behaviour. The duke also fathered at least one bastard, Forstenburg, who was healthy and began a promising military career before being killed in action during 1793. Name: Armfelt Biography: Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt(31 March 1757 - 19 August 1814) Position: statesmen Allegiance: Sweden, Russian Empire Branch/service: Swedish Army,Russian Army Rank: Major General Commands held:Nyland Infantry Regiment Count Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt (Russian: Граф Густав-Маврикий Максимович Армфельт, tr, Gustav-Mavrikiy Maksimovich Armfel't; 31 March 1757 - 19 August 1814) was a Finnish-Swedish-Russian courtier and diplomat. In Finland, he is considered one of the greatest Finnish statesmen. His advice to Russia's Tsar Alexander I was of utmost importance for securing the autonomy of the Grand Duchy of Finland. Career Born in Tarvasjoki, Finland, he was the great grandson of Charles XII of Sweden's general, Carl Gustaf Armfeldt. In 1774, Armfelt became an ensign in the guards, but his frivolous behavior involving a duel provoked the displeasure of Gustav III of Sweden. As a result, he thought it prudent to go abroad 1778. Subsequently, however, in 1780, Armfelt met the king again at Spa in the Austrian Netherlands and completely won over the previously disgruntled monarch with his natural amiability, intelligence and social gifts. Henceforth, his fortune was made. At first, he was given the position of ma?tre des plaisirs in the Swedish court, but it wasn't long before more serious affairs were entrusted to him. He took part in negotiations with Catherine II of Russia in 1783, and, during the Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790), he was one of the king's most trusted and active counsellors. He displayed great valour in the field during this time. In 1788, when the Danes unexpectedly invaded Sweden and threatened Gothenburg, Armfelt organized the Dalecarlian levies under the king's direction and led them to victory. He remained absolutely faithful to King Gustav when nearly the whole of the Swedish nobility fell away from him. Armfelt distinguished himself in the later phases of the Russo-Swedish War, eventually becoming the Swedish plenipotentiary who negotiated the war's demise with the Treaty of V?r?l? in August 1790. Armfelt had been seriously wounded in the battle of Savitaipale in June 1790. During the reign of Gustav III, his influence was paramount in Sweden, though Armfelt protested against his master's headstrong championship of the Bourbons. Diplomacy On his deathbed in 1792, King Gustav III committed the care of his infant son to Armfelt and appointed him to the Privy Council, which was to advise the new regent, the king's younger brother, Charles. Armfelt was also appointed as the Over-Governor of Stockholm, but the new regent was staunchly anti-Gustavian and sent Armfelt to serve as the Swedish ambassador to Naples in order to get rid of him. From Naples, Armfelt began secret communications with Catherine II, arguing that she should bring about by means of a military intervention a change in the Swedish government in favour of the Gustavians. The Armfelt Conspiracy, though, was discovered by spies for the regent, who immediately sent a Swedish man-of-war to Naples to seize him. With the assistance of the exiled British Queen Caroline, he was just barely able to escape. He fled to Russia, where he was interned at Kaluga 1794-1797. At home, he was condemned to death as a traitor and his property confiscated. His mistress, Magdalena Rudensch?ld, was judged for complicity and pilloried on the Riddarhus Square before being imprisoned for two years in Stockholm. Military service When Gustav IV of Sweden attained his majority, Armfelt was completely rehabilitated and sent as Swedish ambassador to Vienna in 1802, but was obliged to quit the post two years later for sharply attacking the Austrian government's attitude towards Napoleon Bonaparte. From 1805 to 1807, he was the commander-in-chief of the Swedish forces in Pomerania, where he displayed great ability and stopped the conquest of the duchy for as long as possible; the Great Sortie of Stralsund was particularly successful. On his return home, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Norwegian frontier, where he was stifled in his duties by the constant flow of ordres, contre-ordres et desordres from his master. In Russian service Armfelt was firmly opposed to the revolutionaries who overthrew Gustav IV and exiled his family in the Coup of 1809. He was the most courageous of the deposed king's supporters and resolved afterwards to retire to Finland, which had been ceded to Russia. Appointed to high offices in the Swedish government, his departure was delayed on purpose until his enemies could gather and declare a decree expelling Armfelt as a conspirator in 1811. On 31 March, he visited Russia's ambassador in Stockholm and gave him an oath of allegiance. The following day, he was deported from Sweden. Armfelt's position greatly improved in Russia. After deposing Speransky he exercised almost as much influence over Emperor Alexander I as Czartoryski. He contributed more than anyone else to Finnish independence with his plan to turn the Grand Duchy of Finland into an autonomous state within the Russian Empire. He also won over Alexander to the idea of uniting Norway with Sweden. Armfelt, who had been Chancellor of the Royal Academy of Turku from 1791 to 1792, was made Chancellor of the new Imperial Academy of Turku in 1812. He held the position for two years. In 1812, the grateful Emperor raised him to the rank of count. He served as the Minister State Secretary of Finland, the Grand Duchy's highest representative, in St Petersburg 1812-14. He was also briefly Governor-General of Finland in 1813. He died at Tsarskoe Selo near Saint Petersburg on 19 August 1814. Legacy Together with G?ran Magnus Sprengtporten, Armfelt is regarded as one of the fathers of Finnish independence. Because of his unpopularity among the anti-Gustavian Swedish nobility and the fact that he "turned Russian", Armfelt has been a rather-mysterious and generally-unknown character in Swedish history. Ignorance of Armfelt and his accomplishments persisted for well over a century in Sweden and only recently has a more nuanced, positive approach to Armfelt emerged there. In Finland, he has always been highly regarded as a great patriot and statesman. Because Armfelt chose to remain loyal to Finland and its people, rather than its former ruler, he was labeled as a traitor in Sweden and sentenced to death for treason. The Swedish people could not accept at the time the loss of Finland, which had been part of the realm for over 600 years. Their anguish was exacerbated by the fact that the province had been lost to Sweden's archenemy, Russia. Armfelt's death sentence, however, had no actual meaning outside of Sweden as there was never a realistic Swedish attempt launched to recapture Finland. Politicians threatened action mainly to gain favour among the nobles and populace. Already, in 1812, Sweden allied with Russia, and the sentence was annulled. Family In 1785, Armfelt married Countess Hedvig Ulrika De la Gardie (1761-1832), daughter of Count Carl Julius De la Gardie and Countess Magdalena Christina Stenbock. They had the following eight children: Maria Magdalena Catharina Augusta Armfelt, (1786-1845), countess Gustaf Fredrik Armfelt, (1788-1789). Carl Armfelt, born and died 1788. Magnus Armfelt, born and died 1788. Gustav Magnus Armfelt, (1792-1856), major-general, count Alexander Armfelt, (1794-1876), captain, Finnish minister secretary of state, privy councillor, count Constantin Armfelt, (1796-1797). Carl Magnus Wilhelm Armfelt, (1797-1878). From the affair with the actress Mademoiselle L'Eclair in Paris, Armfelt had an illegitimate son, Maurice L'Eclair (1780-1841). From the affair with Princess Wilhelmine, Duchess of Sagan, Armfelt had an illegitimate daughter, Adelaide Gustava Aspasie (Vava) Armfelt (1801-1881). Maurice was knighted in 1816 in Sweden as Mauritz Clairfelt and became a general; Vava was adopted in 1812 into the Armfelt family. Battles/wars Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790) Battle of Elgs? Battle of K?rnakoski Battle of Savitaipal War of the Third Coalition War of the Fourth Coalition Great Sortie of Stralsund Franco-Swedish War Dano-Swedish War of 1808-09 Battle of Lier Awards Royal Order of the Seraphim Order of the Sword Lord of the Realm Name: Lewis&Clark Biography: Lewis and Clark Meriwether Lewis(August 18, 1774 - October 11, 1809) Position: 2nd Governor of Louisiana Territory，Private Secretary to the President, member of the {Freemason}s Rank: Captain Unit: Legion of the United States 1st United States Infantry Regiment Commands :Corps of Discovery William Clark(August 1, 1770 - September 1, 1838) Position: 4th Governor of Missouri Territory, member of the {Freemason}s Branch/service:Infantry,Artillery Rank:Lieutenant.Second Lieutenant, First Lieutenant Unit: Legion of the United States Regiment of Artillerists Commands :Corps of Discovery Battles/wars: Battle of Fallen Timbers Meriwether Lewis (August 18, 1774 - October 11, 1809) was an American explorer, soldier, politician, and public administrator, best known for his role as the leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery, with William Clark. Their mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade with, and sovereignty over the natives near the Missouri River, and claim the Pacific Northwest and Oregon Country for the United States before European nations. They also collected scientific data, and information on indigenous nations. President Thomas Jefferson appointed him Governor of Upper Louisiana in 1806. He died of gunshot wounds in what was either a murder or suicide, in 1809. The Louisiana Purchase was not made official until July 1803, Jefferson still requested Congress to fund the expedition in January of the same year. William Clark (August 1, 1770 - September 1, 1838) was an American explorer, soldier, Indian agent, and territorial governor. A native of Virginia, he grew up in pre-statehood Kentucky before later settling in what became the state of Missouri. Clark was also a planter and slaveholder. Along with Meriwether Lewis, Clark led the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804-1806 across the Louisiana Purchase to the Pacific Ocean, the first major effort to explore and map much of what is now the Western United States and to assert American claims to the Pacific Northwest. Before the expedition, he served in a militia and the United States Army. Afterward, he served in a militia and as governor of the Missouri Territory. From 1822 until his death in 1838, he served as Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Meriwether Lewis was born on Locust Hill Plantation in Albemarle County, Colony of Virginia, in the present-day community of Ivy. He was the son of William Lewis, of Welsh ancestry, and Lucy Meriwether, of English ancestry. After his father died of pneumonia in November 1779, he moved with his mother and stepfather Captain John Marks to Georgia. They settled along the Broad River in the Goosepond Community within the Broad River Valley in Wilkes County (now Oglethorpe County). Lewis had no formal education until he was 13 years of age, but during his time in Georgia he enhanced his skills as a hunter and an outdoorsman. He would often venture out in the middle of the night in the dead of winter with only his dog to go hunting. Even at an early age, he was interested in natural history, which would develop into a lifelong passion. His mother taught him how to gather wild herbs for medicinal purposes. In the Broad River Valley, Lewis first dealt with American Indians. This was the traditional territory of the Cherokee, who resented encroachment by the colonists. Lewis seems to have been a champion for them among his own people. While in Georgia, he met Eric Parker, who encouraged him to travel. At age 13, Lewis was sent back to Virginia for education by private tutors. His father's older brother Nicholas Lewis became his guardian. One of his tutors was Parson Matthew Maury, an uncle of Matthew Fontaine Maury. He joined the Virginia militia, and in 1794 he was sent as part of a detachment that was involved in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion. In 1795, Lewis joined the United States Army, commissioned as an ensign—an army rank that was later abolished and was equivalent to a modern-day second lieutenant. By 1800 he rose to captain, and ended his service there in 1801. Among his commanding officers was William Clark, who would later become his companion in the Corps of Discovery. On April 1, 1801, Lewis was appointed as Secretary to the President by President Thomas Jefferson, whom he knew through Virginia society in Albemarle County. Lewis resided in the presidential mansion, and frequently conversed with various prominent figures in politics, the arts and other circles. He compiled information on the personnel and politics of the United States Army, which had seen an influx of Federalist officers as a result of "midnight appointments" made by outgoing president John Adams in 1801. Meriwether was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1802. When Jefferson began to plan for an expedition across the continent, he chose Lewis to lead the expedition. Meriwether Lewis recruited Clark, then aged 33, to share command of the expedition. Expedition west Main article: Lewis and Clark Expedition After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Thomas Jefferson wanted to get an accurate sense of the new land and its resources. The president also hoped to find a "direct and practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce with Asia". In addition, Jefferson placed special importance on declaring U.S. sovereignty over the Native Americans along the Missouri River. The two-year exploration by Lewis and Clark was the first transcontinental expedition to the Pacific Coast by the United States; however, Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific 12 years after Sir Alexander Mackenzie had done so overland in Canada. When they left Fort Mandan in April 1805 they were accompanied by the 16-year-old Shoshone woman, Sacagawea, the wife of the French-Canadian fur trader, Toussaint Charbonneau. The Corps of Discovery made contact with many Native Americans in the Trans-Mississippi West and found them accustomed to dealing with European traders and already connected to global markets. After crossing the Rocky Mountains, the expedition reached the Oregon Country (which was disputed land beyond the Louisiana Purchase) and the Pacific Ocean in November 1805. They returned in 1806, bringing with them an immense amount of information about the region as well as numerous plant and animal specimens. They demonstrated the possibility of overland travel to the Pacific Coast. The success of their journey helped to strengthen the American concept of "manifest destiny" - the idea that the United States was destined to reach all the way across North America from Atlantic to Pacific. Return and gubernatorial duties After returning from the expedition, Lewis received a reward of 1,600 acres (6.5 km2) of land. He also initially made arrangements to publish the Corps of Discovery journals, but had difficulty completing his writing. In 1807, Jefferson appointed him governor of the Louisiana Territory; he settled in St. Louis. Lewis's record as an administrator is mixed. He published the first laws in the Upper Louisiana Territory, established roads and furthered Jefferson's mission as a strong proponent of the fur trade. He negotiated peace among several quarreling Indian tribes. His duty to enforce Indian treaties was to protect the western Indian lands from encroachment, which was opposed by the rush of settlers looking to open new lands for settlements. But due to his quarreling with local political leaders, controversy over his approvals of trading licenses, land grant politics, and Indian depredations, some historians have argued that Lewis was a poor administrator. That view has been reconsidered in recent biographies. Lewis's primary quarrels were with his territorial secretary Frederick Bates. Bates was accused of undermining Lewis to seek Lewis's dismissal and his own appointment as governor. Because of the slow-moving mail system, former president Jefferson and Lewis's superiors in Washington got the impression that Lewis did not adequately keep in touch with them. Bates wrote letters to Lewis's superiors accusing Lewis of profiting from a mission to return a Mandan chief to his tribe. Because of Bates' accusation, the War Department refused to reimburse Lewis for a large sum he personally advanced for the mission. When Lewis's creditors heard that Lewis would not be reimbursed for the expenses, they called Lewis's notes, forcing him to liquidate his assets, including land he was granted for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. One of the primary reasons Lewis set out for Washington on this final trip was to clear up questions raised by Bates and to seek a reimbursement of the money he had advanced for the territorial government. The U.S. government finally reimbursed the expenses to Lewis's estate two years after his death. Bates eventually became governor of Missouri. Though some historians have speculated that Lewis abused alcohol or opiates based upon an account attributed to Gilbert C. Russell at Fort Pickering on Lewis's final journey, others have argued that Bates never alleged that Lewis suffered from such addictions and that Bates certainly would have used them against Lewis if Lewis suffered from those conditions. {{Freemason}ry} Lewis was a {Freemason}, initiated, passed and raised in the "Door To Virtue Lodge No. 44" in Albemarle, Virginia, between 1796 and 1797. On August 2, 1808, Lewis and several of his acquaintances submitted a petition to the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania requesting dispensation to establish a lodge in St. Louis. Lewis was nominated and recommended to serve as the first Master of the proposed Lodge, which was warranted as Lodge No. 111 on September 16, 1808.(See List of Notable {Freemason}s) Lewis and slavery Although Lewis attempted to supervise enslaved people while running his mother's plantation before the westward expedition, he left that post and had no valet during the expedition, unlike William Clark, who brought his slave York. Lewis made assignments to York but allowed Clark to supervise him; Lewis also granted York and Sacagawea votes during expedition meetings. Later, Lewis hired a free African-American man as his valet, John Pernia. Pernia accompanied Lewis during his final journey, although his wages were considerably in arrears. After Lewis's death, Pernia continued to Monticello and asked Jefferson to pay the $240 owed him, but was refused. Pernia later committed suicide. Death On September 3, 1809, Lewis set out for Washington, D.C. He hoped to resolve issues regarding the denied payment of drafts he had drawn against the War Department while serving as governor of the Upper Louisiana Territory, leaving him in potentially ruinous debt. Lewis carried his journals with him for delivery to his publisher. He intended to travel to Washington by ship from New Orleans, but changed his plans while floating down the Mississippi River from St. Louis. He disembarked and decided instead to make an overland journey via the Natchez Trace and then east to Washington (the Natchez Trace was the old pioneer road between Natchez, Mississippi, and Nashville, Tennessee). Robbers preyed on travelers on that road and sometimes killed their victims. Lewis had written his will before his journey and also attempted suicide on this journey, but was restrained. Circumstances According to a lost letter from October 19, 1809, to Thomas Jefferson, Lewis stopped at an inn on the Natchez Trace called Grinder's Stand, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Nashville on October 10. After dinner, he retired to his one-room cabin. In the predawn hours of October 11, the innkeeper's wife (Priscilla Grinder) heard gunshots. Servants found Lewis badly injured from multiple gunshot wounds, one each to the head and gut. He bled out on his buffalo hide robe and died shortly after sunrise. The Nashville Democratic Clarion published the account, which newspapers across the country repeated and embellished. The Nashville newspaper also reported that Lewis's throat was cut. Money that Lewis had borrowed from Major Gilbert Russell at Fort Pickering to complete the journey was missing. While Lewis's friend Thomas Jefferson and some modern historians have generally accepted Lewis's death as a suicide, debate continues, as discussed below. No one reported seeing Lewis shoot himself. Three inconsistent somewhat contemporary accounts are attributed to Mrs. Grinder, who left no written account or testimony—some thus believe her testimony was fabricated, while others point to it as proof of suicide. Mrs. Grinder claimed Lewis acted strangely the night before his death: standing and pacing during dinner and talking to himself in the way one would speak to a lawyer, with face flushed as if it had come on him in a fit. She continued to hear him talking to himself after he retired, and then at some point in the night, she heard multiple gunshots, a scuffle, and someone calling for help. She claimed to be able to see Lewis through the slit in the door crawling back to his room. However, she never explained why she never investigated further at the time, but only the next morning sent her children to look for Lewis's servants. Another account claimed the servants found Lewis in the cabin, wounded and bloody, with part of his skull gone, but he lived for several hours. In the last account attributed to Mrs. Grinder, three men followed Lewis up the Natchez Trace, and he pulled his pistols and challenged them to a duel. In that account, Mrs. Grinder said that she heard voices and gunfire in Lewis's cabin about 1:00 am. She found the cabin empty and a large amount of gunpowder on the floor. Thus, in this account, Lewis's body was found outside the cabin. Lewis's mother and relatives always contended it was murder. A coroner's jury held an inquest immediately after Lewis's death as provided by local law; however, they did not charge anyone with murdering Lewis. The jury foreman kept a pocket diary of the proceedings, which disappeared in the early 1900s. When William Clark and Thomas Jefferson were informed of Lewis's death, both accepted the conclusion of suicide. Based on their positions and the never-found Lewis letter of mid-September 1809, historian Stephen Ambrose dismissed the murder theory as "not convincing". Later analyses The only doctor to examine Lewis's body did not do so until 40 years later, in 1848. The Tennessee State Commission, including Dr. Samuel B. Moore, charged with locating Lewis's grave and erecting a monument over it, opened Lewis's grave. The commission wrote in its official report that though the impression had long prevailed that Lewis died by his own hand, "it seems to be more probable that he died by the hands of an assassin." In the book The History of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, first printed in 1893, the editor Elliott Coues expressed doubt about Thomas Jefferson's conclusion that Lewis committed suicide, despite including the former president's Memoir of Meriwether Lewis in his book. From 1993-2010, about 200 of Lewis's kin (through his sister Jane, as he had no children) sought to have the body exhumed for forensic analysis, to try to determine whether his death was a suicide or murder. A Tennessee coroner's jury in 1996 recommended exhumation. However, since Lewis's gravesite is in a national monument, the National Park Service must approve. The agency refused the request in 1998, citing possible disturbance to the bodies of more than 100 pioneers buried nearby. In 2008, the Department of the Interior approved the exhumation, but rescinded that decision in 2010, stating that the decision is final. It is nonetheless improving the grave site and visitor facility. Historian Paul Russell Cutright wrote a detailed rebuttal of the murder/robbery theory, concluding that it "lacks legs to stand on". He stressed Lewis's debts, heavy drinking, possible morphine and opium use, failure to prepare the expedition's journals for publication, repeated failure to find a wife, and the deterioration of his friendship with Thomas Jefferson. This refutation was countered by Dr. Eldon G. Chuinard, (physician), who argued for the murder hypothesis on the basis that Lewis's reported wounds were inconsistent with his reported two-hour survival after the shooting. This theory has been challenged by Dr. David J. Peck (physician), with support from Forensic Pathology and Trauma Surgery. Leading Lewis scholars Donald Jackson, Jay H. Buckley, Clay S. Jenkinson and others, have stated that, regardless of their leanings or beliefs, the facts of his death are not known, there are no eyewitnesses, and the reliability of reports of those in the place or vicinity cannot be considered certain. Author Peter Stark believes that post-traumatic stress disorder may have been a contributor to Meriwether Lewis's condition after spending months traversing hostile Indian territory, particularly because travelers coming afterward exhibited the same symptoms. Memorials Lewis was buried near present-day Hohenwald, Tennessee, near his place of death. His grave was located about 200 yards from Grinder's Stand, alongside the Natchez Trace (that section of the 1801 Natchez Trace was built by the U.S. Army under the direction of Lewis's mentor Thomas Jefferson, during Lewis's lifetime). At first, the grave was unmarked. Alexander Wilson, an ornithologist and friend of Lewis who visited the grave in May 1810 during a trip to New Orleans to sell his drawings, wrote that he gave the innkeeper Robert Griner money to erect a fence around the grave to protect it from animals. The State of Tennessee erected a monument over Lewis's grave in 1848. Lemuel Kirby, a stonemason from Columbia, Tennessee, chose the design of a broken column, commonly used at the time to symbolize a life cut short. An iron fence erected around the base of the monument was partially dismantled during the Civil War by Confederate detachments under General John Bell Hood marching from Shiloh toward Franklin; they forged the iron into horseshoes. A September 1905 article in Everybody's Magazine called attention to Lewis's abandoned and overgrown grave. A county road worker, Teen Cothran, took the initiative to open a road to the cemetery. Thereafter, a local Tennessee Meriwether Lewis Monument Committee was soon formed to push for restoring Lewis's gravesite. In 1925, in response to the committee's work, President Calvin Coolidge designated Lewis's grave as the fifth National Monument in the South. In 2009, the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation organized a commemoration for Lewis in conjunction with their 41st annual meeting from October 3-7, 2009. It included the first national memorial service at his grave site. On October 7, 2009, near the 200th anniversary of Lewis's death, about 2,500 people (National Park Service estimate) from more than 25 states gathered at his grave to acknowledge Lewis's life and achievements. Speakers included William Clark's descendant Peyton "Bud" Clark, Lewis's collateral descendants Howell Bowen and Tom McSwain, and Stephanie Ambrose Tubbs (daughter of Stephen Ambrose, who wrote Undaunted Courage, an award-winning book about the Lewis and Clark Expedition). A bronze bust of Lewis was dedicated at the Natchez Trace Parkway for a planned visitor center at the gravesite. The District of Columbia and governors of 20 states associated with the Lewis and Clark Trail sent flags flown over state capital buildings to be carried to Lewis's grave by residents of the states, acknowledging the significance of Lewis's contribution in the creation of their states. The 2009 ceremony at Lewis's grave was the final bicentennial event honoring the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Re-enactors from the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial participated, and official attendees included representatives from Jefferson's Monticello. Lewis and Clark descendants and family members, along with representatives of St. Louis Lodge #1, past presidents of the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, and the Daughters of the American Revolution, carried wreaths and led a formal procession to Lewis's grave. Samples of plants which Lewis discovered on the expedition were brought from the Trail states and laid on his grave. The U.S. Army was represented by the 101st Airborne Infantry Band and its Army chaplain. The National Park Service announced that it would rehabilitate the site. Legacy For many years, Lewis's legacy was overlooked, inaccurately assessed, and somewhat tarnished by his alleged suicide. Yet his contributions to science, the exploration of the Western U.S., and the lore of great world explorers, are considered incalculable. Four years after Lewis's death, Thomas Jefferson wrote: "Of courage undaunted, possessing a firmness & perseverance of purpose which nothing but impossibilities could divert from its direction, careful as a father of those committed to his charge, yet steady in the maintenance of order & discipline, intimate with the Indian character, customs & principles, habituated to the hunting life, guarded by exact observation of the vegetables & animals of his own country, against losing time in the description of objects already possessed, honest, disinterested, liberal, of sound understanding and a fidelity to truth so scrupulous that whatever he should report would be as certain as if seen by ourselves, with all these qualifications as if selected and implanted by nature in one body, for this express purpose, I could have no hesitation in confiding the enterprise to him. Jefferson wrote that Lewis had a "luminous and discriminating intellect". William Clark's first son Meriwether Lewis Clark was named after Lewis; the senior Meriwether Clark passed the name on to his son, Meriwether Lewis Clark, Jr. Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant (de facto Co-Captain and posthumously, officially promoted to Captain in advance of the bicentennial) William Clark commanded the Corps of Discovery to map the course of the Missouri River to its source and the Pacific Northwest overland and water routes to and from the mouth of the Columbia River. They were honored with a 3-cent stamp July 24, 1954 on the 150th anniversary. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States. Lewis and Clark described and sketched its flora and fauna and described the native inhabitants they encountered before returning to St. Louis in 1806. Coins Both Lewis and Clark appear on the gold Lewis and Clark Exposition dollars minted for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition. Among the Early United States commemorative coins, they were produced in both 1904 and 1905 and survive in relatively small numbers. Postage stamps The Lewis and Clark Expedition was celebrated on May 14, 2004, the 200th anniversary of its outset, by depicting the two on a hilltop outlook: two companion 37-cent USPS stamps showed portraits of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. A special 32-page booklet accompanied the issue in eleven cities along the route taken by the Corps of Discovery. An image of the stamp can be found on Arago online at the link in the footnote. Flora and fauna The plant genus Lewisia (family Portulacaceae), popular in rock gardens and which includes the bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), the state flower of Montana, is named after Lewis, as is Lewis's woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) and a subspecies of the cutthroat trout, the westslope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi). Geographic names Geographic names that honor him include: Lewis County, Missouri Lewis County, Idaho Lewis County, Kentucky Lewis County, Tennessee Lewisburg, Tennessee Lewiston, Idaho Lewis County, Washington the U.S. Army fort Fort Lewis, Washington, the home of the US Army 1st Corps (I Corps) Lewis and Clark County, Montana, the home of the capital city, Helena Lewis and Clark Pass (Montana) Lewis and Clark National Forest Lewistown, Montana the Lewis Range of Montana's Glacier National Park Lewis Avenue in Billings, Montana Gates of the Mountains Wilderness, a day use campground north of Helena, Montana's Meriwether Picnic site Lewis and Clark Caverns, a cave between Three Forks and Whitehall, Montana Seaside, Oregon has numerous landmarks, museums, and a "Lewis and Clark Avenue" devoted to both of the explorers. This small city is also known as being the end of their journey to the Pacific Coast. Vessels Three U.S. Navy vessels have been named in honor of Lewis: the Liberty ship SS Meriwether Lewis, the Polaris armed nuclear submarine USS Lewis and Clark and the supply ship USNS Lewis and Clark. Academic institutions Lewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Lewis-Clark State College, Lewiston, Idaho, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Lewis and Clark Community College, Godfrey, Illinois, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. The campus lies about 11 miles upstream from the Corps of Discovery's departure point. Lewis & Clark High School, Spokane, Washington, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Meriwether Lewis Elementary School, Albemarle County, Virginia was named for Meriwether Lewis, who was born nearby. Meriwether Lewis Elementary School, Portland, Oregon, was named for Meriwether Lewis. The standard author abbreviation Lewis is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. Popular culture Meriwether Lewis's relationship with Thomas Jefferson; Lewis's multiple expeditions, journals, and discoveries; and details surrounding Lewis's death play major roles in James Rollins' seventh Sigma Force novel, The Devil Colony. The mystery surrounding Meriwether Lewis's death played a role in the 2016 book, The Secret History of Twin Peaks, by author Mark Frost and in the 1998 novel by Malcolm Shuman, “The Meriwether Murder.” In 2013, on the "Nashville" episode of the Comedy Central series Drunk History, Alie Ward and Georgia Hardstark retold the story of Lewis and Clark's expedition and Lewis's death, with Tony Hale portraying Lewis and Taran Killam as Clark. In 2015, Link Neal alongside long time collaborator Rhett McLaughlin, portrayed Meriwether Lewis and William Clark respectively in the popular web series Epic Rap Battles of History as part of the Season 4 episode "Lewis and Clark vs Bill and Ted" Halls of fame In 1965, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. William Clark died in St. Louis on September 1, 1838 at age 68. Clark was originally buried at his nephew John O'Fallon's property, in 1838. That area is now known as O'Fallon Park. The funeral procession stretched for more than a mile and cannons fired a military salute. The entire city of St. Louis mourned his passing. Clark and six of his family members were later buried at Bellefontaine Cemetery on October 23, 1860. The monument that marks their graves, a 35-foot (11 m) gray granite obelisk, was dedicated in 1904 on the centennial anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Clark's son, Jefferson Kearney Clark, designed the monument and paid $25,000 for it ($425,000 in 2005 figures). Jefferson Clark's wife had to complete the building of the monument after Jefferson died in 1900. Many years later, the monument was restored and rededicated on May 21, 2004, to mark the bicentennial of the Corps of Discovery's departure from St. Charles, Missouri. Members of the Shoshone, Osage, and Mandan tribes spoke at the ceremony, marking Clark's service to these Indian nations during the final years of his life. Name: Smith Biography: Sidney Smith (21 June 1764 - 26 May 1840) Position: Navy commander,Marine Corps Commander Allegiance: United Kingdom,Sweden Branch/service: Royal Navy Rank: Royal Navy Admiral Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith GCB GCTE KmstkSO FRS (21 June 1764 - 26 May 1840) was a British naval officer. Serving in the American and French revolutionary wars, he later rose to the rank of admiral. Napoleon Bonaparte, reminiscing later in his life, said of him: "That man made me miss my destiny". Early life and career Sidney Smith, as he always called himself, was born into a military and naval family with connections to the Pitt family. He was born at Westminster, the second son of Captain John Smith of the Guards and his wife Mary Wilkinson, daughter of wealthy merchant Pinckney Wilkinson. Sidney Smith attended Tonbridge School until 1772. He joined the Royal Navy in 1777 and fought in the American Revolutionary War, where he saw action in 1778 against the American frigate Raleigh. For his bravery under Rodney in the action near Cape St Vincent in January 1780, Sidney Smith was, on 25 September, appointed lieutenant of the 74-gun third-rate Alcide, despite being under the required age of nineteen. He distinguished himself under Admiral Thomas Graves at the Battle of the Chesapeake in 1781 and under Admiral George Rodney at the Battle of the Saintes and in consequence was given his first command, the sloop Fury. He was soon promoted to captain a larger frigate, but following the peace of Versailles in 1783, he was put ashore on half pay. During the peace, Smith chose to travel to France and first became involved with intelligence matters while observing the construction of the new naval port at Cherbourg. He also traveled in Spain and Morocco which were also potential enemies. Service in the Royal Swedish Navy In 1790, he applied for permission to serve in the Royal Swedish Navy in the war between Sweden and Russia. King Gustav III appointed him to command the light squadron and to be his principal naval adviser. Smith led his forces in clearing the Bay of Viborg of the Russian fleet, known as the Battle of Svensksund (Finnish: Ruotsinsalmi, Russian: Rochensalm). The Russians lost sixty-four ships and over a thousand men. The Swedes lost four ships and had few casualties. For this, Smith was knighted by the king and made a Commander Grand Cross of the Swedish Sv?rdsorden (Order of the Sword). Smith used this title, with King George III's permission. Service in the French Revolutionary Wars In 1792, Smith's younger brother, John, was appointed to the British embassy to the Ottoman court in Constantinople. Smith obtained permission to travel to Turkey. While there, war broke out with Revolutionary France in January 1793. Smith recruited some British seamen and sailed to join the British fleet under Admiral Lord Hood which had occupied the French Navy's principal Mediterranean port of Toulon at the invitation of the French Royalist forces. By Smith's arrival in December 1793, the Revolutionary forces, including a colonel of artillery, Napoleon Bonaparte, had surrounded the port and were attacking it. The British and their allies had insufficient soldiers to mount an effective defence and so the port was evacuated. Smith, serving as a volunteer with no command, was given the task of burning as many French ships and stores as possible before the harbour could be captured. Despite his efforts, lack of support from the Spanish forces sent to help him left more than half of the French ships to be captured undamaged. Although Smith had destroyed more French ships than had the most successful fleet action to that date, Nelson and Collingwood, among others, blamed him for this failure to destroy all of the French fleet. On his return to London, Smith was given command of the fifth-rate HMS Diamond and in 1795 joined the Western Squadron under Sir John Borlase Warren. This squadron consisted of some of the most skillful and daring captains including Sir Edward Pellew. Smith fit the pattern and on one occasion took his ship almost into the port of Brest to observe the French fleet. In July 1795, Captain Smith, commanding the western frigate squadron in HMS Diamond, occupied the ?les Saint-Marcouf off the coast of Normandy. He sacrificed two of his gun vessels, HMS Badger and HMS Sandfly, to provide materials and manpower for fortifying the islands and setting a temporary naval garrison. Further defences were constructed by Royal Engineers, and Royal Marines and Royal Artillery detachments were established. The islands served as a forward base for the blockade of Le Havre, a launching point for intercepting coastal shipping, and as a transit point for French emigres, and were held by the Navy for nearly seven years. Smith specialised in inshore operations, and on 19 April 1796, he and his secretary John Wesley Wright were captured while attempting to cut out a French ship in Le Havre. Smith had taken the ship's boats into the harbour, but the wind died as they attempted to leave the harbour, and the French were able to recapture the ship with Smith and Wright aboard. Instead of being exchanged, as was the custom, Smith and Wright were taken to the Temple prison in Paris where Smith was to be charged with arson for his burning of the fleet at Toulon. As Smith had been on half pay at the time, the French considered that he was not an official combatant. Whilst in the Temple prison he commissioned a drawing of himself and his secretary John Wesley Wright from the French artist Philippe Auguste Hennequin, which is now in the British Museum. He was held in Paris for two years, despite a number of efforts to exchange him and frequent contacts with both French Royalists and British agents. Notably Captain Jacques Bergeret, captured in April 1796 with the frigate Virginie, was sent from England to Paris to negotiate his own exchange; when the Directoire refused, he returned to London. The French authorities threatened several times to try Smith for arson, but never followed up the threats. Eventually in 1798 the Royalists, who pretended to be taking him to another prison, helped Smith and Wright to escape. The royalists brought the two Englishmen to Le Havre, where they boarded an open fishing boat and were picked up on 5 May by HMS Argo on patrol in the English Channel, arriving in London on 8 May 1798. Bergeret was then released, the British government considering the prisoner exchange as completed. Service in the Mediterranean Main article: Siege of Acre (1799) Following Nelson's overwhelming victory at the Battle of the Nile, Smith was sent to the Mediterranean as captain of HMS Tigre, a captured 80-gun French ship of the line which had been brought into the Royal Navy. It was not a purely naval appointment, although he was ordered to place himself under the command of Lord St Vincent, the commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean. St Vincent gave him orders as Commodore with permission to take British ships under his command as required in the Levant. He also carried a military and diplomatic mission to Istanbul where his brother was now a Minister Plenipotentiary to the Sublime Porte. The mission's task was to strengthen Turkish opposition to Napoleon and to assist the Turks in destroying the French army stranded in Egypt. This dual appointment caused Nelson, who was the senior officer under St Vincent in the Mediterranean, to resent Smith's apparent superseding of his authority in the Levant. Nelson's antipathy further adversely affected Smith's reputation in naval circles. Napoleon, having defeated the Ottoman forces in Egypt, marched north along the Mediterranean coast with 13,000 troops through Sinai and into what was then the Ottoman province of Syria. Here he took control of much of the southern part of the province, representing modern-day Israel and Palestine, and of a single town in today's Lebanon, Tyre. On the way north he captured Gaza and Jaffa with much brutality towards the civilian population and the massacre of 3,000 captured Turkish soldiers, whom he was unable to take with him or send back to Egypt. Napoleon's army then marched to Acre. Smith sailed to Acre and helped the Turkish commander Jezzar Pasha reinforce the defences and old walls and supplied him with additional cannon manned by sailors and Marines from his ships. He also used his command of the sea to capture the French siege artillery being sent by ship from Egypt and to deny the French army the use of the coastal road from Jaffa by bombarding the troops from the sea. Once the siege began in late March 1799, Smith anchored HMS Tigre and Theseus so their broadsides could assist the defence. Repeated French assaults were driven back, several attempts to mine the walls were prevented. By early May, replacement French siege artillery had arrived overland and a breach was forced in the defences. However, the assault was again repelled and Turkish reinforcements from Rhodes were able to land. On 9 May after another fierce bombardment, the final French assault was made. This, too, was repelled and Napoleon began making plans for the withdrawal of his army to Egypt. Shortly after this, Napoleon abandoned his army in Egypt and sailed back to France evading the British ships patrolling the Mediterranean. Smith attempted to negotiate the surrender and repatriation of the remaining French forces under General Kleber and signed the Convention of El-Arish. However, because of the influence of Nelson's view that the French forces in Egypt should be annihilated rather than allowed to return to France, the treaty was abrogated by Lord Keith who had succeeded St Vincent as commander-in-chief. The British decided instead to land an army under Sir Ralph Abercromby at Abukir Bay. Smith and Tigre were involved in the training and transport of the landing forces and as liaison with the Turks, but his unpopularity resulted in the loss of his diplomatic credentials and his naval position as Commodore in the eastern Mediterranean. The invasion was successful and the French defeated, although Abercromby was wounded and died soon after the battle. Following this Smith then supported the army under Abercromby's successor John Hely-Hutchinson, which besieged and captured Cairo and finally took the last French stronghold of Alexandria. The French troops were eventually repatriated on terms similar to those previously obtained by Smith in the Convention of El-Arish. Service in British waters On his return to England in 1801, Smith received some honours and a pension of ￡1,000 for his services, but he was overshadowed again by Nelson who was being acclaimed as the victor of the Battle of Copenhagen. During the brief Peace of Amiens, Smith was elected Member of Parliament for Rochester in Kent in the election held in 1802. There is strong evidence that he had an affair with Princess Caroline of Brunswick, the estranged wife of the Prince of Wales. Although she became pregnant, she was notorious for having a number of other lovers at the same time, such as George Canning and Thomas Lawrence, so it is unlikely the child was Smith's. With the resumption of war with France in 1803, Smith was employed in the southern North Sea off the coast between Ostend and Flushing part of the forces gathered to prevent Napoleon's threatened invasion. Smith was interested in new and unusual methods of warfare. In 1804 and 1805, he worked with the American inventor Robert Fulton on his plans to develop torpedoes and mines to destroy the French invasion fleet gathering off the French and Belgian coasts. However, an attempt to use the new weapons combined with Congreve rockets in an attack on Boulogne was foiled by bad weather and the French gunboats that came out to threaten the attackers. Despite this setback, suggestions were made that the rockets, mines and torpedoes be used against the Combined French and Spanish Fleet in Cádiz. This was not necessary as the combined fleet sailed to defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805. Further service in the Mediterranean In November 1805, Smith was promoted to Rear Admiral, he was again sent to the Mediterranean under the command of Collingwood, who had become the commander-in-chief following Nelson's death. Collingwood sent him to assist King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies to regain his capital of Naples from Napoleon's brother King Joseph, who had been given the Kingdom of Naples. Smith planned a campaign using Calabrian irregular troops with a force of 5,000 British officers and men to march north on Naples. On 4 July 1806, they defeated a larger French force at the Battle of Maida. Once again, Smith's inability to avoid offending his superiors caused him to be replaced as commander of the land forces despite his success. He was replaced by Sir John Moore, one of Britain's most able soldiers. Moore abandoned Smith's plan and resorted to making the island of Sicily a strong British base in the Mediterranean. Smith was sent to join Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth's expedition to Constantinople in February 1807. This was intended to forestall the French from making an alliance with the Turks to allow free passage of their army to Egypt. Despite Smith's great experience in Turkish waters, his knowledge of the Turkish court, and his personal popularity with the Turks, he was kept in a subordinate role. Even when Duckworth eventually did ask for his advice, it was not heeded. Duckworth, instead of allowing Smith to negotiate with the Turks, which the French ambassador later said would have been the end of the French overtures, retreated back through the Dardanelles under heavy Turkish fire. Although this was a defeat, the withdrawal under fire was played up as a heroic feat. In the summer of 1807, Duckworth and Smith were recalled to England. Portugal and Brazil Main article: Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil In October 1807, Spain and France signed a treaty to divide Portugal between them. In November 1807, Smith was appointed to command an expedition to Lisbon, either to assist the Portuguese in resisting the attack or to destroy the Portuguese fleet and blockade the harbour at Lisbon should that be unsuccessful. Smith arranged for the Portuguese fleet to sail for Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, at that time a Portuguese colony. He was involved in planning an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America, in combination with the Portuguese, contrary to his orders, but he was recalled to Britain in 1809 before any of the plans could be carried out. He received much popular acclaim for his actions and was treated as a hero, but the government continued to be suspicious of him, and he was not given any official honours. Smith was promoted to vice admiral on 31 July 1810. In the Royal Navy of the time, promotion was automatic and based on seniority, not a specific reward for good service. Later that year in October 1810, he married Caroline Rumbold, the widow of a diplomat, Sir George Rumbold, with whom Smith had worked. Upon safe arrival to Brazil escorting the Portuguese Royal Family, Admiral Smith was awarded by the Prince-Regent John, the Grand Cross of the newly restored Order of the Tower and Sword. Mediterranean again In July 1812, Smith again sailed for the Mediterranean aboard his new flagship, the 74-gun Tremendous. He was appointed as second in command to Vice Admiral Sir Edward Pellew. His task was to blockade Toulon and he transferred his flag to the larger Hibernia, a 110-gun first-rate. The French did not come out of port to confront the British. Early in 1814, the Allies entered Paris and Napoleon abdicated. With the coming of peace and the defeat of Napoleon, Smith began the journey back to England. Peace and Waterloo In March 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and gathering his veteran troops marched on Paris where he was reinstated as Emperor of the French. Smith travelling back to England had only reached Brussels by June. Smith, his wife and stepdaughter attended the Duchess of Richmond's ball on night 15/16 June, and three days later, hearing the gunfire of a great battle, he rode out of Brussels and went to meet the Duke of Wellington. Smith found him late in the day when he had just won the Battle of Waterloo. Smith started making arrangements for the collecting and treatment of the many wounded soldiers on both sides. He was then asked to take the surrender of the French garrisons at Arras and Amiens and to ensure that the Allied armies could enter Paris without a fight and that it would be safe for King Louis XVIII to return to his capital. For these and other services, he was finally awarded a British knighthood, the KCB, so he was not just "the Swedish Knight" any more. Smith then took up the anti-slavery cause. The Barbary pirates had operated for centuries out of a number of North African ports. They had enslaved captured sailors and even made raids to kidnap people from European coasts, including England and Ireland. Smith attended the Congress of Vienna to campaign for funds and military action to end the practice of slave taking. Smith had managed to run up significant debts through his diplomatic expenses, which the British government proved to be very slow in reimbursing. He also lived high lifestyle and his efforts to mobilise opinion against the slave trade had cost a good deal of money. In Britain, at that time debtors were often imprisoned until their debts were paid, so Smith moved his family to France, settling in Paris. Eventually the government did reimburse his expenditures and increased his pension, allowing him to live in some style. Despite frequent attempts to obtain a seagoing position, he was never to hold a command again. He died on 26 May 1840 following a stroke. He is buried with his wife in Père Lachaise Cemetery. On 7 April 1801 Sidney, New York (Delaware County) was named in Sir Sidney Smith's honour. In June 1811 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1838 he was promoted to GCB in the Coronation Honours. Sidney Smith Barracks, in Mandate Palestine, were named in his honour. Now it is the site of Bustan Ha-Galil in northern Israel. On 14 July 1941 the French forces in Syria and Lebanon signed their surrender to the British. Battles/wars American Revolutionary War Battle of Cape St. Vincent, 1780 Battle of the Chesapeake, 1781 Battle of the Saintes, 1782 Russo-Swedish War Battle of Vyborg Bay, 1790 Battle of Svensksund, 1790 Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign Siege of Acre, 1799 Awards Order of the Sword Order of the Tower and Sword Knight Commander of the Bath Name: Lenari Biography: Tokugawa Ienari (November 18, 1773 - March 22, 1841) Lenari kept a harem of 900 women and fathered over 75 children Tokugawa Ienari (Japanese: 徳川 家斉, November 18, 1773 - March 22, 1841) was the eleventh and longest-serving shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan who held office from 1787 to 1837. He was a great-grandson of the eighth shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune through his son Munetada (1721-1764), head of the Hitotsubashi branch of the family, and his grandson Harusada (1751-1827). Ienari died in 1841 and was given the Buddhist name Bunkyouin and buried at Kan'ei-ji. Family life First wife In 1778, the four-year-old Hitotsubashi Toyochiyo (豊千代), a minor figure in the Tokugawa clan hierarchy, was betrothed to Shimazu Shigehime or Tadakohime, the four-year-old daughter of Shimazu Shigehide, the tozama daimyō of Satsuma Domain on the island of Kyūshū. The significance of this alliance was dramatically enhanced when, in 1781, the young Toyochiyo was adopted by the childless shōgun, Tokugawa Ieharu. This meant that when Toyochiyo became Shōgun Ienari in 1786, Shigehide was set to become the father-in-law of the shōgun. The marriage was completed in 1789, after which Tadako became formally known as Midaidokoro Sadako, or "first wife" Sadako. Protocol required that she be adopted into a court family, and the Konoe family agreed to take her in but this was a mere formality. Other relationships Ienari kept a harem of 900 women and fathered over 75 children. Many of Ienari's children were adopted into various daimyō houses throughout Japan, and some played important roles in the history of the Bakumatsu and Boshin War. Some of the more famous among them included: Hachisuka Narihiro, Tokushima Domain Hachisuka Mochiaki Hachisuka Masaaki (1871-1932) Hachisuka Masauji (1903-1953) Hachisuka Masako (1941) Hachisuka Toshiko (1896-1970) Matsudaira Naritami, Tsuyama Domain Tokugawa Narikatsu (1820-1849), Shimizu Tokugawa family then to Wakayama Domain Matsudaira Narisawa, Fukui Domain Tokugawa Nariyuki (1801-1846), Wakayama Domain Tokugawa Iemochi Tazawa Hidenari, Tazawa Domain, as Tazawa Hideyasu's adopted son Parents and siblings Father: Tokugawa Harusada (1751-1827) Mother: O-Tomi no Kata (d. 1817) Adoptive Father: Tokugawa Ieharu Siblings: Kiihime married Hosokawa Naritatsu of Kumamoto Domain Matsudaira Yoshisue (1785-1804) of Takasu Domain Kuroda Naritaka (1777-1795) of Fukuoka Domain Tokugawa Harukuni (1776-1793) Tokugawa Nariatsu Hisanosuke Honnosuke Tokugawa Narimasa Yunosuke Wife and concubines Wife: Shimazu Shigehime, later Kodaiin (1773-1844), daughter of Shimazu Shigehide of Satsuma Domain Concubine: Omiyo no Kata (1797-1872) (There is legend said that Omiyo was daughter of Tokugawa Ieharu with a servant) later Senkoin O-ito no kata Oyae no Kata (d. 1843) later Kaishun'in Oraku no Kata (d. 1810) later Korin'in Otase no Kata (d. 1832) later Myosoin Ohana no Kata (d. 1845) later Seiren'in Ohachi no Kata later Honrin'in (d. 1850) Ohachi no Kata (d. 1813) later Chisoin Osode no Kata (d. 1830) later Honshoin Oyachi no Kata (d. 1810) later Seishoin Osato no Kata (d. 1800) later Chosoin Ocho no Kata (d. 1852) later Sokuseiin Oshiga no Kata (d. 1813) later Keimeiin Outa no Kata (d. 1851) later Hoschiin Oume no Kata (d. 1794)later Shinsei-in Oman no Kata (d. 1835) later Seishin'in Obi no Kata (d. 1808) later Hoshin'in Children Toshihime (1789-1817) married Tokugawa Naritomo by Oman Koso-in (b. 1790) by Oman Takechiyo (1792-1793) by Oman Tokugawa Ieyoshi (1793-1837) by Korin'in Hidehime (b. 1794) later Tansei-in by Oume Ayahime (1795-1797; infant when died and replaced by her younger sister, Asahime) Married Date Chikamune of Sendai Domain by Oman Tokugawa Keinosuke (1795-1797) by Oume Tokugawa Atsunosuke (1796-1799) born by Shigehime inherited Shimazu-Tokugawa family Sohime (1796-1797) by Oshiga Tokugawa Toyasaburo (b. 1798) by Oume Kakuhime (1798-1799) by Osato Gohime (1799-1800) by Oume Tazawa Hidenari Tokugawa Hidemaru Mine-hime (1800-1853) born by Otase and married Tokugawa Narinobu of Owari Domain Tokugawa Nariyuki (1801-1846) inherited Shimizu-Tokugawa family later inherited Kii Domain and born to Otase Toruhime (1801-1802) by Ocho Jiyohime (1802-1803) by Oume Asahime (1803-1843) married Date Chikamune later married Matsudaira Naritsugu of Fukui Domain by Obi Jukihime (1803-1804) by Otase Tokugawa Tokinosuke (1803-1805) by Ocho Harehime (1805-1807) by Otase Tokugawa Torachiyo (1806-1810) by Ocho Kohime (b. 1806) Kishihime (1807-1811) Motohime (1808-1821) married Matsudaira Katahiro of Aizu Domain by Oyachi Ayahime (1809-1837) married Matsudaira Yoritane of Takamatsu Domain by Osode Tokugawa Tomomatsu (1809-1813) by Ocho Yohime (1813-1868), married Maeda Nariyasu, born to Omiyo Nakahime (1815-1817), born to Omiyo Tokugawa Narinori (1810-1827) inherited Shimizu family of Gosankyō and born by Oyae Tokugawa Naritaka born by Ocho Tsuyahime (b.1811) by Osode Morihime (1811-1846) married Nabeshima Naomasa of Saga Domain by Oyae Ikeda Narihiro (1812-1826) born by Oyae Kazuhime (1813-1830) married Mori Narito of Chōshū Domain by Ocho Takahime (1813-1814) by Osode Tokugawa Okugoro (1813-1814) by Ohachi Kotohime (1815-1816) by Ohana Tokugawa Kyugoro (1815-1817) by Ocho Matsudaira Naritami born to Oyae Suehime (1817-1872) married Asano Naritaka of Hiroshima Domain later Yousein by Omiyo Kiyohime (1818-1868), married Sakai Tadanori of Himeji Domain later Seiko-in, born to Oyae Matsudaira Nariyoshi (1820-1838) adopted to Fukui-Matsudaira family by Ohana Tokugawa Shichiro (1818-1821) by Osode Matsudaira Nariyoshi (1819-1839) of Hamada Domain and born to Oyae Ei-hime (1819-1875) married Tokugawa Narikura of Hitotsubashi-Tokugawa Family by Ohana Tokugawa Nariharu born by Ohana Matsudaira Narisawa born by Honrin'in Tokugawa Narikatsu (1820-1850) inherited Shimizu-Tokugawa family later inherited Kii Domain and born by Osode Hachisuka Narihiro born by Oyae Tokugawa Hachiro (1822-1823) by Osode Matsudaira Narisada (1823-1841) born by Ohana Matsudaira Narikoto (1825-1844) of Akashi Domain born by Ohana Taehime (1827-1843) by Ohana and married Ikeda Narimichi of Tottori Domain Tokugawa Taminosuke, born by O-ito Fumihime Notable descendants Tokugawa Nariyuki (1801-1846) Kikuhime Yohime Tokugawa Iemochi Asahime (1803-1843) married Matsudaira Naritsugu Kikuhime (1829-1829) Yoshimaru (1835-1835) Kuninosuke Tokugawa Naritaka Shomaru (1846-1847) inherited Hitotsubashi-Tokugawa family Rihime married Asano Yoshiteru Fuhime married Matsudaira Noritoshi Yo-hime (1813-1868) married Maeda Nariyasu Ikeda Yoshitaka (1834-1850) Kanoshimaru Maeda Yoshiyasu Maeda Toshitsugu (1858-1900) Namiko married Toshinari Maeda Maeda Toshitatsu (1908-1989) Maeda Toshiyasu (b. 1935) Maeda Toshinori (b. 1963) Matsudaira Naritami Matsudaira Yasutomo Hitoshimaru daughter married Miura Yoshitsugu Matsudaira Yasutami (1861-1921) Matsudaira Yasuyoshi Matsudaira Yasuharu Takako married Ichishima Noriatsu Teruko married Shuta Yasuto Watanabe Akira Tsuruko married Matsudaira Yoritsune Sansuko married Isahaya Fujio Matsudaira Shiro Matsudaira Fumihiro Suehime Yakuhime (1843-1843) Kiyo-hime Tokudairo (1835-1837) Kisohime (b. 1834) married Sakai Tadatomi Tokugawa Narikatsu (1820-1850) Ryuchiyo Tatsujiro Nobehime Akihime Junhime Kikuhime Hachisuka Narihiro Kayohime (1848-1865) married Matsudaira Mochiaki Hachisuka Mochiaki Hachisuka Masaaki (1871-1932) Hachisuka Tsuruko Hachisuka Yoshiko Hachisuka Saeko married Satake Yoshitane Hachisuka Fueko married Masayuki Matsuda Asako married Prince Kaya-no-Miya Harunori Hachisuka Toshiko (1896-1970) married Matsudaira Yasuharu 1 son and 4 daughters Masauji Hachisuka (1903-1953) Masako Hachisuka (b. 1941) Tokugawa Ieyoshi Takechiyo (1813-1814) Tatsuhime (1814-1818) Tomohime (1815-1815) Saigen-in (1816-1816) Yochiyo (1819-1820) Entsuin (1822-1822) Tokugawa Iesada Maihime (1824-1829) Tokugawa Yoshimasa (1825-1838) of Hitotsubashi-Tokugawa Family Teruhime (1826-1840) married Tokugawa Yoshiyori and later known as Teimei-in Hanhime (1826-1826) by Okaju Tokugawa Harunojo (1826-1827) Tokugawa Atsugoro (1828-1829) Tokugawa Jikimaru (1829-1830) Tokugawa Ginnojo (1832-1833) Satohime (1833-1834) Chiehime (1835-1836) Yoshihime (1836-1837) Tokugawa Kamegoro (1838-1839) Maijihime (1839-1840) Wakahime (1842-1843) Shoyo-in (1843-1843) Okuhime (1844-1845) Tokugawa Tadashimaru (1845-1846) Shikihime (1848-1848) Sashin-in (1849-1849) Tokugawa Choyoshiro (1852-1853) Events of Ienari's bakufu 1787 (Tenmei 7): Ienari becomes the 11th shōgun of the bakufu government. 1788 (Tenmei 7): Riots in rice shops in Edo and Osaka. March 6 - 11, 1788 (Tenmei 8, 29th day of the 1st month - 4th day of the second month): Great Fire of Kyoto. A fire in the city, which begins at 3 o'clock in the morning of March 6 burns uncontrolled until the 1st day of the second month (March 8); and embers smolder until extinguished by heavy rain on the 4th day of the second month (March 11). The emperor and his court flee the fire, and the Imperial Palace is destroyed. No other re-construction is permitted until a new palace is completed. This fire was considered a major event. The Dutch VOC Opperhoofd in Dejima noted in his official record book that "people are considering it to be a great and extraordinary heavenly portent." February 28, 1793 (Kansei 5, on the 18th day of the 1st month): Collapse of the peak of Mount Unzen. March 17, 1793 (Kansei 5, on the 6th day of the 2nd month): Eruption of Mt. Biwas-no-kubi April 15, 1793 (Kansei 5, on the 1st day of the 3rd month): The Shimabara earthquake. May 10, 1793 (Kansei 5, on the 1st day of the 4th month): Eruption of Mt. Miyama. September 1817, the Shōgun orders the expulsion of Titia Bergsma, the first European woman to visit Japan 1833-1837, the Tenpō famine 1837 (Tenpō 7): Tokugawa Ieyoshi becomes the 12th shōgun of the bakufu government. Ienari's time in office was marked by an era of pleasure, excess, and corruption, which ended in the disastrous Tenpō Famine of 1832-1837, in which thousands are known to have perished. Eras of Ienari's bakufu The years in which Ienari was shōgun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Tenmei (1781-1789) Kansei (1789-1801) Kyōwa (1801-1804) Bunka (1804-1818) Bunsei (1818-1830) Tenpō (1830-1844) Name: Lecor Biography: Carlos Frederico Lecor, Viscount of Laguna (October 6, 1764 - August 2, 1836) Position: President of Cisplatina province Allegiance: Kingdom of Portugal, United Kingdom, Empire of Brazil Rank: Marshal of the Army (Brazil) Lieutenant General (Portugal/United Kingdom) 1794, he became first lieutenant in the Artillery Regiment of Algarve, as second in command to the ninth company of gunners.In 1795 and 1796, he was part of the artillery complement of the Nau Príncipe da Beira, the flagship of a fleet escorting commercial ships to Salvador, in Brazil. He was most notably the only non-British General to have commanded one of the Anglo-Portuguese divisions of Wellington's Peninsular Army (the seventh, in late 1813), as well as having commanded the Portuguese forces who invaded the Banda Oriental del Uruguay (Eastern Bank of Uruguay) in 1816. He personally ruled the newly conquered Cisplatina Province, until the Cisplatine War of 1825-1828. During this war, he succeeded in defending Montevideo against an Argentine-Uruguayan siege Carlos Frederico Lecor (October 6, 1764 - August 2, 1836) was a Portuguese general and politician. He was the first Baron of Laguna, in Portugal, and later ascended to Viscount of Laguna, in Brazil. His last name is sometimes written as Lecór or Le Cor. The latter is very common in English sources of the 19th century. Most Spanish sources give him as Carlos Federico Lecor. Early life and military career (1764-1807) Son of Louis Pierre Lecor, a French emigre, and Quiteria Maria Krusse, Carlos Frederico Lecor was born in the Parish of Santos-o-Velho, in Lisbon. He had French ascendency by his father, and German, Dutch and Spanish ascendency by his mother. He was born into merchant families, and, as the older son of five, was destined to pursue a commercial career. Instead, having moved to Faro in the decade of 1770, he would eventually enlist in the Portuguese Army, as a Pe de Castelo (Castle Guard) in 1793, as a gunner, at the unusual age of 29. Having been placed at the Fortress of Santo António da Barra, in Tavira, he rose to the rank of Sargeant. He was then made an adjutant to the military commander of Portim?o, presumably at officer level. In 1794, he became first lieutenant in the Artillery Regiment of Algarve, as second in command to the ninth company of gunners. In 1795 and 1796, he was part of the artillery complement of the Nau Príncipe da Beira, the flagship of a fleet escorting commercial ships to Salvador, in Brazil. Upon returning to Lisbon, he was promoted to Captain in the Light Troops Legion, an experimental unit of the Portuguese Army, eventually becoming the aide-de-camp to General Marquis of Alorna. In this capacity he was promoted to Major (1802) and Lieutenant-Colonel (1805). Peninsular War (1807-1814) On the occasion of the first French Invasion of Portugal, in November 1807, Carlos Frederico Lecor is credited with having spotted the invading army, commanded by Junot, north of Abrantes, and having personally informed the Prince-Regent, future King John VI. As Lecor didn't want to serve in the Legion Portugaise, formed out of the remnants of the dismantled Portuguese Army to serve Napoleon, he fled to Plymouth, England, hoping to embark to Brazil, but on hearing the news of the Portuguese uprisings of June 1808, he participates in the creation of the Loyal Lusitanian Legion, a military unit created by the Portuguese exiles in England. He then returns to Portugal, with colonel Robert Wilson. Despite being originally made responsible for the recruitment of a second battalion of the Legion, he is made colonel of the 23rd Infantry Regiment, in Almeida, in December 1808. Between 1809 and 1813, Lecor acts as commander of several units in the Portuguese Army, mainly brigade-level, and as military commander of the Beira Baixa region, based in Castelo Branco. He is promoted to Brigadier General on May 8, 1811. For a brief period in 1811, he commands the Portuguese Brigade of the Allied 7th Division. He participates in the Bussaco campaign, as well as the Lines of Torres Vedras, under general Rowland Hill. On the eve of the Vitoria Campaign, in 1813, Lecor is placed again at the command of the Portuguese Brigade (later numbered sixth) of the seventh Division of the Anglo-Portuguese Army, under the command of Lord Dalhousie. He is promoted to Major General (Marechal de Campo) on June 4, 1813. He then goes on to fight in the Battle of Sorauren, as brigade commander and the Battle of Nivelle, as acting commander of the 7th Division. He is then placed as the commander of the Portuguese Division, where he is till the end of the war, participating at the Battle of the Nive, on its last day, also called the Battle of St. Pierre. Service in Brazil and Uruguay (1815-1829) Having returned to Portugal, in mid-1814, after the conclusion of the Peninsular War, Lecor is appointed military governor of the Alentejo for a brief period of time. In June, 1815, he is promoted to Lieutenant General and appointed commander of the Prince's Royal Voluntary Division (Divis?o de Voluntário Reais do Príncipe) a unit to be sent for service in Brazil, made up mostly of peninsular veterans. In 1816 he led the successful Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental against the Liga Federal of Jose Gervasio Artigas, who had liberated the Banda Oriental (present-day Uruguay) from Spanish rule the year before. He personally ruled the newly conquered Cisplatina Province, until the Cisplatine War of 1825-1828. During this war, he succeeded in defending Montevideo against an Argentine-Uruguayan siege, but when Uruguay became independent in the peace treaty, he had to return to Brazil. Battles/wars Peninsular War Battle of Garris Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental Cisplatine War Name: Bolívar Biography: Simón Bolívar(24 July 1783 - 17 December 1830) Position: 1st President of Gran Colombia，1st President of Bolivia，6th President of Peru，President of the Third Republic of Venezuela，President of the Second Republic of Venezuela Simón Jose Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Ponte Palacios y Blanco (24 July 1783 - 17 December 1830) ) (Spanish: English: /?b?l?v?r, -vɑ?r/ BOL-iv-?r, -?ar also US: /?bo?l?vɑ?r/ BOH-liv-ar), also colloquially as El Libertador, or Liberator of America was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Panama to independence from the Spanish Empire. Bolívar was born in Caracas (Venezuela) into a wealthy family and as was common for the heirs of upper-class families in his day, was sent to be educated abroad at a young age, arriving in Spain when he was 16 and later moving to France. While in Europe he was introduced to the ideas of the Enlightenment, which later motivated him to overthrow the reigning Spanish in colonial South America. Taking advantage of the disorder in Spain prompted by the Peninsular War, Bolívar began his campaign for independence in 1808. The campaign for the independence of New Granada was consolidated with the victory at the Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819. He established an organized national congress within three years. Despite a number of hindrances, including the arrival of an unprecedentedly large Spanish expeditionary force, the revolutionaries eventually prevailed, culminating in the victory at the Battle of Carabobo in 1821, which effectively made Venezuela an independent country. Following this triumph over the Spanish monarchy, Bolívar participated in the foundation of the first union of independent nations in Latin America, Gran Colombia, of which he was president from 1819 to 1830. Through further military campaigns, he ousted Spanish rulers from Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, the last of which was named after him. He was simultaneously president of Gran Colombia (present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Panama and Ecuador), Peru, and Bolivia, but soon after, his second-in-command, Antonio Jose de Sucre, was appointed president of Bolivia. Bolívar aimed at a strong and united Spanish America able to cope not only with the threats emanating from Spain and the European Holy Alliance but also with the emerging power of the United States. At the peak of his power, Bolívar ruled over a vast territory from the Argentine border to the Caribbean Sea. Bolívar is viewed as a national icon in much of modern South America, and is considered one of the great heroes of the Hispanic independence movements of the early 19th century, along with Jose de San Martín, Francisco de Miranda and others. Towards the end of his life, Bolívar despaired of the situation in his native region, with the famous quote "all who served the revolution have plowed the sea".:450 In an address to the Constituent Congress of the Republic of Colombia, Bolívar stated "Fellow citizens! I blush to say this: Independence is the only benefit we have acquired, to the detriment of all the rest." The surname Bolívar originated with aristocrats from Ziortza-Bolibar (Spanish: Puebla de Bolívar), a small village in the Basque Country of Spain. Bolívar's father came from the female line of the Ardanza family. His maternal grandmother was descended from families from the Canary Islands. 16th century The Bolívars settled in Venezuela in the 16th century. Bolívar's first South American ancestor was Simón de Bolívar (or Simon de Bolibar; the spelling was not standardized until the 19th century), who lived and worked from 1559 to 1560 in Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) where his son Simón de Bolívar y Castro was born. When the governor was reassigned to Venezuela by the Spanish Crown in 1569, Simón de Bolívar went with him. As an early settler in Spain's Venezuela Province he became prominent in the local society, and he and his descendants were granted estates, encomiendas, and positions in the local cabildo. When Caracas Cathedral was built in 1569, the Bolívar family had one of the first dedicated side chapels. The majority of the wealth of Simón de Bolívar's descendants came from their estates. The most important was a sugar plantation with an encomienda that provided the labor needed to run the estate. Another portion of the Bolívars' wealth came from silver, gold, and copper mines. Small gold deposits were first mined in Venezuela in 1669, leading to the discovery of much more extensive copper deposits. From his mother's side (the Palacios family), Bolívar inherited the Aroa copper mines at Cocorote. Native American and African slaves provided the majority of the labor in these mines. 17th century Toward the end of the 17th century, copper mining became so prominent in Venezuela that the metal became known as cobre Caracas ("Caracas copper"). Many of the mines became the property of the Bolívar family. Bolívar's grandfather, Juan de Bolívar y Martínez de Villegas, paid 22,000 ducats to the monastery at Santa Maria de Montserrat in 1728 for a title of nobility that had been granted by King Philip V of Spain for its maintenance. The crown never issued the patent of nobility, and so the purchase became the subject of lawsuits that were still in progress during Bolívar's lifetime, when independence from Spain made the point moot. (If the lawsuits had been successful, Bolívar's older brother, Juan Vicente, would have become the Marquess of San Luis and Viscount of Cocorote.) Bolívar ultimately devoted his personal fortune to the revolution. Having been one of the wealthiest persons within the Spanish American world at the beginning of the revolution, he died in poverty. Early life Simón Bolívar was born in a house in Caracas, Captaincy General of Venezuela, on 24 July 1783.:6 He was baptized as Simón Jose Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios. His mother was María de la Concepción Palacios y Blanco, and his father was Colonel Don Juan Vicente Bolívar y Ponte. He had two older sisters and a brother: María Antonia, Juana, and Juan Vicente. Another sister, María del Carmen, died at birth. When Bolívar was an infant, he was cared for by Do?a Ines Manceba de Miyares and the family's slave, Hipólita. A couple of years later, he returned to the care of his parents, but this experience would have a major effect on his life. His father died before Bolívar's third birthday of tuberculosis, and his mother died when he was almost nine. After his mother's death, Bolívar was placed in the custody of an instructor, Miguel Jose Sanz, but this relationship did not work out and he was sent back home. He went on to receive private lessons from the renowned professors Andres Bello, Guillermo Pelgrón, Jose Antonio Negrete, Fernando Vides, Father Andújar, and Don Simón Rodríguez, formerly known as Simón Carre?o. Don Simón Rodríguez became Bolívar's teacher, friend and mentor. He taught him how to swim and ride horses, as well as about liberty, human rights, politics, history, and sociology. Later in life, Rodríguez was pivotal in Bolívar's decision to start the revolution, instilling in him the ideas of liberty, enlightenment, and freedom. In the meantime, Bolívar was mostly cared for by his nurse, his slave Hipólita, whom he saw as both a mother and a father. Youth When Bolívar was fourteen, Don Simón Rodríguez was forced to leave the country after being accused of involvement in a conspiracy against the Spanish government in Caracas. Bolívar then entered the military academy of the Milicias de Aragua. In 1800, he was sent to Spain to follow his military studies in Madrid, where he remained until 1802. Back in Europe in 1804, he lived in France and traveled to different countries. While in Milan, Bolívar witnessed the coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy (a kingdom in personal union with France in modern northern Italy), an event that left a profound impression on him. Even if he disagreed with the crowning, he was highly sensitive to the popular veneration inspired by the hero. Political and military career Main article: Military career of Simón Bolívar Venezuela and New Granada, 1807-1821 Prelude, 1807-1810 Bolívar returned to Venezuela in 1807. After a coup on 19 April 1810, Venezuela achieved de facto independence when the Supreme Junta of Caracas was established and the colonial administrators were deposed. The Supreme Junta sent a delegation to Great Britain to get British recognition and aid. This delegation presided by Bolívar also included two future Venezuelan notables Andres Bello and Luis López Mendez. The trio met with Francisco de Miranda and persuaded him to return to his native land. First Republic of Venezuela, 1811-1812 In 1811, a delegation from the Supreme Junta, also including Bolívar, and a crowd of commoners enthusiastically received Miranda in La Guaira. During the insurgence war conducted by Miranda, Bolívar was promoted to colonel and was made commandant of Puerto Cabello the following year, 1812. As Royalist Frigate Captain Domingo de Monteverde was advancing into republican territory from the west, Bolívar lost control of San Felipe Castle along with its ammunition stores on 30 June 1812. Bolívar then retreated to his estate in San Mateo. Miranda saw the republican cause as lost and signed a capitulation agreement with Monteverde on 25 July, an action that Bolívar and other revolutionary officers deemed treasonous. In one of Bolívar's most morally dubious acts, he and others arrested Miranda and handed him over to the Spanish Royal Army at the port of La Guaira. For his apparent services to the Royalist cause, Monteverde granted Bolívar a passport, and Bolívar left for Cura?ao on 27 August. It must be said, though, that Bolívar protested to the Spanish authorities about the reasons why he handled Miranda, insisting that he was not lending a service to the Crown but punishing a defector. In 1813, he was given a military command in Tunja, New Granada (modern-day Colombia), under the direction of the Congress of United Provinces of New Granada, which had formed out of the juntas established in 1810. Second Republic of Venezuela (1813-1814) and exile This was the beginning of the Admirable Campaign. On 24 May, Bolívar entered Merida, where he was proclaimed El Libertador ("The Liberator"). This was followed by the occupation of Trujillo on 9 June. Six days later, and as a result of Spanish massacres on independence supporters, Bolívar dictated his famous "Decree of War to the Death", allowing the killing of any Spaniard not actively supporting independence. Caracas was retaken on 6 August 1813, and Bolívar was ratified as El Libertador, establishing the Second Republic of Venezuela. The following year, because of the rebellion of Jose Tomás Boves and the fall of the republic, Bolívar returned to New Granada, where he commanded a force for the United Provinces. His forces entered Bogotá in 1814 and recaptured the city from the dissenting republican forces of Cundinamarca. Bolívar intended to march into Cartagena and enlist the aid of local forces in order to capture the Royalist town of Santa Marta. In 1815, however, after a number of political and military disputes with the government of Cartagena, Bolívar fled to Jamaica, where he was denied support. After an assassination attempt in Jamaica, he fled to Haiti, where he was granted protection. He befriended Alexandre Petion, the president of the recently independent southern republic (as opposed to the Kingdom of Haiti in the north), and petitioned him for aid. Petion provided the South American leader with a multitude of provisions consisting of ships, men and weapons, only demanding in return that Bolívar promise to abolish slavery in any of the lands he took back from Spain. The pledge would indeed be upheld, and the abolition of slavery in the liberated territories would be regarded as one Bolívar's main achievements. Campaigns in Venezuela, 1816-1818 In 1816, with Haitian soldiers and vital material support, Bolívar landed in Venezuela and fulfilled his promise to Petion to free Spanish America's slaves on 2 June 1816.:186 The Expedition of the Keys was led by Bolívar and fought for Venezuela in the east, while the Guyana Campaign started in the west and was led by Manuel Piar. In July 1817, on a second expedition, he captured Angostura after defeating the counter-attack of Miguel de la Torre.:192-201 However, Venezuela remained a captaincy of Spain after the victory in 1818 by Pablo Morillo in the Second Battle of La Puerta (es).:212 After capturing Angostura, and an unexpected victory in New Granada, Bolívar set up a temporary government in Venezuela. This was the start of the Third Republic of Venezuela. With this Bolívar created the Congress of Angostura which following the wars would establish Gran Colombia, a state which includes today's territories of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. To honor Bolívar's efforts to help Venezuela during its independence movement, the city of Angostura was renamed to Ciudad Bolívar in 1846. Liberation of New Granada and Venezuela, 1819-1821 On 15 February 1819, Bolívar was able to open the Venezuelan Second National Congress in Angostura, in which he was elected president and Francisco Antonio Zea was elected vice president.:222-25 Bolívar then decided that he would first fight for the independence of New Granada, to gain resources of the viceroyalty, intending later to consolidate the independence of Venezuela. The campaign for the independence of New Granada, which included the crossing of the Andes mountain range, one of history's great military feats, was consolidated with the victory at the Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819.:233 Bolívar returned to Angostura, when congress passed a law forming a greater Republic of Colombia on 17 December, making Bolívar president and Zea vice president, with Francisco de Paula Santander vice president on the New Granada side, and Juan Germán Roscio vice president on the Venezuela side. Morillo was left in control of Caracas and the coastal highlands.:248 After the restoration of the Cádiz Constitution, Morillo ratified two treaties with Bolívar on 25 November 1820, calling for a six-month armistice and recognizing Bolívar as president of the republic.:254-55 Bolívar and Morillo met in San Fernando de Apure on 27 November, after which Morillo left Venezuela for Spain, leaving La Torre in command.:255-57 From his newly consolidated base of power, Bolívar launched outright independence campaigns in Venezuela and Ecuador. These campaigns concluded with the victory at the Battle of Carabobo, after which Bolívar triumphantly entered Caracas on 29 June 1821.:267 On 7 September 1821, Gran Colombia (a state covering much of modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela) was created, with Bolívar as president and Santander as vice president. Ecuador and Peru, 1822-1824 Bolívar followed with the Battle of Bombona and the Battle of Pichincha, after which he entered Quito on 16 June 1822.:287 On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the Guayaquil Conference with the Argentine General Jose de San Martín, who had received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish.:295 Thereafter, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. The Peruvian congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed him to reorganize completely the political and military administration. Assisted by Antonio Jose de Sucre, Bolívar decisively defeated the Spanish cavalry at the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824. Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at Ayacucho on 9 December 1824. According to British historian Robert Harvey: Bolívar's achievements in Peru had been as staggering as any in his career of a year, from holding a strip of the country's north coast while himself nearly moribund, he and Sucre had taken on and defeated an army of 18,000 men and secured a country the size of nearly all of Western Europe...the investment of personal energy, the distances covered and the four army expeditions across supposedly impassable mountain ranges had qualified him for superhuman status...His stamina and military achievements put him at the forefront of the global heroes of history. Consolidation of independence, 1825-1830 Republic of Bolivia On 6 August 1825, at the Congress of Upper Peru, the "Republic of Bolivia" was created.:346 Bolívar is thus one of the few people to have a country named after him. Bolívar returned to Caracas on 12 January 1827, and then back to Bogotá.:369, 378, 408 Bolívar had great difficulties maintaining control over the vast Gran Colombia. In 1826, internal divisions sparked dissent throughout the nation, and regional uprisings erupted in Venezuela. The new South American union had revealed its fragility and appeared to be on the verge of collapse. To preserve the union, an amnesty was declared and an arrangement was reached with the Venezuelan rebels, but this increased the political dissent in neighboring New Granada. In an attempt to keep the nation together as a single entity, Bolívar called for a constitutional convention at Oca?a in March 1828. Struggles inside Gran Colombia Dissolution of Gran Colombia For the rest of the 19th century and into the early 20th century, the political environment of Latin America was fraught with civil wars and characterized by a sociopolitical phenomenon known as caudillismo, which became very common in Venezuela, especially after 1830. Indeed, such struggles already existed shortly after the patriot victory over the loyalists because the former Spanish colonies created new nations that proclaimed their own autonomous states, which produced military confrontations with political conspirations that sent some of the former independence heroes into exile. Moreover, there were attempts by the Spanish monarchy to reconquer their former settlements in the Americas through expeditions that would help the remaining loyalist forces and advocates. However, the attempts generally failed in Venezuela, Perú and Mexico; thus, the loyalist resistance forces against the republic were finally defeated. The main characteristic of caudillismo was the arrival of authoritarian but charismatic political figures who would typically rise to power in an unconventional way, often legitimizing their right to govern through undemocratic processes. These caudillos maintained their control primarily on the basis of their personalities, as well as skewed interpretations of their popularity and what constituted a majority among the masses. On his deathbed, Bolívar envisaged the emergence of countless caudillos competing for the pieces of the great nation he once dreamed about.Saying that "all who served the revolution have plowed the sea",:450 Bolívar finally resigned the presidency on 27 April 1830, intending to leave the country for exile in Europe.:435 He had already sent several crates containing his belongings and writings ahead of him to Europe, but he died before setting sail from Cartagena. It is said that before Simón Bolívar died, he declared that "America is ungovernable." Bolívar was a man who had seen the negative in things. This negativity may have grown from the distances that had separated the large continent or from the differences in the cultures, languages, ethnicities and the races of the people. Another factor could have been from the lack of political unity, but it is unclear what had led him to being pessimistic. These factors had caused Bolívar to put his hope on hold of uniting the sovereign territory. Old colonial cities had been separated and new trading centers were separated by great geographical features such as mountains, high deserts and arid plains. These were all factors in which played a role and were responsible for the broken states during a time where wars of independence had risen. On 17 December 1830, at the age of 47, Simón Bolívar died of tuberculosis in the Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino in Santa Marta, Gran Colombia (now Colombia). On his deathbed, Bolívar asked his aide-de-camp, General Daniel F. O'Leary, to burn the remaining extensive archive of his writings, letters, and speeches. O'Leary disobeyed the order and his writings survived, providing historians with a wealth of information about Bolívar's liberal philosophy and thought, as well as details of his personal life, such as his long love affair with Manuela Sáenz. Shortly before her own death in 1856, Sáenz augmented this collection by giving O'Leary her own letters from Bolívar. Bolívar's remains were buried in the cathedral of Santa Marta. Twelve years later, in 1842, at the request of President Jose Antonio Páez, they were moved from Santa Marta to Caracas, where they were buried in the cathedral of Caracas together with the remains of his wife and parents. In 1876, he was moved to a monument set up for his interment at the National Pantheon of Venezuela. The Quinta near Santa Marta has been preserved as a museum with numerous references to his life. In 2010, symbolic remains of Bolívar's later-years lover, Manuela Sáenz, were also interred in Venezuela's National Pantheon. In January 2008, then-President of Venezuela Hugo Chávez set up a commission to investigate theories that Bolívar was the victim of an assassination. On several occasions, Chávez claimed that Bolívar was in fact poisoned by "New Granada traitors". In April 2010, infectious diseases specialist Paul Auwaerter studied records of Bolívar's symptoms and concluded that he might have suffered from chronic arsenic poisoning, but that both acute poisoning and murder were unlikely. In July 2010, Bolívar's body was ordered to be exhumed to advance the investigations. In July 2011, international forensics experts released their report, claiming there was no proof of poisoning or any other unnatural cause of death. Personal beliefs Politics Bolívar was an admirer of both the American Revolution and the French Revolution.:35, 52-53 Bolívar even enrolled his nephew, Fernando Bolívar, in a private school in Philadelphia, Germantown Academy, and paid for his education, including attendance at Thomas Jefferson's University of Virginia.:71-72, 369 While he was an admirer of U.S. independence, he did not believe that its governmental system could work in Latin America. Thus, he claimed that the governance of heterogeneous societies like Venezuela "will require a firm hand". Bolívar felt that the U.S. had been established in land especially fertile for democracy. By contrast, he referred to Spanish America as having been subject to the "triple yoke of ignorance, tyranny, and vice".:224 If a republic could be established in such a land, in his mind, it would have to make some concessions in terms of liberty. This is shown when Bolívar blamed the fall of the first republic on his subordinates trying to imitate "some ethereal republic" and in the process, not paying attention to the gritty political reality of South America. Among the books accompanying him as he traveled were Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations, Voltaire's Letters and, when he was writing the Bolivian constitution, Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws. His Bolivian constitution placed him within the camp of what would become Latin American conservatism in the later nineteenth century. The Bolivian constitution intended to establish a lifelong presidency and a hereditary senate, essentially recreating the British unwritten constitution, as it existed at the time. According to Carlos Fuentes: How to govern ourselves after winning independence. It can be said that the Liberator exhausted his soul trying to find an answer to that question...Bolívar tried to avoid the extremes that would overwhelm Spanish America all along the nineteenth century and part of the twentieth. Tyranny or anarchy? 'Do not aim at what is impossible to attain, because in the quest for liberty we may fall into tyranny. Absolute liberty always leads to absolute power and among these two extremes is social liberty'. In order to find this equilibrium, Bolívar proposed a 'clever despotism', a strong executive power able to impose equality there where racial inequality prevailed. Bolívar warned against an 'aristocracy of rank, employment and fortune' that while 'referring to liberty and guarantee' it would just be for themselves but not for levelling with members of lower classes'...He is the disciple of Montesquieu in his insistence that institutions have to be adapted to culture. —?El Espejo Enterrado, Mexico, Fondo de Cultura Económica (1992), p. 272 {{Freemason}ry} Similarly to some others in the history of American Independence (George Washington, Miguel Hidalgo, Jose de San Martín, Bernardo O'Higgins, Francisco de Paula Santander, Antonio Nari?o, and Francisco de Miranda), Simón Bolívar was a {Freemason}. He was initiated in 1803 in the Masonic Lodge Lautaro, which operated in Cádiz, Spain. It was in this lodge that he first met some of his revolutionary peers, such as Jose de San Martín. In May 1806 he was conferred the rank of Master Mason in the "Scottish Mother of St. Alexander of Scotland" in Paris. During his time in London, he frequented "The Great American Reunion" lodge in London, founded by Francisco de Miranda. In April 1824, Simón Bolívar was given the 33rd degree of Inspector General Honorary. He founded the Masonic Lodge No. 2 of Peru, named "Order and Liberty". Legacy Political legacy Due to the historical relevance of Bolívar as a key element during the process of independence in Hispanic America, his memory has been strongly attached to sentiments of nationalism and patriotism, being a recurrent theme of rhetoric in politics. Since the image of Bolívar became an important part to the national identities of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, his mantle is often claimed by Hispanic American politicians all across the political spectrum. In Venezuela, Bolívar left behind a militarist legacy with multiple governments utilizing the memory, image and written legacy of Bolívar as important parts of their political messages and propaganda. Bolívar disapproved of the excesses of "party spirit" and "factions", which led to an anti-political environment in Venezuela. For much of the 1800s, Venezuela was ruled by caudillos, with six rebellions occurring to take control of Venezuela between 1892 and 1900 alone. The militarist legacy was then used by the nationalist dictatorship of Marcos Perez Jimenez and more recently the socialist political movement led by Hugo Chávez. Monuments and physical legacy The nations of Bolivia and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, and their respective currencies (the Bolivian boliviano and the Venezuelan bolívar), are all named after Bolívar. Additionally, most cities and towns in Colombia and Venezuela are built around a main square known as Plaza Bolívar, as is the case with Bogotá. In this example, most governmental buildings and public structures are located on or around the plaza, including the National Capitol and the Palace of Justice. Besides Quito and Caracas, there are monuments to Bolívar in the Latin American capitals of Lima, Buenos Aires, Havana, Mexico City, Panama City, Paramaribo, San Jose, Santo Domingo and Sucre. In Bogotá, the Simón Bolívar Park has hosted many concerts. Outside of Latin America, the variety of monuments to Simón Bolívar are a continuing testament to his legacy. These include statues in many capitals around the world, including Algiers, Bucharest, London, Minsk, Moscow, New Delhi, Ottawa, Paris, Prague, Port-au-Prince, Rome, Sofia, Tehran, Vienna and Washington, D.C. Several cities in Spain, especially in the Basque Country, have constructed monuments to Bolívar, including a large monument in Bilbao and a comprehensive Venezuelan government-funded museum in Cenarruza-Puebla de Bolívar, his ancestral hometown. In the US, an imposing bronze equestrian statue of Simón Bolívar stands at the southern entrance to Central Park at the Avenue of the Americas in New York City which also celebrates Bolívar's contributions to Latin America. In New Orleans, the Simon Bolivar Monument at Canal and Basin Streets was a gift to the American city from Venezuela in 1957. The Bolivar Peninsula in Texas; Bolivar County, Mississippi; Bolivar, New York; Bolivar, West Virginia; Bolivar, Ohio; and Bolivar, Tennessee are also named in his honor. Monuments to Bolívar's military legacy also comprise one of Venezuelan Navy's sail training barques, which is named after him, and the USS Simon Bolivar, a Benjamin Franklin-class fleet ballistic missile submarine which served with the U.S. Navy between 1965 and 1995. Minor planet 712 Boliviana discovered by Max Wolf is named in his honor. The name was suggested by Camille Flammarion. The first Venezuelan satellite, Venesat-1, was given the alternative name Simón Bolívar after him. His birthday is a public holiday in Venezuela and Bolivia. Name: O'Higgins Biography: Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme(20 August 1778- 24 October 1842) Position: Supreme Director of Chile，Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army Allegiance: Chilean Branch/service: Chilean Army Rank: Grand Marsha In October, fighting at the Battle of El Roble under Carrera, O'Higgins took effective command at a crucial moment and gave one of his more famous orders: Lads! Live with honor, or die with glory! He who is brave, follow me! Early life Bernardo O'Higgins, a member of the O'Higgins family, was born in the Chilean city of Chillán in 1778, the illegitimate son of Ambrosio O'Higgins, 1st Marquis of Osorno, a Spanish officer born in County Sligo, Ireland, who became governor of Chile and later viceroy of Peru. His mother was Isabel Riquelme, a prominent local; the daughter of Don Simón Riquelme y Goycolea, a member of the Chillán Cabildo, or town council. O'Higgins spent his early years with his mother's family in central-southern Chile and was never openly acknowledged by his father, and later he lived with the Albano family, who were his father's commercial partners, in Talca. At age 15, O'Higgins was sent to Lima by his father. He had a distant relationship with Ambrosio, who supported him financially and was concerned with his education, but the two never met in person. At the time of his son's birth, Ambrosio was only a junior military officer. Two years later, Isabel married Don Felix Rodríguez, a friend of her father. O'Higgins used his mother's surname until the death of his father in 1801. Bernardo's father continued his professional rise and became Viceroy of Peru; at seventeen Bernardo O'Higgins was sent to London to complete his studies. There, studying history and the arts, O'Higgins became acquainted with American ideas of independence and developed a sense of nationalist pride. He met Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan idealist and believer in independence, and joined a Masonic Lodge established by Miranda, dedicated to achieving the independence of Latin America. In 1798 O'Higgins went to Spain from Great Britain, his return to the Americas delayed by the French Revolutionary Wars. His father died in 1801, leaving O'Higgins a large piece of land, the Hacienda Las Canteras, near the Chilean city of Los ángeles. O'Higgins returned to Chile in 1802, adopted his biological father's surname, and began life as a gentleman farmer. In 1806, he was appointed to the cabildo as the representative of Laja. In 1808 Napoleon took control of Spain, triggering a sequence of events in South America. In Chile, the commercial and political elite decided to form an autonomous government to rule in the name of the imprisoned king Ferdinand VII; this was to be one of the first in a number of steps toward national independence, in which O'Higgins would play a leading role. Role in Chilean independence movement On 18 September 1810, O'Higgins joined the revolt against the now French dominated Spanish government. The criollo leaders in Chile did not support Joseph Bonaparte's rule in Spain, and a limited self-government under the Government Junta of Chile was created, with the aim of restoring the legitimate Spanish throne. This date is now recognized as Chile's Independence Day. O'Higgins was a close friend of Juan Martínez de Rozas, an old friend of his father, and one of the more radical leaders. O'Higgins strongly recommended that a national congress be created, and was elected a deputy to the first National Congress of Chile in 1811 as a representative of the Laja district. Tensions between the royalist and increasingly pro-independence factions, to which O'Higgins remained attached as a junior member, continued to grow. The anti-Royalist camp in Chile was deeply split along lines of patronage and personality, by political beliefs, and by geography (between the rival regional groupings of Santiago and Concepción). The Carrera family had already seized power several times in different coups, and supported a specifically Chilean nationalism, as opposed to the broader Latin American focus of the Lautaro Lodge grouping, which included O'Higgins and the Argentine Jose de San Martín. Jose Miguel Carrera, the most prominent member of the Carrera family, enjoyed a power base in Santiago; that of de Rozas, and later O'Higgins, lay in Concepción. As a result, O'Higgins was to find himself increasingly in political and military competition with Carrera—although early on, O'Higgins was nowhere near as prominent as his later rival. De Rozas initially appointed O'Higgins to a minor military position in 1812, possibly because of his illegitimate origins, poor health, or lack of military training. Much of O'Higgins' early military knowledge stemmed from Juan Mackenna, an immigrant of Irish descent and a former client of Ambrosio's, whose advice centered mainly on the use of cavalry. In 1813, when the Spanish government made its first attempt to reconquer Chile—sending an expedition led by Brigadier Antonio Pareja—Carrera, as a former national leader and now Commander in Chief of the Army, was by far the more prominent figure of the two, and a natural choice to lead the military resistance. O'Higgins was back on his estates in Laja, having retired from the Army the previous year due to poor health, when news came of the invasion. O'Higgins mobilised his local militia and marched to Concepcion, before moving on to Talca, meeting up with Carrera, who was to take command of the new army. Carrera sent O'Higgins to cut the Spanish off at Linares; O'Higgins' victory there resulted in his promotion to colonel. The unsuccessful Siege of Chillan followed, where O'Higgins produced a brave but unspectacular performance; however, as commander, Carrera took most of the blame for the defeat, weakening his prestige with the Junta back in Santiago. O'Higgins continued to campaign against the royalists, fighting with a reckless courage that would make him famous. In October, fighting at the Battle of El Roble under Carrera, O'Higgins took effective command at a crucial moment and gave one of his more famous orders: Lads! Live with honor, or die with glory! He who is brave, follow me! Despite being injured, O'Higgins went on to pursue the royalist forces from the field. The Junta in Santiago reassigned command of the army from Carrera, who had retreated during the battle, to O'Higgins, who then appointed Juan Mackenna as commandant-general. Carrera was subsequently captured and imprisoned by the royalist forces; in his absence, in May 1814 O'Higgins supported the Treaty of Lircay, which promised a halt to the fighting. Once released, however, Carrera violently opposed both O'Higgins' new role and the treaty, overthrowing the Junta in a coup in July 1814 and immediately exiling Mackenna. O'Higgins turned to focus on Carrera, and their forces met at the battle of Las Tres Acequias, where Carrera's brother Luis inflicted a modest defeat on O'Higgins. Further conflict was postponed by news that the royalists had decided to ignore the recent treaty, and were threatening Concepción under the leadership of General Mariano Osorio. Carrera and O'Higgins decided to reunite the army and face the common threat. Carrera's plan was to draw the Spaniards to the Angostura del Paine, while O'Higgins preferred the town of Rancagua. They decided to make a stand at the Angostura de Paine, a gorge that formed an easily defended bottleneck. At the last hour, however, O'Higgins instead garrisoned the nationalist forces at the main square of Rancagua. Carrera did not arrive with reinforcements, and O'Higgins and his forces were promptly surrounded in October. After an entire day of fighting at the battle of Rancagua, the Spanish commander, Mariano Osorio, was victorious—but O'Higgins managed to break out with a few of his men, issuing the command: Those who can ride, ride! We will break through the enemy! Like Carrera and other nationalists, O'Higgins retreated to Argentina with the survivors, and remained there for three years while the royalists were in control. Mackenna, still a key supporter, was killed by Luis Carrera in a duel in 1818, deepening the feud. O'Higgins as Supreme Director While in exile, O'Higgins met the Argentine General Jose de San Martín, a fellow member of the Lautaro Lodge, and together the men returned to Chile in 1817 to defeat the royalists. Initially the campaign went well, with the two commanders achieving a victory at the battle of Chacabuco. San Martín sent his troops down the mountain starting at midnight of 11 February to prepare for an attack at dawn. As the attack commenced, his troops were much closer to the Spanish than anticipated, and they fought hard and heroically. Argentine General Miguel Estanislao Soler's troops had to go down a tiny path that proved long and arduous, and took longer than expected. General O'Higgins—supposedly seeing his homeland and overcome with passion—defied the plan of attack and charged along with his 1,500 troops. What happened during this theater of the battle is fiercely debated. O'Higgins claimed that the Spanish stopped their retreat and started advancing towards his troops. He said that, if he were to lead his men back up the narrow path and retreat, they would have been massacred one by one. San Martín saw O'Higgins' early advancement, and ordered Soler to charge the Spanish flank, which took the pressure off O'Higgins and allowed his troops to stand their ground. The ensuing firefight continued into the afternoon, and the tides turned for the Patriots as Soler captured a key Spanish artillery point. At this point, the Spanish set up a defensive square around the Chacabuco Ranch. O'Higgins charged the center of the Spanish position, and Soler got into place behind the Spanish forces, effectively cutting off any chance of retreat. O'Higgins and his men overwhelmed the Spanish troops, who attempted to retreat, but Soler's men cut off their retreat and pushed towards the ranch. Hand-to-hand combat ensued in and around the ranch, until every Spanish soldier was dead or taken captive. Five hundred Spanish soldiers were killed, and 600 were taken captive. The Patriot forces lost 12 men in the battle, but an additional 120 died of their wounds. The Second Battle of Cancha Rayada in 1818, however, was a victory for the Royalists, and it was not until the Battle of Maipú that ultimate victory was assured. San Martín was initially offered the position of power in the newly-free Chile, but he declined, in order to continue the fight for independence in the rest of South America. O'Higgins accepted the position instead, and became the leader of an independent Chile. He was granted dictatorial powers as Supreme Director on 16 February 1817. On 12 February 1818, Chile proclaimed itself an independent republic. Throughout the war with the royalists, O'Higgins had engaged in an ongoing feud with Jose Miguel Carrera. After their retreat in 1814, O'Higgins had fared much better than Carrera, who found little support forthcoming from San Martín, O'Higgins' political ally. Carrera was imprisoned to prevent his involvement in Chilean affairs; after his escape, he ended up taking the winning side in the Argentine Federalist war, helping to defeat the directorate in 1820. Marching south to attack O'Higgins, now ruler of Chile, Carrera was arrested by supporters of O'Higgins and executed under questionable circumstances in 1821; his two brothers had already been killed by royalist forces in the preceding years, bringing the long-running feud to an end. The argument as to the relative contribution of these two great Chilean independence leaders, however, has continued up to the modern day, and O'Higgins' decision not to intervene to prevent the execution coloured many Chileans' views of his reign. For six years, O'Higgins was a largely successful leader, and his government initially functioned well. Within Chile, O'Higgins established markets, courts, colleges, libraries, hospitals, and cemeteries, and began important improvements in agriculture. He undertook various military reforms. He founded the Chilean Military Academy in 1817, aiming to professionalise the officer corps. O'Higgins remained concerned about the threat of invasion, and had declared after the battle of Chacabuco that "this victory and another hundred shall be of no significance if we do not gain control of the sea". Alongside the Military Academy, he founded the modern Chilean Navy under the command of the Scottish officer Lord Cochrane, establishing the First Chilean Navy Squadron, the Academy for Young Midshipmen (the predecessor of the current Naval Academy), and the Chilean Marine Corps. O'Higgins continued in his desire to see independence across Latin America, utilising his new forces to support San Martín, sending the Liberating expedition to Perú. In time, however, O'Higgins began to alienate important political groupings within the still-fragile Chilean nation. O'Higgins' proposed radical and liberal reforms, such as the establishment of democracy and abolition of titles of nobility, were resisted by the powerful large landowners. He offended the church in Chile early on—in particular, the Bishop of Santiago, Jose Rodriguez Zorrilla. Having offended the aristocracy and the church, he also lost the support of the businesspeople, his last semi-powerful ally within the country. The government became bankrupt, forcing O'Higgins to send Antonio Jose de Irisarri to the United Kingdom to negotiate a ￡1 million loan—Chile's first foreign debt—whilst a massive earthquake in central Chile added more difficulty for the ruler. In 1822, O'Higgins established a new "controversial" constitution, which many regarded as a desperate attempt to hang on to power. The deaths of his political enemies, including Carrera and Manuel Rodríguez, returned to haunt him, with some accusing him of abusing state power. The provinces increasingly viewed him as centralising power to an excessive degree. O'Higgins was deposed by a conservative coup on 28 January 1823. Chile's new dictator, Ramón Freire, formerly O'Higgins' "closest ally", had slowly turned against O'Higgins in the preceding years. Freire had fought under O'Higgins at the Battle of Maipú, was promoted to colonel for his services to the independence, and finally named Intendant of Concepción. His friendship with O'Higgins started to crack by degrees, however, until in 1822 he resigned his position in disagreement. His name became a rallying point for those discontented with O'Higgins, but the two of them never came to an armed conflict. O'Higgins' abdication was typically dramatic: baring his chest, he offered up his life should his accusers demand it of him. In return, the junta declared they held nothing against O'Higgins, and saluted him. O'Higgins was made governor of Concepción, an appointment which did not last long: it was time for him to leave Chile. Peruvian independence and O'Higgins' final years After being deposed, O'Higgins embarked from the port of Valparaiso in July 1823, in the British corvette Fly, never to see Chile again. Originally destined for Ireland, while he was passing through Peru he was strongly encouraged by Simón Bolívar to join the nationalist effort there. Bolívar's government granted O'Higgins the Hacienda de Cuiva and the Hacienda Montalván in San Vicente de Ca?ete, near Lima. O'Higgins lived in exile for the rest of his life accompanied by his illegitimate son, Pedro Demetrio O'Higgins (1817-1868), his mother, and his half-sister, Rosa Rodríguez Riquelme (1781-1850). According to a 2001 documentary, O'Higgins also had a daughter, Petronila (born circa 1809) by Patricia Rodríguez. O'Higgins traveled to join Bolívar's army in its final liberation of Peru, but upon arrival, he found that Bolívar did not intend to give him a command—instead appointing him a general of Gran Colombia and making him a special court-martial judge for Chilean volunteers. Making his way back to Lima, O'Higgins heard of Sucre's victory at the Battle of Ayacucho. He returned to Bolívar for the victory celebrations, but as a civilian. "Se?or", he toasted, addressing Bolívar, "America is free. From now on General O'Higgins does not exist; I am only Bernardo O'Higgins, a private citizen. After Ayacucho, my American mission is over." When Andres de Santa Cruz became head of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation in 1836, O'Higgins endorsed his integrationist policies, and wrote a letter of support to him the following year when the Confederation came under attack from the Chilean forces of Diego Portales—ultimately offering to act as a mediator in the conflict. With the rise of Agustín Gamarra, O'Higgins found himself out of favour in Peru. Meanwhile, the Chilean government had begun to rehabilitate O'Higgins, reappointing him to his old rank of captain-general in the Chilean Army. In 1842, the National Congress of Chile finally voted to allow O'Higgins to return to Chile. After travelling to Callao to embark for Chile, however, O'Higgins began to succumb to cardiac problems and was too weak to travel. His doctor ordered him to return to Lima, where on 24 October 1842, aged 64, O'Higgins died. Legacy After his death, his remains were first buried in Peru, before being repatriated to Chile in 1869. O'Higgins had wished to be buried in the city of Concepción, but this was never to be. For a long time they remained in a marble coffin in the Cementerio General de Santiago, and in 1979 his remains were transferred by Augusto Pinochet to the Altar de la Patria, in front of the Palacio de La Moneda. In 2004, his body was temporarily stored at the Chilean Military School during the building of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía, before being finally laid to rest in the new underground Crypt of the Liberator. O'Higgins is widely commemorated today, both in Chile and beyond. One of the administrative regions of Chile was named Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins Region in his honour, as were other placenames such as the village of Villa O'Higgins. The main thoroughfare of the Chilean capital, Santiago, is Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins. There is also the Bernardo O'Higgins National Park. In the town of San Vicente de Ca?ete, situated in the Lima Region of Peru, a park and street are named after him. A statue of O'Higgins is located in a park in Guatemala City, the capital of Guatemala. There is a bust of O'Higgins in O'Higgins Square by the bridge in Richmond, south-west London. Each year the borough's mayor is joined by members of the Chilean Embassy for a ceremony, and a wreath is placed there. A blue plaque was erected in his honor at Clarence House in Richmond, where he lived while studying in London. There is also a plaque in his honor in Merrion Square in Dublin and in the Garavogue River Walkway in Sligo, Ireland, and a sculpture near Central Railway Station in Plaza Iberoamericana, near 58 Chalmers St, Sydney. In Buenos Aires, there is a large statue of him in the center of the Plaza República de Chile, and several localities in Argentina are named after him. A plaque has also been erected in Cadiz, Spain, in the Plaza de Candelaria, where he resided for four years. In 2005, a bust was erected "To the Liberator of Chile" by the Chilean Embassy in the Parque Morazan in San Jose, Costa Rica. There is a bust of Bernardo O'Higgins on a marble plinth on the east side of Avenida da Liberdade in downtown Lisbon, Portugal. A statue of Bernardo O'Higgins in the city of Concepción was destroyed during the 2010 earthquake in Chile. In 1949, American composer Henry Cowell composed an opera on the life of O'Higgins titled O'Higgins of Chile. The libretto was written by Elizabeth Harald, but the work was never orchestrated nor staged. In 1955, the football team O'Higgins F.C. was founded, named after him. Chile's highest award for a foreign citizen is named in honour of O'Higgins, whilst the Chilean Navy has named several ships in his honour, including an armored cruiser (1897-1933), a World War II-era light cruiser (the former USS Brooklyn, CL-40) (1951-1992), and a French-built Scorpene class submarine (2003-present). The Chilean Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme research station in Antarctica is named in his honor. It is located on the northernmost part of the continent. In addition, one of the standard class Liberty Ships (#2168) was named after him. The SS Bernardo O'Higgins was laid down on September 23, 1943 and launched on October 13, 1943 (the ship was scrapped in 1959). On 28 October 2010, An Post (the Irish Post Office) and CorreosChile (the Chilean Post Office) issued 82c and $500 se-tenant stamps to commemorate the bicentenary of the beginning of the struggle for Chilean Independence. The stamps honor two men with Irish backgrounds, who played a crucial role in the quest for Chile's liberation, Bernardo O'Higgins and John MacKenna. Name: Díez Biography: Juan Martín Díez (5 September 1775 - 20 August 1825) Nickname(s) :"El empecinado"(The undaunted) Position: Guerrilla leader Allegiance: Spain Branch/service: Spanish Army Rank: Captain general Battles/wars:War of the Pyrenees,Peninsular War Awards :Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand Juan Martín Díez, nicknamed El Empecinado (Spanish: the Undaunted), (5 September 1775 - 20 August 1825) was a Spanish military leader and guerrilla fighter, who fought in the Peninsular War. On October 8, 1808, the privilege of using the name Empecinado was granted to Juan Martín Díez, not only for himself, but also all his descendants. His nickname has given the Spanish language the verb empecinarse, meaning to persist or insist on achieving one's goals. Early life Díez was born in Castrillo de Duero (Valladolid, Spain) on September 5, 1775. He was a farmer and his house still exists in its original location. Those from Castrillo are often termed "empecinados", a term which arises from several nearby streams filled with black mud (pecina) from stagnant, decomposing waters. It is believed that the local appellation was then applied to Díez, just like other guerrilleros were nicknamed after their trade. Díez had military ambitions throughout his childhood. At 18, he participated in the Rosellón campaign of the War of the Pyrenees (1793-1795). The following two years were pivotal in his training in the art of war and began his hostile attitude towards the French. In 1796, Díez married in Fuentecen, Burgos, and Díez settled in that town with his new bride. He farmed there until the occupation of Spain by Napoleon's army in 1808, whereupon he pledged to fight against the invaders. It is said that his decision to fight was spurred on when a woman in his town was raped by a French soldier; Díez afterwards killed the offender. After the invasion, Díez organized a party of warriors composed of his friends and even members of his own family. At first, the conflict centered around the route between Madrid and Burgos. Later, he fought alongside the Spanish Army at the Cabezón de Pisuerga bridge in Valladolid and in Medina de Rioseco, Valladolid. The Spanish Army was routed in both of these battles. Military successes The Army's failures caused Díez to believe that he would have better results with a system of guerrilla warfare. Thus started his wartime success, in such places as Aranda de Duero, Sepúlveda, Pedraza, and throughout the Duero river basin. In 1809 Díez was promoted to the rank of cavalry captain. During the spring of the same year, his field of action extended along the mountains in Gredos, ávila, and Salamanca, and also in the provinces of Cuenca and Guadalajara. The principal function of the guerrilla bands was to disrupt the supply and communication lines of the French army by intercepting the enemy's messages and by seizing convoys of supplies, money, and armaments. The damage to Napoleon's army was considerable, to such an extent that Joseph Leopold Sigisbert Hugo, a French general, was given the duty to "pursue exclusively" Díez and his guerrillas. Hugo, after trying unsuccessfully to capture Díez, opted instead to arrest Díez's mother and other members of his family. Díez, not to be cowed, had 100 French prisoners of war executed as retribution. His mother and family thereupon were released. In 1810, Díez was forced to take refuge in the castle of the Salamancan city of Ciudad Rodrigo, which the French army besieged. In 1811, he was placed in command of a hussar regiment from Guadalajara, bringing his total force to some 6000 men. On May 22, 1813, Díez assisted in the defense of Alcalá de Henares (Madrid), and on the Zulema bridge over the Henares river he and his army defeated a French force twice their size. Later, Fernando VII would approve the construction of a commemorative pyramid in Alcalá in honor of the victory, only to order its destruction in 1823, deriding it as a symbol of a "liberal". The people of Alcalá, however, raised another monument to the Empecinado in 1879; this monument survives to this day. Liberal revolution and decline When King Fernando VII returned to Spain and restored absolutism, he took measures against those he considered "liberal enemies", among them Díez, who was exiled to Valladolid. In 1820, the revolution of Rafael de Riego commenced, and Díez took up arms - but this time against Fernando VII's royal troops. During the following years, in the trienio liberal (Spanish: three-year period of liberal rule), he was named military governor of Zamora and occasionally Capitán General (General Captain). In 1823, during the Absolutist Reaction, a French Army (the so-called Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis) invaded Spain to restore absolutism, the liberal regime fell, and Díez fled to Portugal. From there, he asked permission to return without danger of detainment, a request which was granted. But upon his return, he was arrested near Olmillos de Pe?afiel and moved to Nava de Roa (Burgos) where he was turned over to the mayor, Gregorio González. He was there imprisoned and displayed in an iron-bar cage. Leopoldo O'Donnell, a liberal military leader, learned of Díez's situation and attempted to have Díez's case heard in a tribunal. The magistrate in Roa de Duero, however, had already ordered Díez's execution, which was carried out on August 20, 1825, in the central plaza of the village. Díez died, hanged in lieu of being shot. It is said that in an outburst of desperation and strength, Díez managed to take the sword from the official that accompanied him to the gallows. See also Guerrilla warfare in the Peninsular War Name: San Martín Biography: Jose de San Martín (25 February 1778 - 17 August 1850) Nickname(s) :The Liberator of America Position: Member of the third Triumvirate，Protector of Peru，Founder of the Freedom of Peru, Founder of the Republic, Protector of Peru and Generalissimo of Armas (ad honorem)，Governor of Cuyo Nationality :Argentine Political party: Patriot Allegiance: Spain (until 1812)，United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (modern Argentina)，Patria Nueva (modern Chile)，Protectorate of Peru (modern Peru) Rank: lieutenant colonel (the rank that he had in the Spanish army), General of Argentina, Commander-in-Chief of the armies of Chile, Peru and Argentina, Generalissimo Commands: Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers, Army of the North, Army of the Andes, Chilean Army Jose Francisco de San Martín y Matorras (25 February 1778 - 17 August 1850), known simply as Jose de San Martín (Spanish pronunciation: or the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru, was an Argentine general and the primary leader of the southern and central parts of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire who served as the Protector of Peru. Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes, in modern-day Argentina, he left the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the early age of seven to study in Málaga, Spain. In 1808, after taking part in the Peninsular War against France, San Martín contacted in London South American supporters of independence from Spain. In 1812, he set sail for Buenos Aires and offered his services to the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, present-day Argentina. After the Battle of San Lorenzo and time commanding the Army of the North during 1814, he organized a plan to defeat the Spanish forces that menaced the United Provinces from the north, using an alternative path to the Viceroyalty of Peru. This objective first involved the establishment of a new army, the Army of the Andes, in Cuyo Province, Argentina. From there, he led the Crossing of the Andes to Chile, and triumphed at the Battle of Chacabuco and the Battle of Maipú (1818), thus liberating Chile from royalist rule. Then he sailed to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima, Peru. On 12 July 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, San Martín was appointed Protector of Peru, and Peruvian independence was officially declared on 28 July. On 26 July 1822, after a closed-door meeting with fellow libertador Simón Bolívar at Guayaquil, Ecuador, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martín unexpectedly left the country and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and moved to France in 1824. The details of that meeting would be a subject of debate by later historians. San Martín is regarded as a national hero of Argentina, Chile and Peru, a great military commander, and one of the Liberators of Spanish South America. The Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Orden del Libertador General San Martín), created in his honor, is the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government. Early life Main article: Early life of Jose de San Martín Military career in Europe Main article: Military career of Jose de San Martín in Spain South America Argentina See also: Argentine War of Independence A few days after his arrival in Buenos Aires in the United Provinces (formally named the Argentine Republic in 1826), San Martín was interviewed by the First Triumvirate. They appointed him a lieutenant colonel of cavalry, and asked him to create a cavalry unit, as Buenos Aires did not have good cavalry. He began to organize the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers with Alvear and Zapiola. As Buenos Aires lacked professional military leaders, San Martín was entrusted with the protection of the whole city, but kept focused in the task of building the military unit. San Martín, Alvear and Zapiola established a local branch of the Lodge of Rational Knights, along with morenists, the former supporters of the late Mariano Moreno. This lodge sought to promote liberal ideas; its secrecy hides whether it was a real Masonic lodge, or a lodge with political goals. It had no ties to the Premier Grand Lodge of England. In September 1812, San Martín married María de los Remedios de Escalada, a 14-year-old girl from one of the local wealthy families. The lodge organized the Revolution of 8 October 1812 when the terms of office of the triumvirs Manuel de Sarratea and Feliciano Chiclana ended. Juan Martín de Pueyrredón promoted antimorenist new members, Manuel Obligado and Pedro Medrano, by preventing the vote of three deputies and thus achieving a majority. As this caused a commotion, San Martín and Alvear intervened with their military force, and the Buenos Aires Cabildo disestablished the triumvirate. It was replaced by the Second Triumvirate of Juan Jose Paso, Nicolás Rodríguez Pe?a and Antonio álvarez Jonte. The new triumvirate called the Assembly of the Year XIII and promoted San Martín to colonel. San Lorenzo Main article: Battle of San Lorenzo Army of the North Once again in Buenos Aires, San Martín and his wife attended to the first official performance of the Argentine National Anthem, on 28 May 1813 at the Coliseo Theater. Oral tradition has it that the premiere took place on 14 May 1813 at the home of aristocrat Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, with San Martín also attending, but there is no documentary evidence of that. The lyrics of the new anthem included several references to the secessionist will of the time. Although they were still allies, San Martín began to distance himself from Alvear, who controlled the Assembly and the lodge. Alvear opposed the merchants and the Uruguayan caudillo Jose Gervasio Artigas, San Martín thought that it was risky to open such conflicts when the royalists were still a threat. The Army of the North, which was operating at the Upper Peru, was defeated at the battles of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, so the triumvirate appointed San Martín to head it, replacing Manuel Belgrano. San Martín and Belgrano met at the Yatasto relay. The army was in poor condition, and San Martín initially refused to remove Belgrano from the army, as it would hurt the soldiers' morale. However, the supreme director Gervasio Posadas (who replaced the triumvirate in government) insisted, and San Martín acted as instructed. San Martín stayed only a few weeks in Tucumán, reorganizing the army and studying the terrain. He also had a positive impression of the guerrilla war waged by Martín Miguel de Güemes against the royalists, similar to the Peninsular War. It was a defensive war, and San Martín trusted that they could prevent a royalist advance in Jujuy. San Martín had health problems in April 1814, probably caused by hematemesis. He temporarily delegated the command of the Army to colonel Francisco Fernández de la Cruz and requested leave to recover. He moved to Santiago del Estero, and then to Córdoba where he slowly recovered. During this time King Ferdinand VII returned to the throne, began the absolutist restoration and began to organize an attack on the rogue colonies. After an interview with Tomás Guido, San Martín came up with a plan: organize an army in Mendoza, cross the Andes to Chile, and move to Peru by sea; all while Güemes defended the north frontier. This would place him in Peru without crossing the harsh terrain of Upper Peru, where two campaigns had already been defeated. To advance this plan, he requested the governorship of the Cuyo province, which was accepted. He took office on 6 September. Governor of Cuyo Crossing of the Andes Main article: Crossing of the Andes Although the Congress of Tucumán had already formalized the flag of Argentina, the Army of the Andes did not use it, choosing a banner with two columns, light blue and white, and a coat of arms roughly similar to the Coat of arms of Argentina. The army did not use the flag of Argentina because it was not exclusively an Argentine army. Contrary to the common understanding, the crossing of the Andes was not the first time that a military expedition crossed the mountain range. The difference from previous operations was the size of the army, and that it had to be ready for combat right after the crossing. The army was divided in six columns, each taking a different path. Colonel Francisco Zelada in La Rioja took the Come-Caballos pass towards Copiapó. Juan Manuel Cabot, in San Juan, moved to Coquimbo. Ramón Freire and Jose León Lemos led two columns in the south. The bulk of the armies left from Mendoza. San Martín, O'Higgins and Soler led a column across the Los Patos pass, and Juan Gregorio de Las Heras another one across the Uspallata Pass. The whole operation took nearly a month. The armies took dried food for the soldiers and fodder for the horses, because of the inhospitable conditions. They also consumed garlics and onions, to prevent altitude sickness. Only 4,300 mules and 511 horses survived, less than half the original complement. Manuel Rodríguez had returned to Chile before the crossing, and began a guerrilla war in Santiago de Chile against the royalists, in support of the upcoming army. He was supported in the south of the city and the countryside. The strategy was to occupy nearby villages, seize the royalists' weapons and flee. The attacks on Melipilla and San Fernando, and a failed one at Curicó, demoralized the royalists. Chile See also: Chilean War of Independence Battle of Chacabuco Main article: Battle of Chacabuco Patria Nueva Three deputies from Coquimbo, Santiago and Concepción organized a new government, and proposed San Martín as Supreme Director of Chile. He declined the offer and proposed O'Higgins in his stead: he recommended that the Supreme Director should be someone from Chile. San Martín would instead organize the navy to take the fight to Peru. He established a local chapter of the Lodge of Rational Knights, named as Logia Lautaro, in reference to Mapuche leader Lautaro. The victory in Chacabuco did not liberate all Chile. Royalist forces still resisted in southern Chile, allied with local Mapuche chiefs. Las Heras occupied Concepción, but failed to occupy Talcahuano. The royalist resistance lasted for several months, and Talcahuano was only captured when most of the continent was already free. San Martín left O'Higgins in charge of the Army, and returned to Buenos Aires to request resources for the campaign to Peru. He did not have a good reception this time. Pueyrredón thought that Chile should compensate Buenos Aires for the money invested in their liberation, as the support to San Martín reduced the support to Belgrano, and the Portuguese-Brazilian invasion of the Eastern Bank menaced Buenos Aires. Incapable of financial support, Buenos Aires sent lawyer Manuel Aguirre to the United States, to request aid and acknowledge the declaration of independence. However, the mission failed, as the United States stayed neutral in the conflict because they negotiated the purchase of Florida with Spain. The Chilean Jose Miguel Carrera had obtained ships on his own after the disaster of Rancagua, which he intended to use to liberate Chile; but as San Martín had already done that, he refused to place his fleet under the Army of the Andes. Carrera was an enemy of O'Higgins and sought to navigate to Chile and depose him, so Pueyrredón imprisoned him, and confiscated his ships. San Martín requested help from British Admiral William Bowles. He wrote from Chile and expected to find him in Buenos Aires, but Bowles had embarked for Río de Janeiro. Bowles considered that San Martín was more trustworthy than Alvear, and praised his support for monarchism. San Martín did not obtain the ships and interrupted the correspondence with Bowles for some months. He returned to Chile; his wife Remedios stayed in Buenos Aires with her daughter Mercedes because of her health problems. Unable to get help from either Buenos Aires or foreign powers, San Martín promoted a more decisive commitment from Chile to finance the navy. Battle of Cancha Rayada Main article: Second Battle of Cancha Rayada Battle of Maipú Main article: Battle of Maipú Fleet of the Pacific San Martín made a new request for ships to Bowles, but received no answer. He moved again to Buenos Aires, to make a similar request. He arrived to Mendoza a few days after the execution of the Chileans Luis and Juan Jose Carrera, brothers of Jose Miguel Carrera. The specific initiative of those executions is controversial. Chilean historian Benjamín Vicu?a Mackenna indicts San Martín, while J. C. Raffo de la Reta blames O'Higgins instead. Manuel Rodríguez was also imprisoned and then killed in prison; this death may have been decided by the Lautaro lodge. San Martín could not have taken part in it, as he was already on the way to Buenos Aires. San Martín was not well received in Buenos Aires. Pueyrredón initially declined to give further help, citing the conflicts with the federal caudillos and the organization of a huge royalist army in Cádiz that would try to reconquer the La Plata basin. He thought that Chile should organize the navy against Peru, not Buenos Aires. San Martín discussed with him and finally got financing of 500,000 pesos. He returned to Mendoza with his wife and daughter and received a letter from Pueyrredón, who said that Buenos Aires could only deliver one-third of the promised funds. This complicated the project, as neither Santiago de Chile nor Mendoza had the resources needed. San Martín resigned from the Army, but it is unclear whether his decision to resign was sincere or was to apply pressure to his backers. The government of Buenos Aires still considered San Martín vital to the national defense, so Pueyrredón agreed to pay the 500,000 pesos requested, and encouraged San Martín to withdraw his resignation. San Martín proposed to mediate between Buenos Aires and the Liga Federal led by Artigas. He thought that the civil war was counter-productive to national unity, and that an end to hostilities would free resources needed for the navy. He calculated that Artigas might condition the peace on a joint declaration of war to colonial Brazil; so San Martín proposed to defeat the royalists first and then demand the return of the Eastern Bank to the United Provinces. O'Higgins recommended caution, fearing that San Martín might be captured. Pueyrredón rejected the mediation, as he did not recognize Artigas as an equal to negotiate with him. Act of Rancagua Although Artigas was defeated by the Luso-Brazilian armies, his allies Estanislao López and Francisco Ramírez continued hostilities against Buenos Aires for its inactivity against the invasion. Pueyrredón called the Army of the Andes and the Army of the North (led by Belgrano) to aid Buenos Aires in the conflict. Guido noted to San Martín that if both armies did that, the north of Argentina and Chile would be easily reconquered by the royalists. San Martín also knew that most of the soldiers of the Army of the Andes would not be willing to aid Buenos Aires in the civil war, as most were from other provinces or from Chile. San Martín had doubts as well about the projected arrival of a large military expedition from Spain, as the absolutist restoration of Ferdinand VII had met severe resistance in Spain. San Martín finally kept the Army in Chile when Belgrano's lieutenant Viamonte signed an armistice with López; he thought that the conflict had ended. However, the minister of war Matías de Irigoyen ordered once more the return of the Army of the Andes, and appointed Francisco Fernández de la Cruz as its leader, displacing San Martín. San Martín resigned again, and observed that the Army would not be able to cross the Andes from Chile to Buenos Aires because the winter snow was blocking the trails. All the leaders of the military units of the Army of the Andes refused to go to Buenos Aires, as their soldiers would mutiny or desert. Facing both the resignation of San Martín and the refusals to obey the orders, the Supreme Director canceled the orders, and the Army of the Andes stayed in Chile. With the sanction of the Argentine Constitution of 1819, Pueyrredón ended his mandate as Supreme Director, replaced by Jose Rondeau. The navy was finally completed in Chile, and the British captain Thomas Cochrane was appointed to lead it. But it was not sent to Peru immediately: there were still rumors of an attack from Spain, and if needed the navy would move to Buenos Aires and fight the Spanish ships. The civil war resumed and San Martín attempted once more to mediate, to no effect. Rondeau again requested the return of the Army of the Andes, without success. San Martín returned to Chile and prepared to take part in the naval actions against Peru, ignoring Buenos Aires. The Army of the North refused to join the conflict as well, revolting in Arequito and disbanding. Without either reinforcements, Rondeau was defeated by federal forces in the Battle of Cepeda. The Congress of Tucumán and the office of the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata were dissolved and the country turned into a confederation of 13 provinces, without a central state. This period is known as the Anarchy of the year XX. The rebellion of Spanish general Rafael del Riego and an outbreak of yellow fever in the punitive expedition organized in Cádiz ended the royalist threat to Buenos Aires. The Act of Rancagua invested San Martín with the full authority over the Army of the Andes, as it now lacked a national authority over it. Peru Main article: Peruvian War of Independence Peru had armed forces nearly four times the strength of those of San Martín: 6,244 soldiers in Lima, 8,000 at the northern provinces, 1,263 in the coast, 1,380 in Arequipa and 6,000 in the Upper Peru; nearly 23,000 soldiers in total. The Army of the Andes had 4,000 soldiers instead, and Cochrane's navy another 1,600. With this disparity of forces, San Martín tried to avoid battles. He tried instead to divide the enemy forces in several locations, as he did during the Crossing of the Andes, and trap the royalists with a pincer movement with either reinforcements of the Army of the North from the South or the army of Simón Bolívar from the North. He also tried to promote rebellions and insurrection within the royalist ranks, and promised the emancipation of any slaves that deserted their Peruvian masters and join the army of San Martín. The spreading of the news of the Liberal Triennium, a liberal rebellion in Spain that reinstated the Spanish Constitution of 1812, also sought to undermine royalist loyalty. The navy sailed from Chile on 20 August 1820. It was composed of eight warships, eleven gunboats, 247 cannons and a crew of 1,600, most of them Chileans. There were 12 frigates, and a brig with the 4,000 soldiers of the Army of the Andes. San Martín was the leader of the military expedition. They landed in Paracas, 200 km to the south of Lima, on 7 September, and occupied the nearby city of Pisco, which was abandoned by the royalists. Expedition of Peru Protector of Peru Guayaquil conference Main article: Guayaquil conference San Martín thought that if he joined forces with Bolívar he would be able to defeat the remnant royalist forces in Peru. Both liberators would meet in Quito, so San Martín appointed Torre Tagle to manage the government during his absence. Bolívar was unable to meet San Martín at the arranged date, so San Martín returned to Lima, but still left Tagle in government. Bolívar moved from Quito to Guayaquil, which secured its independence. There were discussions on the future of the region: some factions wanted to join Colombia, others to join Peru, and others to become a new nation. Bolívar ended the discussion by annexing Guayaquil into Colombia. There was Peruvian pressure on San Martín to do a similar thing, to annex Guayaquil to Peru. The Guayaquil conference took place on 26 July 1822. They had two private meetings, on that day and the following one. As there were no witnesses or minutes, the content of their discussions can only be inferred from their later actions and their letters to other people. Some likely topics of discussion may have been a request of reinforcements, and an offer to combine the armies into a single one, with San Martín ranked second to Bolívar. The minister Bernardo Monteagudo was removed from office by a Peruvian rebellion, during San Martín's absence. San Martín resigned as Protector of Peru a few days later and returned to Valparaíso, Chile. Several reasons influenced him to resign. The military discipline of the Army of the Andes was compromised, but San Martín was reluctant to take drastic action against his officers. The authority of San Martín and Bolívar, and the local rivalry of their respective countries Peru and Colombia, limited their options for joint work: Colombians would not have liked Bolívar to give many of his forces to San Martín, whilst Peruvians would not have liked their Protector to be second in command to Bolívar, and a joint command would complicate the maintenance of military discipline. Unlike Bolívar, backed up by the Colombian government, San Martín did not have more resources than those he already had: Buenos Aires denied him any support, the other Argentine governors (such as Juan Bautista Bustos) supported him but did not have resources to provide, O'Higgins was about to be deposed in Chile, and Cochrane took the navy and left him without naval power. Finally, he felt that only a very strong authority would be able to prevent balkanization, but refused to rule as a dictator himself. Later life Main article: Later life of Jose de San Martín After his retirement, San Martín intended to live in Cuyo. Although the war of independence had ended in the region, the Argentine Civil Wars continued. The unitarians wanted to organize the country as a unitary state centered on Buenos Aires, and the federalists preferred a federation of provinces. San Martín had good relations with the federal caudillos and a personal feud with unitarian leader Bernardino Rivadavia, but tried to stay neutral. San Martín's wife, María de los Remedios de Escalada, died in 1823, so he returned to Buenos Aires. He took his daughter Mercedes Tomasa, who was living with her mother's family, and sailed to Europe. After a failed attempt to settle in France, he moved to Britain and then to the capital of present-day Belgium, Brussels, where he settled. He intended to live there until Mercedes completed her education and then return to Argentina. Rivadavia visited Brussels and San Martín intended to challenge him to a duel, but was dissuaded by Diego Paroissien. Despite his feud with Rivadavia, who was appointed President of Argentina, San Martín offered his military services in the War with Brazil, but received no response. He sailed to the country when Rivadavia was deposed and replaced by the federal Manuel Dorrego, and the war ended in the interim. He intended to return anyway, as a federal government would spare him the persecution he would otherwise have received from the unitarians. He was unable to do as he planned. When his ship docked in Río de Janeiro he was informed that the unitarian Juan Lavalle had deposed Dorrego, and when he reached Montevideo he was informed that Lavalle had captured and executed Dorrego and begun a campaign of terror against all federals in the country. The ship arrived in Buenos Aires, but San Martín did not leave it, instead returning to Montevideo. Lavalle was unable to put down the federal rebellion against him, and offered San Martín the government. San Martín declined and returned to Brussels. By this time the federal Juan Manuel de Rosas had begun to pacify the civil war started by Lavalle and earned San Martín's admiration. They began to exchange friendly letters. The Belgian Revolution and the cholera epidemic of 1831 made San Martín leave Brussels and move to Paris, where both San Martín and his daughter became ill. They were helped by Mariano Balcarce. Mariano married Mercedes, and they had a daughter, María Mercedes. In 1837 France began a blockade of the Rio de la Plata against Rosas. San Martín offered his military services to Rosas, which was declined because of San Martín's advanced age, and condemned the role of the unitarians in that conflict, as they had allied themselves with France against their own nation. San Martín bequeathed his curved saber to Rosas, because of his successful defense of the country. The conflict between France and Argentina renewed in the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata, which San Martín condemned as well. During this time he met Florencio Varela and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. During the French 1848 revolution, San Martin left Paris and moved to Boulogne-sur-Mer, a small city in northern France. He was almost blind and had many health problems because of his advanced age, but continued to write letters and keep in touch with the news from South America. Shortly after receiving the news of the Argentine victory against the Anglo-French blockade, he died, three o'clock on 17 August 1850. Remains Jose de San Martín died on 17 August 1850, in his house at Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. Between 1850 and 1861, his corpse was buried in the crypt of the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Boulogne. He requested in his will to be taken to the cemetery without any funeral, and to be moved to Buenos Aires thereafter. Balcarce informed Rosas and the foreign minister Felipe Arana of San Martín's death. Balcarce oversaw the embalming of his remains and their temporary stay in a chapel of the city. He also sent San Martin's saber to Rosas. However, the rebellion of Justo Jose de Urquiza against Rosas in 1851, Rosas' defeat at the battle of Caseros and the resulting chaos delayed the move of San Martín's remains to Buenos Aires. Still, both Rosas and Urquiza organized public homages to San Martín, despite the conflict. Buenos Aires seceded from Argentina as the state of Buenos Aires, dominated by Unitarians who despised San Martín. Thus, the move of his remains was postponed indefinitely. Aware that there were no favorable conditions for the project, Balcarce arranged a creation of a tomb in the Boulogne-sur-Mer cemetery. San Martín's remains were finally repatriated on 29 May 1880, during the presidency of Nicolás Avellaneda. The mausoleum was placed inside the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral. As San Martín was suspected of being a {Freemason}, the mausoleum was placed in an expanded wing of the cathedral. Legacy Main article: Legacy of Jose de San Martín San Martín was first acclaimed as a national hero of Argentina by the Federals, both during his life and immediately after his death. The unitarians still resented his refusal to aid the Supreme Directors with the Army of the Andes and his constant support to Rosas. The unitarian Bartolome Mitre wrote a biography of San Martín, "Historia de San Martín y de la emancipación sudamericana" (Spanish: History of San Martín and the South American emancipation). By that time, several accounts of San Martín were under way in many countries: Valentín Ledesma from Lima wrote in 1853 about San Martín's campaign in Peru, and Benjamín Vicu?a Mackenna from Chile wrote in 1856 about the Chilean War of Independence. With Mitre's book, San Martín was universally acclaimed as the Liberator of Argentina, but his work introduced several inaccuracies to make San Martín's campaign support Mitre's political project. These inaccuracies were detected and fixed by later historians. Statues of San Martín appear in most cities of Argentina, as well as in Santiago and Lima. Jose Gil de Castro made the first portrait of San Martín, and several other artists made works about him. The most important films featuring San Martín are the 1970 El Santo de la Espada and the 2010 Revolución: El cruce de los Andes. The neighbourhood of San Martín in Bogotá, Colombia's Centro Internacional area is named for the large equestrian statue of the General situated in a small plaza also named for him. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic has an avenue named Jose de San Martin in his honor that connects the colonial zone to the west of the city. An equestrian statue of the General was erected in Boulogne-sur-Mer; the statue was inaugurated on 24 October 1909, at a ceremony attended by several units from the Argentine military. The statue was erected through purely private initiative, with the support of national government of Argentina, the municipal council of Buenos Aires and a public funding campaign. The statue is 10m high, on a 4m by 6m base; it is well known to locals. Located on the beach, it was virtually untouched by the numerous bombings campaigns during both world wars. There is a equestrian statue of General San Martín in Washington D.C. along NW Virginia Street. It is a copy of a statue in Buenos Aires. It was “presented by the Argentine people to the people of the United States (...) unveiled with appropriate ceremony on October 28, 1925.” There is also an equestrian statue of General San Martín in New York City, on the southern side of Central Park. It was dedicated in 1951 and was donated by the City of Buenos Aires, Argentina. There is a memorial featuring a bust of General San Martín in Beverly Hills, CA. The bust was designed by Fernando Di Zitti and dedicated in 2001. There is also a bust of San Martin at the Intramuros or Walled City of Manila, which was erected in 1950 at the request of the Perón government as a reminder that San Martin's brother, Juan Fermin, served in the Philippines from 1801 to 1822. Battles/wars War of the Second Coalition War of the Oranges Peninsular War Battle of Bailen Battle of Albuera Spanish American wars of independence Battle of San Lorenzo Battle of Chacabuco Second Battle of Cancha Rayada Battle of Maipú Name: Carrera Biography: Jose Miguel Carrera(October 15, 1785 - September 4, 1821) Position: President of the First Chilean Governing Council Allegiance:Spain,Chile Rank: commander of the Húsares de Galicia Carrera entered the military career, in Chile, as a mere boy at the age of six. At the age of 22 (1808) he entered the Napoleonic Wars participating in the campaigns of 1808, 1809, and 1810. In Europe Carrera became an elite cavalry officer and a captain in the hussar regiment Húsares de Farnesio. He also became commander of the Húsares de Galicia. He distinguished himself in the Battle of Talavera and was awarded the Cruz of Talavera. He was wounded in the Battle of Ocana. In total he participated in some 20 armed engagements and battles on European soil. On his return to Chile he led his men in some 10 battles and/or armed engagements against the Spanish Army. Later, following his trip to the US, and in his attempt to return to Chile, from Argentina, he and his men fought the Argentine in a series or armed confrontations and battles some of which were particularly cruel and bloody. Notable in his Argentine campaign was the Battle of Rio Cuarto. In all, Carrera participated in combat in some 40 separate occasions. Jose Miguel Carrera Verdugo (American Spanish: ; October 15, 1785 - September 4, 1821) was a Chilean general, formerly Spanish military, member of the prominent Carrera family, and considered one of the founders of independent Chile. Carrera was the most important leader of the Chilean War of Independence during the period of the Patria Vieja ("Old Republic"). After the Spanish "Reconquista de Chile" ("Reconquest"), he continued campaigning from exile after defeat. His opposition to the leaders of independent Argentina and Chile San Martin and O'Higgins respectively made him live in exile in Montevideo. From Montevideo Carrera traveled to Argentina where he joined the struggle against the unitarians. Carreras' small army was eventually left isolated in the Province of Buenos Aires from the other federalist forces. In this difficult situation Carrera decided to cross to native-controlled lands all the way to Chile to once for all overthrow Chilean Supreme Director O'Higgins. His passage to Chile, which was his ultimate goal, was opposed by Argentine politicians and he engaged together with indigenous tribes, among the Ranquels, in a campaign against the southern provinces of Argentina. After the downfall of Carreras' ally, the Republic of Entre Ríos, and several victories against the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata Carrera's men were finally defeated by numerically superior forces near Mendoza. Carrera was then betrayed by one of his Argentine helpers, leading to his capture and execution in that city. Jose Miguel Carrera was of Basque descent. Early years Jose Miguel Carrera was of Basque descent. He was born in Santiago, the second son (third child, after his sister Javiera and his brother Juan Jose) of Ignacio de la Carrera y Cuevas and Francisca de Paula Verdugo Fernández de Valdivieso y Herrera. Carrera carried out his first studies in the Convictorio Carolino, the best school in the country at the time. During these years, he became friends with Manuel Rodríguez, classmate and neighbour, future guerrilla leader of the Chilean independence movement. After school he was sent to Spain by his parents. There he joined the Spanish Army in 1808. He fought well against the Napoleonic forces, obtaining the rank of Sergeant Major and receiving the command of the Húsares de Galicia regiment. In Spain he also made contact with the United States independence movement and joined the Cádiz Order. La Patria Vieja ("Old Republic") (1810-1814) When he learned about the Junta de Gobierno that had been established in Chile to rule during the absence of the Spanish monarch, he went back to Chile and got involved in politics. As the Carreras were one of the three major political forces, he became part of the government. On 15 November 1811 the Carreras made a coup d'etat and Jose Miguel became the sole ruler of Chile (his brothers were military commanders). Because of his more personal and Chilean-national point of view about Chilean independence, Carrera came into conflict with the Lautaro Lodge, whose more Latin-Americanist centered objective was to unite all Latin America in the same way as the United States of America. During his government, he helped create several Chilean national symbols and institutions: Carrera created the first Chilean Constitution, made the first Chilean flag and coat of arms, and promoted the press by bringing to Chile the first printing press, which directly led to the appearance of the first newspaper in Chile (La Aurora de Chile). Carrera also established September 18 as the national day of Independence (which is still celebrated in Chile), even though the real independence date is on February 12 of 1810. He also abolished slavery, rescinded the clergy's right to legal immunity, and founded the first state-sponsored school in Chile, the Instituto Nacional. As the Spanish Army and Navy invaded the South of Chile, he became Commander in Chief of the patriotic forces and left the government. He had a successful campaign, expelling the Spaniards from the city of Concepción. After the Surprise of El Roble, in which Carrera was surrounded and had to jump into a river to save himself (not without first shooting straight at the enemy's head of commander), the government relieved him of his duties and appointed Brigadier Bernardo O'Higgins, who had managed to repel the enemy incursion. Carrera was taken prisoner by the Spaniards but managed to escape, he finally exchanged prisoner after the Gainza treaty, and went on to overthrow the government for the third time. Bernardo O'Higgins did not acknowledge Carrera and fought against the Carrerian army at the Battle of Tres Acequias (Carrera's youngest brother, Luis Carrera, defeated O'Higgins using a cunning defensive strategy). During this chaos, the Spanish army retook Concepción and advanced towards Santiago. Carrera and O'Higgins decided to re-unite the army; Carrera's plan was to draw the Spaniards to the Angostura del Paine (Paine Narrows), while O'Higgins wanted to make his stand at the town of Rancagua. It was settled to make it at the Angostura de Paine, a gorge that formed an easily defended bottleneck, which seemed to be the most logical plan considering that the local forces were outnumbered. However, at the last hour and against direct orders, O'Higgins garrisoned the Chilean forces at the main square of Rancagua. He and his forces were promptly surrounded, and after an entire day of fighting the Spanish commander Mariano Osorio was victorious in the Disaster of Rancagua, (1-2 October 1814). Argentina and the United States With the defeat of the Chilean forces, many patriots escaped to Mendoza, which was governed at the time by Jose de San Martín. As San Martín was a member of the Lautaro Lodge, he welcomed O'Higgins and his allies. After committing acts of vandalism Jose Miguel and his brothers were arrested and sent to Buenos Aires, where Carlos Maria Alvear, a friend of Carrera since the war against Napoleon in Spain, had just been proclaimed national hero. Alvear would shortly go on to take power in Argentina. While Alvear was in government, Carrera was in a good position in Buenos Aires. But after Alvear was overthrown, power was taken by members of the Lautaro Lodge, forcing Carrera to leave Buenos Aires for the United States. With the help of Commodore David Porter, and by sheer force of personality, Jose Miguel Carrera managed to obtain—on credit—four ships with American crews for the Chilean independence enterprise. However, as he arrived in Buenos Aires with this fleet, the pro-San Martin Argentine government confiscated the ships and put Carrera in prison. During his imprisonment, San Martín organized an army in Mendoza. This group crossed the Andes and defeated the Spaniards in the Battle of Chacabuco, on 12 February 1817. Carrera received help from the United States' envoy who came with him, Joel Roberts Poinsett, and was able to escape from San Martin's forces, taking refuge in Montevideo under the protection of Brazilian General Carlos Frederico Lecor. While in Montevideo, his brothers Juan Jose and Luís plotted against O'Higgins, because of his having betrayed the Carreras to San Martin and the Lautaro Lodge. They were arrested in Mendoza and executed by the command of Bernardo de Monteagudo, after the Royalists defeated San Martin and O'Higgins at the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada. The Lautaro Lodge had already made plans that, in case of defeat, all political enemies—including the Carrera brothers—would be executed. After Jose Miguel was informed of this, he openly and vociferously began opposing both San Martin and O'Higgins. Subsequently, Jose Miguel Carrera was one of the main promoters of the Argentine federalist war and fought against the Unitarian government. Carrera and the federalist forces defeated the Directorship government and entered Buenos Aires. On 23 February 1820, they signed the Treaty of Pilar, the document that first established the Argentine federal system. However, because of national rivalries, Carrera is not often recognised in Argentine Historiography. As a result of this treaty, Carrera received money and troops, with which he marched towards Chile. One of Carrera's principal allies before his death was the Boroanos tribe that had recently migrated from Araucanía to the Pampas. However, he was intercepted in Mendoza and taken prisoner. Trial and execution After a show trial,, Carrera was hanged on 4 September 1821. Legacy Carrera is today considered one of the Chileans Padres de la Patria (Fathers of the Nation). The conflict between followers of O'Higgins and Carrera continues to some extent to this day, when many declare themselves Carreristas or O'Higginistas. Carreristas claim that his figure is not given enough recognition, in comparison with O'Higgins, whom they openly despise. Apart from ending slavery in Chile, Carrera abolished the titled nobility and ended their legal prerogatives and privileges. He also founded the first free newspaper in the nation, La Aurora de Chile; instituted the first national flag and national seal; and founded the first free secular school, which eventually became known as the Instituto Nacional, its full name being Instituto Nacional General Jose Miguel Carrera; several Chilean presidents and dozens of senators and parliamentarians have graduated from its halls. In the Patagonian region in the south of Chile, there is the General Carrera Lake. All five of Carrera's legitimate offspring married prominently in Chilean society, and their descendants, who number in the few hundred, make up the bulk of the Chilean upper classes. His prominent descendants include: Ignacio Carrera Pinto, his grandson, a hero who died during the Battle of La Concepción, in the War of the Pacific. Federico Santa María, industrialist and millionaire, who gave his money to build Federico Santa María Technical University, one of the best technical and engineering schools in Chile. In Cinema The life of Jose Miguel Carrera is shown through the television project Heroes. The series include 6 related movies about Chilean Founding Fathers and Heroes, and in it, Jose Miguel Carrera was portrayed by Diego Casanueva. Name: Moreno Biography: Mariano Moreno(September 23, 1778 - March 4, 1811) Position: Secretary of War and Government of the Primera Junta， Lawyer Nationality:Argentine Political party :Patriot Mariano Moreno (Spanish pronunciation: ; September 23, 1778 - March 4, 1811) was an Argentine lawyer, journalist, and politician. He played a decisive role in the Primera Junta, the first national government of Argentina, created after the May Revolution. As a news reporter and lawyer, Moreno used his pen as a powerful weapon in the early days of the independence movement, creating newspapers to criticize the colonial system and royalists, and build momentum for the revolutionary forces. Moreno was born in Buenos Aires in 1778. His father was Manuel Moreno y Argumosa, born in Santander, Spain, who arrived in the city in 1776 and married María del Valle. Mariano was the firstborn of the Moreno family and had thirteen brothers. During his youth he studied Latin, logic, and philosophy at San Carlos Royal College, followed by college studies of law at Chuquisaca. During these studies, he learned the new ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment. He married María Guadalupe Cuenca and returned to Buenos Aires, becoming a prominent lawyer for the Cabildo. Unlike most other criollos, he rejected the Carlotist project and the administration of Santiago de Liniers, joining instead the ill-fated mutiny of álzaga against him. He worked for the next viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros. He wrote the economic paper The Representation of the Landowners, which persuaded the viceroy to open trade with Britain. Although he was not prominently involved in the May Revolution that deposed Cisneros, he was appointed as secretary of war of the new government, the Primera Junta. Along with Juan Jose Castelli, he promoted harsh policies against the supporters of the former government and the strengthening of the new one. These policies were detailed in a secret document, the Operations plan; some historians dispute its authorship. Moreno organized military campaigns to Paraguay and Upper Peru and ensured the execution of Santiago de Liniers after the defeat of his counter-revolution. He established the first Argentine newspaper, La Gazeta de Buenos Ayres, and translated Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract into Spanish. When the Junta achieved the first military victories, President Cornelio Saavedra opposed Moreno, favoring moderate policies instead. Allied with Gregorio Funes, Saavedra expanded the number of members of the Junta to leave Morenism in a minority. With disputes still going on, Moreno was appointed to a diplomatic mission to Britain but died at sea on the way there. His brother Manuel Moreno alleged that he was poisoned. His supporters were still an influential political party for some years after his death. Historians hold several perspectives about the role and historical significance of Moreno, from hagiography to repudiation. He is considered the precursor of Argentine journalism. Mariano Moreno was the eldest of 14 children of poor parents, Manuel Moreno y Argumosa (born in Santander, Spain) and Ana María Valle. He studied at Colegio Grande de San Carlos, but without living in it, as his family could not afford the price. He graduated with an honorary diploma. He met influential people within the literary field, who helped him to continue his studies at the University of Chuquisaca, even when his father could not afford the cost. This was the only big university in South America at the time. He studied the books of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and other European philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment. He studied English and French languages as well, to understand authors from Britain and France. This allowed him to work as a translator, and he spent several years working with Rousseau's The Social Contract. Moreno was convinced that society could be changed by the power of intelligence and reason. He also studied philosophical texts of the Spanish Enlightenment under the tutelage of the priest Terrazas and aspired to implement the new ideas in his country. He wrote a thesis with strong criticism of the native slavery at the mines of Potosí, influenced by the Spanish jurist Juan de Solorzano Pereira, the foremost publisher of Indian Law, and Victoria Villalva, fiscal of the Audiencia of Charcas and defender of the indigenous cause. He started his professional career between 1803 and 1804, in the office of Augustine Gascón, officiating as labor counselor for Indians. As a result, he confronted powerful people like the mayors of Cochabamba and Chayanta. He left the city after being threatened and returned to Buenos Aires in 1805 with his wife Maria Guadalupe Cuenca and their newborn son. Once in the city, he became a reporter of the hearings of the Royal Audiencia, a local appeallate court. The Buenos Aires Cabildo, the local council, hired him as an advisor as well. He defended Melchor Fernández, aggrieved by Bishop Benito Lue y Riega, in one of his first cases. In another of his early disputes, he backed the Cabildo in denying the appointment as an ensign of the young Bernardino Rivadavia. A British army invaded Buenos Aires in 1806, as part of the British invasions of the Río de la Plata. Although Moreno was not actively involved with the military counter-offensive which forced them to surrender, he expressed his loyalty to the Spanish crown in writing. He wrote a diary that noted all the events, so that, in the future, his countrymen would know the circumstances which occurred in the city that allowed for an invasion to succeed. The British launched a new offensive in 1807, this time capturing Montevideo. They published a bilingual English-Spanish newspaper known as "The Southern Star" or "La estrella del sur" (the newspaper used both names in conjunction). It advocated free trade and promoted Latin American independence from Spain under British protection. The Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires banned the newspaper and requested Moreno to write articles refuting those of the publication. Moreno refused because, although he remained loyal to the Spanish crown, he agreed with some of the criticisms made by the newspaper against the Spanish colonial government. Fearing a new attack to Buenos Aires, Moreno left the city with his whole family and relocated in the countryside. His house in Buenos Aires, left unoccupied, was later used to keep prisoner William Carr Beresford, the British commander of the first invasion. Several friends of Moreno helped Beresford to escape and move to Montevideo, but it is unknown if Moreno was aware of the plan. First political activities Although Mariano Moreno was a criollo, a Spanish citizen born in the Americas, he did not work with the other criollos of Buenos Aires who sought to promote political changes against the privileges of the Spanish-born. Unlike the criollo politicians Manuel Belgrano and Juan Jose Castelli, he did not support viceroy Liniers or the Carlotist project, which sought the coronation of Carlota of Spain in the Americas. He joined mayor Martín de álzaga instead, which allowed him to serve as a legal adviser of the Cabildo. In that capacity, he wrote a petition to the King of Spain, so that the Buenos Aires Cabildo was named Protector of the Cabildos of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. As a result, all petitions from local cabildos to the King or the Viceroy would be channeled through the Cabildo at the capital. Martín de álzaga organized a mutiny on January 1, 1809, and Moreno joined it. álzaga aspired to replace Viceroy Santiago de Liniers with a government Junta, after learning of the capture of the Spanish King Ferdinand VII during the Peninsular War and the creation of the Junta of Seville. If it prevailed, Mariano Moreno would have been part of the new Junta. The mutiny was defeated by the swift reaction of Cornelio Saavedra, in command of the Regiment of Patricians, who dispersed the crowd and persuaded Liniers not to abdicate. It is disputed by historians whenever the mutiny had similar or opposite goals to those of the May Revolution that would take place a year later. The historians who support the latter perspective try to make attempts to excuse or justify Moreno's involvement; those who support the former consider instead that Moreno was a revolutionary a year before most other Argentines. Moreno was álzaga's lawyer in the trial that followed, which was labeled a trial for "independentism". Liniers did not extend the trial to Moreno himself, for reasons unknown. Liniers was succeeded by Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros a few months later, who pardoned the mutineers to reduce political conflicts. Cisneros allowed free trade as well, as instructed by the Junta of Seville, which benefited British merchants; Britain was allied with Spain in the Peninsular War. The agents of the Consulate of Cadiz asserted that this would hurt the local economy, moral values, social usages, religious practices, and the loyalty to Spain and its monarchy. As a result, Cisneros closed trade again, restoring the Spanish monopsony. A group of hacendados (owners of haciendas), who did not feel adequately represented at the Cabildo, asked Moreno to defend them. Moreno wrote The Representation of the Landowners, a report that represented the export interest of the landowners, encouraged free trade and condemned the privileges of the merchants benefited from the monopsony. It is considered the most comprehensive economic report from the time of the viceroyalty. It represented the new European economic ideas and noted that the legal monopsony with Spain did not prevent British goods from being smuggled into Latin America. Several authors have questioned Moreno's authorship of the paper, considering it instead an update of another, previously drafted by Manuel Belgrano, Secretary of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires, written to make a similar request to the former viceroy Liniers. Primera Junta Main article: Primera Junta Mariano Moreno had several contacts with groups seeking the removal of Cisneros but was not strongly involved with the May Revolution, which considered the fall of the Junta of Seville a reason to depose the viceroy and create a local junta. At the time, Moreno was still loyal to álzaga. He attended the May 22 open Cabildo, but according to the father of Vicente Fidel López and the father-in-law of Bartolome Mitre (both direct witness) he stayed silent at one side and did not join the debate. He voted for Saavedra's proposal: to remove viceroy Cisneros and replace him with a Junta. Manuel Hermenegildo Aguirre, captain of hussars, proposed that the Cabildo take the reins of government, with five men appointed as counselors, Moreno among them. However, nobody else voted for that proposal, and it was the only one that included him. Moreno felt betrayed when the Cabildo twisted the results of the open Cabildo and created a Junta that would be headed by Cisneros. He refused any further contacts with the revolutionaries and stayed home during the remaining events. The definitive members of the Junta came from a popular petition signed on May 25, which was given to the Cabildo. The reasons for Moreno's inclusion in the list are unclear, as with all other members of the Junta. A commonly accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists. The Junta faced strong opposition from the beginning: it was resisted locally by the Cabildo and the Royal Audiencia, still loyal to the absolutist factions; the nearby plazas of Montevideo and Paraguay did not recognize it, and Santiago de Liniers organized a counter-revolution at Córdoba. Mariano Moreno, an unimportant politician up to that point, became the leader of the most radical supporters of the Junta. He was supported by the popular leaders Domingo French and Antonio Beruti, Dupuy, Donado, Orma, and Cardozo; and priests like Grela and Aparicio. Historian Carlos Ibarguren described that Morenist youths roamed the streets preaching new ideas to each pedestrian they found, turned the "Marcos" coffee shop into a political hall, and proposed that all social classes should be illustrated. Manuel Belgrano and Juan Jose Castelli supported Moreno within the Junta, and French was promoted to Colonel of the regiment "America". This regiment, also known as "The Star" because of a star that they wore on their sleeves, was composed of radical youths led by French during the riots of the May Revolution. Moreno established the official newspaper Gazeta de Buenos Ayres through a June 2 decree and managed its contents. The first newspapers were available to the public five days later. He issued a freedom of the press decree, which allowed the press to publish anything that did not offend public morals or attack the Revolution or the government. Moreno published some works of Gaspar de Jovellanos and his translation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract. In this later work, he skipped the chapter about religion, suggesting that the author "has raved in religious matters". This was done to prevent religious disputes among patriots. This publication was criticized by conservatives such as Tomás de Anchorena, who said that it could generate popular unrest. As with the Junta itself, Moreno's writings maintained loyalty to Ferdinand VII. It is unclear to historians whether he was concealing pro-independence ambitions, or was truly loyal to the deposed king. However, he made specific references to independentism as early as November 1810. In reference to the Courts of Cádiz that would write a Constitution, he said that the Congress "may establish an absolute disposal of our beloved Ferdinand", meaning that the right of self-determination would allow even that. He did not think the monarchical authority to be absolute, but subject to popular sovereignty, so that a monarch may lose his authority if he worked against the common good of the people. He also considered that if Ferdinand VII returned to the throne, he would not be able to challenge a Constitution written in his absence. However, he wrote that as a hypothetical scenario, to describe the strength of a Constitution, not as a likely possibility. Moreno issued several decrees during his first days in government. He ordered punishment for anyone attempting to generate disputes, and for those concealing conspiracies against the Junta or other people. The military bodies of "Pardos" and "Morenos", composed of indigenous peoples, were reformed to have military ranks similar to those of the Spanish military bodies. He did this by invoking the rulings of the Catholic Monarchs during the early Spanish colonization of the Americas. Actions against royalists See also: Argentine War of Independence Internal disputes Political decline and death Hipólito Vieytes was about to make a diplomatic mission to Britain, but Moreno requested that he should be given the appointment instead. Saavedra accepted immediately. He traveled to Britain with his brother Manuel Moreno and his secretary Tomás Guido, on the schooner Fame. His health declined and there was no doctor on board, but the captain refused requests to sail into some ports which were positioned along the route such as in Río de Janeiro or Cape Town. The ship's captain gave him an emetic in common use at that time, prepared with four grams of antimony potassium tartrate. Moreno suffered great convulsions after ingesting the emetic and considered that in his state he could not have ingested more than the quarter of a gram without effect. He died shortly afterward. His body was wrapped in a Union Jack and thrown into the sea, after a volley of musketry. Manuel Moreno speculated later that he was poisoned by the captain. Manuel Moreno was unsure of whether the captain really gave him that substance, or if he substituted something else, or gave an even higher dose. Circumstances did not allow an autopsy to be performed. Further points used to sustain the idea of a murder are the captain's refusal to land elsewhere, his slow sailing, his administration of the emetic in secrecy, and that he didn't return to Buenos Aires with the ship. Enrique de Gandía pointed to an irregular ruling of the Junta that appointed a man named Curtis as Moreno's replacement for the diplomatic mission in the case of Moreno's death. The son of Mariano Moreno commented to the historian Adolfo Saldías that his mother, Guadalupe Cuenca, received an anonymous gift of a mourning hand fan and handkerchief, with instructions to use them soon. By that time, the murder of Moreno was a common assumption, and it was mentioned during the trial of residence of the members of the Junta. Juan Madera stated at the trial that Moreno may have requested to go to Britain because he was afraid of being murdered and that he may have stated this during the meeting when the Junta discussed his resignation. Modern author Manuel Luis Martín studied the health of both Moreno and his family and concluded that he died of natural causes. Legacy Despite the death of Mariano Moreno, his supporters were still an influential party in Buenos Aires. Morenists accused Saavedra and Funes of plotting to allow the coronation of Carlota and organized a rebellion with "The Star" Regiment. However, the Saavedrists became aware of it and organized another rebellion on May 5 and 6, 1811. This rebellion requested strong changes in the government: the removal of Morenists Nicolás Rodríguez Pe?a, Hipólito Vieytes, Miguel Azcuenaga, and Juan Larrea from the Junta; the exile of Domingo French, Antonio Beruti, Agustín Donado, Gervasio Posadas and Ramón Vieytes; and the return and trial of Manuel Belgrano. Thus, the Morenist party was set apart from the government. The Saavedrist hegemony was short-lived. The military defeats of Castelli and Belgrano started a new political crisis, and the First Triumvirate replaced the Junta Grande as the executive power, and then closed it completely. The former supporters of Moreno (Belgrano, Dupuy, Tomás Guido, Beruti, Monteagudo, French, Vicente López) would later support the campaign of Jose de San Martín. The Argentine war of independence would give room to the Argentine Civil War between unitarians and federals. Saavedrists like Martín Rodríguez, Ortiz de Ocampo, de la Cruz—and even Saavedra himself—became unitarians. Manuel Moreno, French, Agrelo, Vicente López, and Pancho Planes opposed both the First Triumvirate and the presidency of unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia. Manuel Moreno and Tomás Guido, in particular, worked in the government of the most powerful federal leader, Juan Manuel de Rosas. Historical perspectives Early Argentine historians described Mariano Moreno as the leader of the Revolution and a great historical man. Later liberal historians would embellish this portrayal even more. An example of this tendency is La Revolución de Mayo y Mariano Moreno by Ricardo Levene. Biographers would describe him as a serene statesman, a notable economist, a decided democrat, and a great leader. For those historians, Moreno would have been an Anglophile, and "The Representation of the Hacendados", the government platform of the May Revolution. Subsequently, revisionist authors would formulate accusations against him, while promoting Saavedra as a popular leader. According to those authors, Moreno was in the employ of the British, a demagogic caudillo, a paranoid, a mere man of theoretical ideas applying European principles that failed in the local context, wrongly portrayed as the leader of the Revolution by the liberal historiography. A?o X by Hugo Wast is considered the harshest work against Moreno. Moreno was still considered an Anglophile but in a negative light. They blamed Moreno for the harsh policies of the Junta, considering him a terrorist or a predecessor of Marxism; liberal historians usually concealed these policies. Modern authors like Ernesto Palacio, Norberto Galasso, and Jorge Abelardo Ramos have attempted to rehabilitate the image of Moreno by avoiding both extremes: the sweet liberal Moreno and the horrible one written by revisionists. Those historians do not consider Bernardino Rivadavia a successor of Moreno, and the proposals to seek an alliance with Britain are not seen as the product of Moreno's Anglophilia, but just an example of the limited options available to the Primera Junta. Similarly, they do not attribute much influence to the Representation..., considering it a mere work for a client that didn't really influence Cisneros, who would have allowed free trade for international contexts. The harsh policies are acknowledged, but not attributed specifically to Moreno, but rather to the whole Junta, and compared with similar royalist measures used to punish the Chuquisaca, the La Paz revolution, and the indigenous rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Journalism Mariano Moreno is regarded as the first Argentine journalist, as he created the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres. June 7, the day this newspaper was first available to the public, is recognized in Argentina as "Journalist's Day" since 1938. The Gazeta, however, was not the first newspaper in Buenos Aires, but the first one since the May Revolution. The first newspaper was the Telegrafo Mercantil (1801), followed by the Semanario de Agricultura Industria y Comercio (1802) and the Correo de Comercio de Buenos Aires (1810), edited during the colonial period. Moreno was the only one to sign the decree that established the newspaper, but the text implies that it was the result of a discussion of the whole Junta, and not just his initiative. A fellow member of the Junta, Manuel Alberti, was appointed as the director of the newspaper. However, Alberti never actually directed the newspaper; Moreno did. Historian Guillermo Furlong considers that it was really Alberti who directed the newspaper, but the memoirs of Jose Pedro Agrelo (a later director), Tomás Guido, and Saavedra confirm that the newspaper was managed by Moreno. Moreno has also been promoted as a supporter of the freedom of the press, but the Gazeta was actually a state-sponsored newspaper, and the Junta allowed such freedom only for information that was not against the interests of the government. According to Norberto Galasso, that situation would today be considered media bias. Personal life The Moreno family was poor but could afford a house and some slaves. Ana María Valle y Ramos, Mariano's mother, was one of the few literate women in Buenos Aires. Mariano Moreno was the firstborn of fourteen children. Mariano moved to Chuquisaca with his brother Manuel Moreno and their friend Tomás Guido once the family raised the money. The long and difficult journey gave Mariano a rheumatism attack; he had to stay in bed for fifteen days on arrival. He had further attacks years later. Moreno met María Guadalupe Cuenca in this city, after seeing a miniature portrait of her at a silversmith's house. Both Moreno and María were expected by their families to follow religious studies, and Moreno's father did not authorize a change. Moreno studied laws all the same and married María in secret to avoid family resistance. They had a single son, named Mariano like the father. When Moreno left for Europe on a diplomatic mission in 1811, his wife and son stayed in Buenos Aires. María wrote many letters to Moreno, with descriptions of ongoing events in the city. Most of them were written when Moreno was already dead; she did not learn of his fate until the following August when a letter arrived from Manuel Moreno. She requested a widow's pension from the First Triumvirate, which was in power by then; its value was thirty pesos. Beliefs Mariano Moreno studied French and Spanish authors of the Age of Enlightenment during his studies at Chuquisaca. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract was the main influence; he translated this work into Spanish and used it to justify the actions of the Primera Junta. Contemporary people as Ignacio Nú?ez and Tomás de Anchorena acknowledged him as the translator. However, as the main page said that the work was "reprinted in Buenos Ayres", some historians doubt whether it was actually Moreno's work. Vicente Fidel López claimed that Moreno reprinted the translation made by the Spaniard Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, but the two translations differ. Paul Groussac thought it was a reprint of an Asturian translation, and Ricardo Levene said that Moreno was not the translator, but neither gave any indication as to who they thought had completed it. Enrique de Gandía considers that the comments of contemporary people and the lack of an earlier similar translation of Rousseau's work allow us to conclude that Moreno must have been the translator, at least until an earlier translation is found. Despite his interest in French authors, Mariano Moreno was not Francophile or afrancesado. He kept a strong Spanish cultural heritage, and both Levene and Abelardo Ramos agree that his stay in Chuquisaca influenced him more than the books. In line with the Spanish Enlightenment, Moreno kept strong religious beliefs. He removed the chapter from Rousseau's work that is critical of religion, and never became a {Freemason}. He gave up his religious studies to study law and get married, but never actually became a priest, so there was no defrocking. He studied with priests such as Terrazas, who approved and perhaps even encouraged the change of vocation. Physical aspect The canonical image of Mariano Moreno is the one from the portrait Mariano Moreno en su mesa de trabajo (Spanish: Mariano Moreno at his work desk). It was done by the Chilean artist Pedro Subercaseaux during the centennial of the May Revolution in 1910. The historian Adolfo Carranza asked him to design various allegorical pictures of the event. Carranza belonged to the mainstream line of historians who professed great admiration for Moreno, who he described as follows: "He was the soul of the government of the revolution of May, his nerve, the distinguished statesman of the group managing the ship attacked the absolutism and doubt, anxious to reach the goal of his aspirations and his destiny. Moreno was the compass and that also grabbed the helm, as he was the strongest and the ablest of those who came to direct it". He asked for a picture that was consistent with this image. The portrait depicts him as a friendly man with an open and round face, a wide forehead, and a serene look. Subsequent interpretations, like those of Antonio Estrada, would follow this style, as would portraits of other members of the Junta. However, as this portrait was made a hundred years after the death of the subject, with no known depictions done during his lifetime, it was thus based on the artist's imagination. It was known that Moreno had clearly visible smallpox scars from the age of eight, but not to the point where they disfigured his face. Later a portrait of Moreno was discovered that had been done from life, by the Peruvian silversmith Juan de Dios Rivera. This portrait was painted between 1808 or 1809, before Moreno's appointment as secretary of the Junta. It is now considered to be the closest representation of Moreno's real appearance. In this portrait, he is depicted with an elongated face, abundant hair, long sideburns, big eyes, and a pointy nose. Name: Ferreira Biography: Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira (April 27, 1756 - April 23, 1815) Position:Naturalist Nationality:Brazilian Allegiance: Portugal Known for:Expedition to the interior of Brazil Fields:natural scientist, explorer Alma mater:University of Coimbra Institutions:University of Coimbra,Museum of Ajuda,Royal Cabinet of Natural History Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira (April 27, 1756 - April 23, 1815) was a Portuguese naturalist born in Brazil. He undertook an extensive journey which crossed the interior of the Amazon Basin to Mato Grosso, between 1783 and 1792. During this journey, he described the agriculture, flora, fauna, and native inhabitants. Life and work Born in Bahia (present day Salvador), the son of the merchant Manuel Rodrigues Ferreira, Ferreira began his studies at the Convent of Mercês, in Bahia, which gave him his first orders in 1768. He then studied law and then natural philosophy and mathematics at the University of Coimbra, where he received his baccalaureate at age 22. He continued his studies at the institution, where he studied natural history, and obtained his doctorate in 1779. He then worked at the Royal Museum of Ajuda. On March 22, 1780, he was admitted as a corresponding member of the Portuguese Royal Academy of Sciences. Expedition to Brazil At this time the colonial economy of Brazil was in a state of decadence, having exhausted the placer gold of Mato Grosso, Goiás, and, especially, Minas Gerais. For this reason, the queen Maria I of Portugal, desiring to know more about the central and north of the Brazilian colony, which at that point remained practically unexplored, in order to implement developmental measures, ordered Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira, as a naturalist, to undertake a "philosophical voyage through the captaincies of Gr?o-Pará, Rio Negro, Mato Grosso e Cuiabá." The idea was to provide an impetus for economic exploration and enable conquest of disputed territory. In 1783 the naturalist left his post at the Museum of Ajuda, and, in September, left for Brazil to describe, collect, prepare and remit to the Royal Museum of Lisbon samples of tools used by the local population, as well as local minerals, plants, and animals. He was also to write political and philosophical commentaries about what he saw in the places he passed through. This pragmatism was what separated this voyage from other, more scientific, voyages led by other naturalists who explored America. With uncertain resources, he counted on two draftsmen or sketchers (riscadores), Jose Codina, about whom little is known, and Jose Joaquim Freire, who had an important position in the drawing house of the Museum of Ajuda and frequented the design halls of the Foundry of the Royal Army Arsenal. He was also served by a botanical gardener, Agostinho do Cabo. The voyage was undertaken under auspices of the Academy of Sciences in Lisbon, the Ministry of Business and Ultramarine Dominions, and was planned by the Italian naturalist Domenico Vandelli. It was originally planned to include four naturalists, but due to financial cuts, Ferreira was the only one, and on his shoulders lay the responsibilities of collecting species, classifying and preparing specimens for the return journey to Lisbon, and preparing studies about the agriculture and maps of the area. In October 1783, he arrived in Belem do Pará on the águia e Cora??o de Jesus ("Eagle and Heart of Jesus"). The following nine years were dedicated to crossing the central-north of Brazil, from the island of Marajó, Cametá, Bai?o, Pederneiras and Alcoba?a. He went up the Amazon River and the Rio Negro to the border with Spanish lands, and navigated up the Branco River to the mountain of Cananauaru. He went up the Madeira River and the Guapore River to Vila Bela da Santíssima Trindade, then capital of Mato Grosso. He continued through the town of Cuiabá, crossing from the Amazon watershed into the marshes of Mato Grosso, in the Prata River watershed. He followed the Cuiabá, S?o Louren?o and Paraguai Rivers. He returned to Belem do Pará in January 1792. He inventoried the flora and fauna, the indigenous communities and their customs, evaluated the economic opportunities and possible places for centers of population. His was the most important voyage of discovery in Brazil during the colonial period. His "Diary of a Philosophical Voyage" (Diário da Viagem Filosófica) was published in the Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro in 1887. The Division of Manuscripts of the National Library Foundation preserves in the Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira Collection hundreds of documents from Philosophical Voyage, along with other papers relating to the Amazon from the 18th century. Remittance to Portugal During all of the years of exploration of the hinterland, he ordered the material collected to be sent to the royal court. Upon discovering that all of the expenses had been covered by the captain, spending his daughter's dowry, he decided that it wouldn't do to embarrass her marriage, and married his daughter, Germana Pereira de Queiroz, himself on September 16, 1792. He returned to Lisbon in January 1793, and dedicated the remainder of his life to metropolitan administration. He was named Official of the Secretary of State of Sea Commerce and Ultramarine Dominions. In 1794 he was awarded the Order of Christ and took a post as temporary director of the Royal Cabinet of Natural History and the Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra. In the following year, he was nominated, in sequence, the Vice Director of the institution, Administrator of the Royal Farms, and Deputy of the Royal Junta of Commerce. He died in Lisbon. The material provided by the Philosophical Voyage remained for more than a century unknown and unstudied by Portuguese scholars, not even by Ferreira himself. He never resumed work on the species and samples collected in Brazil, nor refined his records and studies of the journey, and much of the material was taken to Paris as war booty. There remains today, however, a rich archive of diaries, geographic, demographic and agricultural maps, correspondence, more than a thousand boards and records, today kept mainly in the National Library Foundation in Rio de Janeiro and the Museum Bocage in Lisbon. Legacy Ferreira is commemorated in the scientific names of a genus of Brazilian lizard, Alexandresaurus, a species of Brazilian lizard, Loxopholis ferreirai, and in the specific name of the Brazilian snapper (Lutjanus alexandrei). Name: Jack Sparrow Biography: Jack Sparrow Position: legendary pirate Branch/service: The East India Trading Company Commands: Black Pearl "Gentlemen, m'lady...you will always remember this as the day that you almost caught Captain Jack Sparrow!" -Jack Sparrow Jack Sparrow (1740-1820)was a legendary pirate of the Seven Seas, and the irreverent trickster of the Caribbean. A captain of equally dubious morality and sobriety, a master of self-promotion and self-interest, Jack fought a constant and losing battle with his own best tendencies. Jack's first love was the sea, his second, his beloved ship the Black Pearl. My believe is that captain Jack Sparrow is born around 1740 and died around 1820. I came to this conclusion because Jack sparrow faced the guillotine a tool that came around in the ’90s of 1700. By then Jack would be around his 50′s. When he met Will Turner he probably be in his 30th. 20 years later Will’s son met captain Jack Sparrow. It's the same time he faced the guillotine. Which was a brand new thing in potc 5. This would mean the era Jack Sparrow lived is 1790(same period with French revolution) . With all the information we got from other movies we came to the conclusion he already lived a while. Perhaps around 50 or 60 years. Just like Johnny Depp age now. There is one thing that blocks my theory! This is thanks to my least favorite pirate movie! Potc 4 on stranger tides. Why? Well in this episode of potc he met the daughter of Blackbeard and not only his daughter but he met the legend himself! The problem is that Edward Teach alias Blackbeard came to the caribbeans in 1716. This could mean he still could met Jack Sparrow in the 1,2 and 3 era of potc, however he would be almost 100 years and I don't think that would happend. Besides the legend died in 1718. This means two things: either Jack never met Blackbeard or he never faced the guillotine at all. The son of Captain Edward Teague, Jack Sparrow was born on a pirate ship in a typhoon. Before he was known as "Captain Jack Sparrow", he was simply known as Jack, a teenage stowaway who, even then, had a desire for adventure. Jack first sailed on the Barnacle with a young ragtag crew on a quest to locate and procure the legendary Sword of Cortes. As a young pirate he earned the name Jack Sparrow when he trapped the notorious Spanish pirate hunter Capitán Salazar in the Devil's Triangle. Years after his teenage adventures, an encounter with the infamous rogue pirates forced him to abandon the pirate life and take employment in the East India Trading Company. After five years of faithful service, during which he sailed across all the Seven Seas, he was given command of the Wicked Wench, a ship owned by Cutler Beckett, the EITC Director for West Africa. As Beckett's employee, Jack searched for the mystical island of Kerma and its legendary treasure, until he decided to betray Beckett and keep the island and its inhabitants safe from Beckett and his slave traders. When Beckett contracted him to transport a cargo of slaves to the Bahamas, Jack chose to liberate them and steal the Wench from Beckett. However, Beckett's men managed to find him and branded him as a pirate, while the Wench was set aflame and sunk. After striking a bargain with Davy Jones, the ghostly captain of the Flying Dutchman, to resurrect his beloved vessel, Jack had the Wench renamed the Black Pearl and began the pirate life anew. At some point, Jack Sparrow became one of the nine Pirate Lords, his domain being the Caribbean Sea. Throughout his years as an infamous pirate of the Caribbean, Jack Sparrow embarked on many adventures, several of which involved gaining items of unique value. Jack was captain of the Black Pearl for two years, during which time he searched for the Shadow Gold. But when he was after the treasure of Isla de Muerta, Jack lost the Pearl in a mutiny led by his first mate, Captain Hector Barbossa. Ten years later, with the help of Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann, Jack retrieved the Black Pearl after having fought and killed the cursed Barbossa, thereby becoming its captain once again. Jack was soon after the Dead Man's Chest, to settle his debt with the fearsome Davy Jones, which ended with him being taken to Davy Jones' Locker by the Kraken. After escaping the Locker with the help of his crew, led by the resurrected Hector Barbossa, Jack had joined with the Brethren Court in the battle against Lord Cutler Beckett, who had control over Davy Jones and the Flying Dutchman. Jack would later sail on stranger tides during the quest for the Fountain of Youth, contending with the notorious Blackbeard and his daughter, Angelica, who forced him aboard the Queen Anne's Revenge. After the malicious Captain Salazar's ghost crew escaped from the Devil's Triangle bent on killing every pirate, Jack sought to reverse his recent spate of ill fortune by finding the Trident of Poseidon. Jack would be helped on his journey by Henry Turner who sought to free his father and they would be aided by Carina Smyth. Over the course of time, Captain Jack Sparrow became a center of intrigue as myths and legends have been told of his exploits. Most of these tales, however, were exaggerations, or even fabrications, embellished by Jack himself to bolster his reputation. Despite his dishonesty and many deceptions, Jack Sparrow did embark on a number of grand and thrilling adventures, some involving the supernatural, pirate lore, magic, and journeys in discovering hidden treasures. Indeed, Jack's ultimate ambition was to have the freedom to sail the seas as a legendary pirate for eternity. "No, mate. I'm free forever. Free to sail the seas beyond the edges of the map. Free from death itself." "You have to do the job though, Jack. You have to ferry souls to the next world. Or end up just like Jones." "I don't have the face for tentacles. But immortal has to count for something, eh?" -Jack Sparrow and Will Turner Immortality or eternal life was the state living indefinitely for an infinite or indeterminate amount of time. It was an ability to live forever, or put another way, an immunity from death. In religious contexts, eternal life was often stated to be among the promises by God (or other deities) to human beings who show goodness or else follow divine law (cf. resurrection). Moreover, only God was regarded as truly immortal, hence it is only through God's resources for resurrection and salvation that human beings may transcend death and live eternally. Literal "Only God can grant eternal life, not this pagan water." -The Spaniard During the time of Ancient Greece, the boy Melikertes had to escape the wrath of Hera, the queen of the gods. He and his mother jumped off a clif into the sea for protection, becoming powerful as gods themselves. Through his newfound powers, Malikertes learned how to drain people of their souls so he could keep himself young for all eternity. Over the next centuries, he became known as Palaimon. When he began to study alchemy, the infamous Pirate Lord Henry Morgan devised a way to live forever. The treasure of Cortes rendered those who stole from it as immortal skeletons until all the Aztec gold coins were returned and a blood debt repaid. Under Davy Jones, the crew of the Flying Dutchman lived as immortal beings. The Fountain of Youth was a legendary spring that restored the youth or grant immortality to anyone who drank from its waters, thereby live forever though at a cost of another's death. For the Fountain, the struggle for eternal youth was depicted on the Mao Kun Map, symbolized by a tug of war between a skeleton and an angel, aligned with the symbol of the Fountain—the Chalices. Metaphorical "And who's to say I won't live forever, eh? Discoverer of the Fountain of Youth." -Jack Sparrow In another sense, immortality can also mean being unable to be forgotten by history. For example, Jack claimed that by finding the Fountain of Youth when the legendary explorer, Juan Ponce de León, failed to do so, he will be remebered throughout time and thus, in a way, never die. 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.1.1 The Sword of Cortes 1.1.2 Fight for freedom 1.1.3 The Sun-and-Stars Medallion 1.1.4 The Dance of the Hours 1.1.5 Sins of the Father 1.1.6 Poseidon's Peak 1.1.7 Bold New Horizons 1.2 Young Pirate 1.2.1 Jack the Sparrow 1.2.2 Return to Shipwreck Cove 1.2.3 Breaking the Code 1.2.4 Escape from the rogues The East India Trading Company First Mate "Young, na?ve, inexperienced in the ways of the world...lads like yourself tend to have rampageous imaginations. They want adventure, danger, they imagine themselves swashbucklers. So they envision peril in every new sail." -Nathaniel Bainbridge to Jack Sparrow When he was 25 years old, Jack sailed aboard the EITC brig Fair Wind as the First Mate under Captain Nathaniel Bainbridge. When Bainbridge was killed in a battle with pirates led by Jack's old love interest Esmeralda, now a Pirate Lord of the Caribbean, Jack took command of the Fair Wind and managed to save the ship and most of its cargo from falling into the hands of Esmeralda's pirates. Cutler Beckett, an EITC Director for West Africa, was so impressed, that he offered him to take command of Marlin, a slave ship of the Company, as her captain. But Sparrow refused to transport slaves, so Beckett gave him command of the Wicked Wench, a merchant vessel of the Company. Captain Sparrow "I have another ship. It’s one I actually own. It’s an older ship. The shipwrights have told me that converting her hold to haul slaves would be expensive, and rather time-consuming, so I bought her for hauling other cargos. She’s called the Wicked Wench. Would you like to sail her for me, Captain Sparrow?" "Yes, I would, sir. I’d be pleased to do that." -Cutler Beckett and Jack Sparrow, after Jack refused to captain Marlin, a slave ship 1.3.3 An outlaw 1.4 Pirate 1.4.1The Black Pearl "Not a lot's known about Jack Sparrow before he showed up in Tortuga with a mind to go after the treasure of the Isla de Muerta. That was before I'd met him. Back when he was captain of the Black Pearl." -Joshamee Gibbs to Will Turner 1.4.2 The Shadow Lord's threat 1.4.3 Mutiny on the Pearl 1.4.4 Escaping the island 1.5 Regaining the Pearl 1.5.1 Stealing and selling 1.5.2 Arriving to Port Royal 1.5.3 Escape to Tortuga 1.5.4 Isla de Muerta 1.5.5 Battle with the Black Pearl 1.5.6 Marooned 1.5.7 Deal with Barbossa 1.5.8 The Immortal Captain Jack Sparrow 1.5.9 Freedom 1.6 New adventures 1.6.1 The Skull of Teoxuacata 1.6.2 St. Piran's Blade 1.6.3 A lost treasure 1.6.4 The Aztec Idol 1.6.5 "The governor" 1.6.6 Leading the Revolution 1.7 The Dead Man's Chest 1.7.1 The Black Spot 1.7.2 Running to Isla de Pelegostos 1.7.3 Tia Dalma 1.7.4 Bargain with Jones 1.7.5 Journey to Isla Cruces 1.7.6 Fight for the key 1.7.7 Confrontations 1.7.8 Down with his ship 1.8 Returning for War 1.8.1 Madness of the Locker 1.8.2 The Return of Jack Sparrow 1.8.3 Up is Down 1.8.4 Deal with Beckett 1.8.5 Journey to Shipwreck Cove 1.8.6 The Brethren Court 1.8.7 Reaching the Dutchman 1.8.8 Fight with Jones 1.8.9 Egregious 1.9 Quest for the Fountain of Youth 1.9.1 Years of searching 1.9.2 London 1.9.3 Dealing with an impostor 1.9.4 Aboard the Queen Anne's Revenge 1.9.5 Dance of Deception 1.9.6 Mermaid Hunt 1.9.7 Journey through jungles 1.9.8 Retrieving the Chalices 1.9.9The Fountain of Youth "Jack. I'm starting to think you don't know where you're going." "It is not the destination so much as the journey, they say." -Angelica and Jack Sparrow With having the route to the Fountain of Youth memorized, Jack Sparrow searches through the jungles to find the cave entrance to the Fountain. After searching through many huge palm fronds, Jack spotted a water droplet traveling up on one of the fronds, defying gravity. He watched it as it crawled upwards, then starts toying with it between his fingers. Jack then squints through it, spotting a rock wall in front of him with the archaic symbol of the Fountain. The droplet broke free of Jack's finger and floated upwards, just as Jack discovered the cave entrance. Jack followed the Quartermaster as he led Jack, Angelica, Blackbeard and the rest of the Revenge's crew into the cavern until they reached across a wall, a dead end. Upon seeing the seemingly end of the quest, Angelica began to suspect that Jack didn't know where he was going. It wasn't until Jack unsuccessfully attempted to gain entrance into the Fountain of Youth, by hitting the two Chalices against one another, that everyone realized that Jack had never been to the Fountain. "Jack, have you ever, in fact, seen with your own eyes, the Fountain of Youth?" "...I'm sorry, could you repeat the question, please?" -Angelica and Jack Sparrow Angered by the revelation, Blackbeard ordered the Quartermaster to kill Jack Sparrow. The Quartermaster fired his pistol but Jack shielded himself with the Chalices and the bullet ricochets off them. Blackbeard aimed his own pistol at Sparrow, who started to read the words inscribed on the Chalices, "Aqua de Vida". Water gradually started rising up along the walls, collecting into a pool above their heads. Jack then climbed onto Scrum's shoulders, holding his sword and poked the pool—the sword was sucked into the water, right before Jack Sparrow himself was sucked into a misty environment. As he went to pick up his sword, Jack found himself in the Fountain of Youth. Jack continued forward as the rest of the crew arrived. Right in front of them was the Fountain itself, a natural stone archway-like basin with water dripping through. Jack walked up to the central stone reaching to touch the water, but Blackbeard stopped him, stating that he'll be the first to drink from it. However, Hector Barbossa and his men arrived to the Fountain to confront Blackbeard and his men. Angelica realized that Jack had brought them there. Barbossa and Blackbeard both pulled out their swords and ordered their crews to attack. Jack then bursts in between the parties, questioning the sense in both sides fighting just because of Barbossa's desire to kill Blackbeard. He suggested that the captains fight each other, while everyone else lays back, watches, drinks and place wagers. Scrum agreed to the plan. However, the battle between the crews erupted. "Whoah, whoah, hang on a minute! I just—I just need to understand something. Right, so. You will fight against them, they will fight against you all on account of him wanting to kill him? Where is the sense? Exactly. I say, let them fight each other! While we lay back, watch, have a drink, place some wagers! Eh?!" -Jack Sparrow As the fight went on, Jack briefly dueled with Scrum for the tear to the Fountain. Jack took the tear from Scrum by kicking him in the stomach—only to find himself threatened by both Scrum and Angelica, who pointed their swords at him. Jack tossed the tear into the air, Angelica tried to grab it, which causes her and Scrum to throw their swords up in the air as well, and both swords end up in Jack's hands. After another toss around, Jack ends up with the tear and Scrum ends up with the Chalices. Jack kicks the Chalices out of Scrum's hands over to the other side of the Fountain. Jack and Angelica then end up in a struggle with the Chalices, until The Spaniard and his men arrive. Jack offered both Blackbeard and Angelica the Chalices, with Jack attempting to convince Blackbeard to save Angelica by drinking from the Chalice that takes life. But in his greed, Blackbeard quickly drank out of the cup with the tear and told Angelica to save him. Though shocked, Angelica willingly drank from the other Chalice. However, Jack revealed that he may have switched the cups. Blackbeard then tried to attack Sparrow, but staggered, being stuck standing in the same spot. As Angelica's wound immediately healed as the flowing waters of the Fountain rushed towards Blackbeard. Jack watched as the Fountain's waters completely surrounded Blackbeard, rotting his flesh away. The waters then cleared away as Blackbeard's lifeless skeleton collapsed, dead. "You bastard! How could you?!" "Your father saved you. Perhaps his soul is now redeemed. Eh?" -Angelica and Jack Sparrow A Pirate's Life for Me "Gibbs, you filthy besotted shellback, you made it!" "Aye!" "And I trust we managed to profit from our joint enterprise?" "Feast your eyes. The compass led me straight and true." -Jack Sparrow and Joshamee Gibbs Later, Jack Sparrow had Angelica tied up aboard a row boat as he took her to Sola Fide Beach. "Wait. There's something I want to say to you. Something I wanted to say from the moment we first met." "Go on, then." "I love you." "As do I. Always have, always will ...I gotta go." -Angelica and Jack Sparrow Angelica then told Jack that she loved him, to which Jack stated that he did as well and always will. They lean in to kiss each other, but not before Jack ran for his dinghy. Angelica angrily called out to Jack and then used her pistol with one shot to try and shoot him, but missed. Jack rowed away in his longboat as Angelica was simply left to curse at him. 1.9.11 A new start 1.10 Quest for the Trident of Poseidon 1.10.1 Hard Times 1.10.2 Imprisonment 1.10.3 Meeting another Turner 1.10.4 Escaping Execution 1.10.5 Setting Sail 1.10.6 Mutiny 1.10.7 Confronting the Past 1.10.8 Reunion with Barbossa 1.10.9 Final Destination 1.10.10 Battle in Poseidon's tomb 1.10.11 Following the Stars Personality and traits "I must admit, Jack, I thought I had you figured. But it turns out you're a hard man to predict." "Me? I'm dishonest. And a dishonest man you can always trust to be dishonest. Honestly. It's the honest ones you want to watch out for, because you can never predict when they're going to do something incredibly...stupid." -Hector Barbossa and Jack Sparrow A notorious and infamous pirate, pillager, brigand, and highwayman; that was how Captain Jack Sparrow would be described by himself. Sailing a fine line between piratical genius and mercurial madness, Jack had an enemy in every port. Even at young age, he was the biggest troublemaker on the Seven Seas. Jack Sparrow was noted for his unusual demeanor, characterized by a slightly drunken stagger and wild, flailing arm and hand gestures that made him appear unfocused and possibly ataxic. This was possibly due in part to the hot climate of the Caribbean, and the large amount of time spent on deck of various ships-though it should be noted he seemed fairly sure-footed onboard a ship. However, it is more likely that his demeanour was due to a common affliction of most sailors of that era-a combination of lots of rum, very few fruits and vegetables, and a tendency to accidentally hit one's head quite often on low-hanging bulkheads below the decks of a ship. It was rumored that Jack suffered heat stroke while marooned on a desert island after Hector Barbossa's mutiny aboard the Black Pearl. Jack could be extremely serious on occasion, such as after shooting Barbossa on Isla de Muerta, or when he saw the Kraken's corpse lying on the beach. He was shown to be quite serious when he witnessed Davy Jones stabbing Will Turner in the heart. Jack even expressed grief for Barbossa's second death, despite their troubled history. Jack's seemingly-perpetual drunkenness may have been the cause of his slurred speech. Average in height and build, Jack Sparrow relied more on intelligence, agility, and quick wit to protect himself, rather than physical strength. He was seen as both the "worst" and "best" pirate, though he never went into a fight if he didn't have to, and always took a shortcut out of tough situations. Jack frequently outmaneuvered enemies with his words but when forced to fight he was still a formidable opponent. As long as his own precious hide was at risk, a man could ask for no better comrade in battle. "You're a good man, and don't let anyone tell you you're not." -Amenirdis to Jack Sparrow As a notorious pirate, Jack Sparrow was a decent, if self-serving, man who adhered to the Pirate's Code. He believed pirates could still be "good men," which was his evaluation of Bootstrap Bill Turner. Unusually altruistic for a pirate, Jack would risk himself to save others, most notably Will Turner, Elizabeth Swann, Angelica, and Henry Turner; he regularly showed a desire to avoid killing those who did not specifically wish him harm, preferring to avoid soldiers who were simply after him because he was a pirate rather than because they had some specific vendetta against him as Captain Jack Sparrow. Even after a time where he feared death and was hell-bent on achieving immortality, Jack would not do so if it came at the cost of others. This was evidenced when he was faced with the choice of stabbing Davy Jones' heart himself or letting Will Turner stab it, using Will's hand to stab the heart so that his dying friend would take on the role of captain of the Dutchman and be saved from his imminent death. This reluctance to sacrifice another was also shown when he admitted having less interest in using the Fountain of Youth after learning it required the sacrifice of another individual, the waters of the Fountain and the tear of a mermaid, when drunk from two silver chalices, transferring life from one and giving all the years they had lived or would live to another. With this in mind, Jack only used the Fountain to save Angelica after she was poisoned by Barbossa's sword, simultaneously tricking the already-villainous Blackbeard into giving his life for the sake of his daughter. Jack also helped Henry Turner win over Carina Smyth by giving him her book so he could return it. It was partly this benevolence that led the crew to the mutiny aboard the Black Pearl, according to Barbossa, with Jack preferring to convince prospective 'victims' to give his crew what they sought where Barbossa found it easier to kill the crews and take what they wanted. It is unclear whether this was true or just mocking from Barbossa after he claimed the Pearl. Every captain needed a reliable first mate, and Joshamee Gibbs was Jack Sparrow's first choice. They made a great team, but they did have a habit of getting each other into trouble. Gibbs was an old friend of Jack's, having supposedly known him since his childhood. It was Jack who persuaded Gibbs, a sailor of the Royal Navy, to turn pirate. As often as Jack Sparrow saved Elizabeth and Will, however, he also tricked them to serve his own purposes and even offered up Will to Davy Jones in exchange for himself; when asked if he could condemn an innocent and friend to serve Jones forever while Jack himself roamed free, Jack merrily replied, "Yep. I'm good with it," after a brief moment of hesitation (although considering his immediate efforts to find the Dead Man's Chest after making this arrangement, he may have simply agreed to this 'deal' to buy time for him to find Jones's weakness). In a moment of cowardice, he deserted his ship and crew to save himself from the Kraken. However, after checking his compass, he chose to return and save his shipmates. Further evidence of his morality was when he refused to transport slaves for the East India Trading Company, and when his extensive criminal record was read during his attempted executions at Port Royal and Fort Alvo Grande, it included no reference to crimes such as rape or murder. Jack later showed sadness at the sacrifice of Hector Barbossa, showing that in spite of their previous enmity and rivalry, he still respected Barbossa after he died to protect his daughter. Jack also claimed to be a man of his word, and often expressed surprise that people would doubt his honesty. Even though he received no formal education, Jack was far away from being just a typical illiterate pirate. More or less raised by himself, and always wanting to learn about the world, Jack developed a taste for reading poetry, history, and biographies of notable persons from the past. One of his favorite writers was William Shakespeare. One of the well-known things about Captain Jack Sparrow was his myth. Many tales have been told of him, most of which have been embellished by Jack himself. Such tales have made Jack an infamous pirate of the Caribbean, having been known for having created, or at least contributed to, his own reputation. For example, when Gibbs tells Will Turner that he escaped a desert island by strapping two sea turtles together, Jack embellished the story by claiming that the rope was made from his own back hair. Will later threw this back at him when he asked how Will escaped from the Flying Dutchman. When Will responded with the same story, Jack remarked, "Not so easy, is it?" Additionally, while searching for him, Will's guide told him that Jack escaped his execution in Port Royal by grabbing two parrots and flying away. "Mr. Sparrow can be very persuasive, sir. Especially with the ladies." -Robert Greene to Cutler Beckett Sparrow considered himself sensitive to the opposite sex, explaining that he had a "tremendous intuitive sense of the female creature." However, he was not one to commit to intimate relationships, as he considered marriage to be "like a wager to see who will fall out of love first." None of the many women in his life was able to make him settle somewhere permanently and start a family. When Kerman princess Amenirdis gave him a golden ring, he worriedly asked her if that meant that they were married. In his youth, Jack Sparrow unsuccessfully flirted with deadly mermaids and with Arabella Smith, his first mate aboard the Barnacle. Though Jack clearly viewed Arabella as his would-be girlfriend during this time, she was far too repulsed by his lack of personal hygiene and obnoxiously pig-like snoring to ever fall sway to his charms. A more mature Jack Sparrow was more adept at sweeping ladies off their feet, however, although his conquests seemed to have a sour memory of him; former flames Giselle and Scarlett slapped him or anyone looking for him. However, Tia Dalma, with whom Jack apparently had a personal history, was rather pleased to see him when he visited her, although his anxiety over their impending reunion indicated they may have parted on less than good terms. Jack's relationship with Esmeralda Maria Consuela Anna de Sevilla was good, and she considered Jack her best friend (aside from being her lover), but she admitted she wouldn't marry him even if he asked her. At some point in his life, Jack Sparrow had met Angelica. Despite Angelica being a novice in a Spanish convent, which Jack said he mistook it for a brothel, Sparrow would seduce her and then dumped her. Jack would convey to Gibbs that he had feelings for Angelica before leaving her, Gibbs told Jack, even for him, that was low. Legend has it that she was the only woman Jack ever truly loved, but there have been occasions where she tried to kill him. When Angelica impersonated Jack in London, he took it as a sincerest form of flattery, but he'd also really wish that she didn't impersonate him as a captain. Angelica was one of the few who can match Jack, particularly in battle. Whether she broke his heart or he smote hers was an endless debate between the two pirates. When Sparrow was shanghaied aboard Blackbeard's ship, the Queen Anne's Revenge, and was forced to join a quest for the Fountain of Youth, it was only Jack's guilt over Angelica that kept him from escaping with a quick dive overboard. Though they have had many differences in the past, Jack still had feelings for Angelica throughout the adventure, to a point of saving her life. Whether or not Jack retained these feelings after the quest is controversial. Jack Sparrow was usually in a lot of debt, commonly for more than simply money. He owed Anamaria a boat after stealing the Jolly Mon, and most notably had a debt with Davy Jones, with his soul as payment. Jack also revealed he was in debt with all Pirate Lords at the meeting at Shipwreck Cove; Sao Feng was particularly hateful towards him. Jack was also hateful towards Feng and angrily tried to defend himself from him after the latter confronted him on how he had insulted him. After their relationship didn't work out, Jack seemingly owed a debt to Angelica after breaking her heart, which he repaid by saving her life at the Fountain of Youth. If someone would lend him money, Jack would promise to pay it back, and he'd mean it—but he'd never do it. As experienced by many of the authorities, from officers of the British Royal Navy to even the King's Royal Guard, Jack Sparrow was a pirate who made many daring escapes. Whenever he made an escape, Jack sometimes gave a farewell by saying something along the lines of, "This is the day that you will always remember as the day that you almost caught Captain Jack Sparrow!", which was often humorously cut off. Name: Sacagawea Biography: Sacagawea( May c.?1788 - December 20, 1812 or April 9, 1884) Nationality:Lemhi Shoshone Other names :Sakakawea, Sacajawea Known for:Accompanied the Lewis and Clark Expedition Sacagawea (/?s?k?d???wi??/ or /s??kɑ?ɡ??we??/; also spelled Sakakawea or Sacajawea; May c.?1788 - December 20, 1812 or April 9, 1884) was a Lemhi Shoshone woman who, at age 16, helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition in achieving their chartered mission objectives by exploring the Louisiana Territory. Sacagawea traveled with the expedition thousands of miles from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean, helping to establish cultural contacts with Native American populations and contributing to the expedition's knowledge of natural history in different regions. The National American Woman Suffrage Association of the early 20th century adopted her as a symbol of women's worth and independence, erecting several statues and plaques in her memory, and doing much to recount her accomplishments. Early life Reliable historical information about Sacagawea is very limited. She was born c.?1788 into the Agaidika ('Salmon Eater', aka Lemhi Shoshone) tribe near present-day Salmon, Lemhi County. This is near the continental divide at the present-day Idaho-Montana border. In 1800, when she was about 12 years old, Sacagawea and several other girls were taken captive by a group of Hidatsa in a raid that resulted in the deaths of several Shoshone: four men, four women, and several boys. She was held captive at a Hidatsa village near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. At about age 13, she was sold into a non-consensual marriage to Toussaint Charbonneau, a Quebecois trapper who about two decades earlier had lived in the Hidatsa village. He had also bought another young Shoshone, known as Otter Woman, for a wife. Charbonneau was variously reported to have purchased both girls from the Hidatsa, or to have won Sacagawea while gambling. Lewis and Clark Expedition The Corps of Discovery arrived near the Hidatsa villages. They settled near a Mandan village, where Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark built Fort Mandan for wintering over in 1804-05. They interviewed several trappers who might be able to interpret or guide the expedition up the Missouri River in the springtime. Knowing they would need the help of Shoshone tribes who lived at the headwaters of the Missouri, they agreed to hire Toussaint Charbonneau after learning that his wife, Sacagawea, spoke Shoshone. She was pregnant with her first child at the time. On November 4, 1804, Clark recorded in his journal: french man by Name Chabonah, who Speaks the Big Belley language visit us, he wished to hire & informed us his 2 Squars (squaws) were Snake Indians, we engau (engaged) him to go on with us and take one of his wives to interpret the Snake language.… Charbonneau and Sacagawea moved into the expedition's fort a week later. Clark nicknamed her "Janey." Lewis recorded the birth of Jean Baptiste Charbonneau on February 11, 1805, noting that another of the party's interpreters administered crushed rattlesnake rattles in water to speed the delivery. Clark and other European-Americans nicknamed the boy "Little Pomp" or "Pompy." In April, the expedition left Fort Mandan and headed up the Missouri River in pirogues. They had to be poled against the current and sometimes pulled by crew along the riverbanks. On May 14, 1805, Sacagawea rescued items that had fallen out of a capsized boat, including the journals and records of Lewis and Clark. The corps commanders, who praised her quick action, named the Sacagawea River in her honor on May 20, 1805. By August 1805, the corps had located a Shoshone tribe and was attempting to trade for horses to cross the Rocky Mountains. They used Sacagawea to interpret and discovered that the tribe's chief, Cameahwait, was her brother. Lewis recorded their reunion in his journal: Shortly after Capt. Clark arrived with the Interpreter Charbono, and the Indian woman, who proved to be a sister of the Chief Cameahwait. The meeting of those people was really affecting, particularly between Sah cah-gar-we-ah and an Indian woman, who had been taken prisoner at the same time with her, and who had afterwards escaped from the Minnetares and rejoined her nation. And Clark in his: …The Intertrepeter & Squar who were before me at Some distance danced for the joyful Sight, and She made signs to me that they were her nation… The Shoshone agreed to barter horses to the group and to provide guides to lead them over the cold and barren Rocky Mountains. The trip was so hard that they were reduced to eating tallow candles to survive. When they descended into the more temperate regions on the other side, Sacagawea helped to find and cook camas roots to help the party members regain their strength. As the expedition approached the mouth of the Columbia River on the Pacific Coast, Sacagawea gave up her beaded belt to enable the captains to trade for a fur robe they wished to bring back to give to President Thomas Jefferson. Clark's journal entry for November 20, 1805, reads: one of the Indians had on a roab made of 2 Sea Otter Skins the fur of them were more butifull than any fur I had ever Seen both Capt. Lewis & my Self endeavored to purchase the roab with different articles at length we precured it for a belt of blue beeds which the Squar—wife of our interpreter Shabono wore around her waste.… When the corps reached the Pacific Ocean, all members of the expedition—including Sacagawea and Clark's black manservant York—voted on November 24 on the location for building their winter fort. In January, when a whale's carcass washed up onto the beach south of Fort Clatsop, Sacagawea insisted on her right to go see this "monstrous fish." On the return trip, they approached the Rocky Mountains in July 1806. On July 6, Clark recorded: The Indian woman informed me that she had been in this plain frequently and knew it well.… She said we would discover a gap in the mountains in our direction . A week later, on July 13, Sacagawea advised Clark to cross into the Yellowstone River basin at what is now known as Bozeman Pass. Later, this was chosen as the optimal route for the Northern Pacific Railway to cross the continental divide. While Sacagawea has been depicted as a guide for the expedition, she is recorded as providing direction in only a few instances. Her work as an interpreter certainly helped the party to negotiate with the Shoshone. But, her greatest value to the mission may have been her presence during the arduous journey, as having a woman and infant accompany them demonstrated the peaceful intent of the expedition. While traveling through what is now Franklin County, Washington, in October 1805, Clark noted that "the wife of Shabono our interpetr we find reconsiles all the Indians, as to our friendly intentions a woman with a party of men is a token of peace." Further he wrote that she "confirmed those people of our friendly intentions, as no woman ever accompanies a war party of Indians in this quarter" . As Clark traveled downriver from Fort Mandan at the end of the journey, on board the pirogue near the Ricara Village, he wrote to Charbonneau: You have been a long time with me and conducted your Self in Such a manner as to gain my friendship, your woman who accompanied you that long dangerous and fatigueing rout to the Pacific Ocian and back diserved a greater reward for her attention and services on that rout than we had in our power to give her at the Mandans. As to your little Son (my boy Pomp) you well know my fondness of him and my anxiety to take him and raise him as my own child.… If you are desposed to accept either of my offers to you and will bring down you Son your famn Janey had best come along with you to take care of the boy untill I get him.… Wishing you and your family great success & with anxious expectations of seeing my little danceing boy Baptiest I shall remain your Friend, William Clark. —?Clark to Charbonneau, August 20, 1806 Later life and death Children Following the expedition, Charbonneau and Sacagawea spent 3 years among the Hidatsa before accepting William Clark's invitation to settle in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1809. They entrusted Jean-Baptiste's education to Clark, who enrolled the young man in the Saint Louis Academy boarding school. Sacagawea gave birth to a daughter, Lizette Charbonneau, about 1812. Lizette was identified as a year-old girl in adoption papers in 1813 recognizing William Clark, who also adopted her older brother that year. Because Clark's papers make no later mention of Lizette, it is believed that she died in childhood. Death According to Bonnie "Spirit Wind-Walker" Butterfield (2010), historical documents suggest that Sacagawea died in 1812 of an unknown sickness. For instance, a journal entry from 1811 by Henry Brackenridge, a fur trader at Fort Lisa Trading Post on the Missouri River, wrote that Sacagawea and Charbonneau were living at the fort. Brackenrige recorded that Sacagawea "had become sickly and longed to revisit her native country." Butterfield notes that in 1812, a Fort-Lisa clerk, John Luttig, recorded in his journal on December 20 that "the wife of Charbonneau, a Snake Squaw , died of putrid fever." He said that she was "aged about 25 years. She left a fine infant girl." Documents held by Clark show that Charbonneau had already entrusted their son Baptiste to Clark's care for a boarding school education, at Clark's insistence (Jackson, 1962). In February 1813, a few months after Luttig's journal entry, 15 men were killed in a Native attack on Fort Lisa, which was then located at the mouth of the Bighorn River. Luttig and Sacagawea's young daughter were among the survivors. Charbonneau was mistakenly thought to have been killed at this time, but he apparently lived to at least age 76. He had signed over formal custody of his son to William Clark in 1813. As further proof that Sacagawea died in 1812, Butterfield writes: An adoption document made in the Orphans Court Records in St. Louis, Missouri, states, 'On August 11, 1813, William Clark became the guardian of Tousant Charbonneau, a boy about ten years, and Lizette Charbonneau, a girl about one year old.' For a Missouri State Court at the time, to designate a child as orphaned and to allow an adoption, both parents had to be confirmed dead in court papers. The last recorded document referring to Sacagawea's life appears in William Clark's original notes written between 1825 and 1826. He lists the names of each of the expedition members and their last known whereabouts. For Sacagawea, he writes, "Se car ja we au— Dead." Some Native American oral traditions relate that, rather than dying in 1812, Sacagawea left her husband Charbonneau, crossed the Great Plains, and married into a Comanche tribe. She was said to have returned to the Shoshone in 1860 in Wyoming, where she died in 1884. Jean Baptiste Charbonneau Sacagawea's son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, had a restless and adventurous life. Known as the infant who, with his mother, accompanied the explorers to the Pacific Ocean and back, he had lifelong celebrity status. At the age of 18, he was befriended by a German Prince, Duke Paul Wilhelm of Württemberg, who took him to Europe. There, Jean Baptiste lived for six years among royalty, while learning four languages and fathering a child in Germany named Anton Fries. After his infant son died, Jean Baptiste returned from Europe in 1829 to the United States. He lived after that as a Western frontiersman. In 1846, he led a group of Mormons to California for the gold rush. While in California, he was appointed as a magistrate for the Mission San Luis Rey. He disliked the way Indians were treated in the missions and left to become a hotel clerk in Auburn, California, once the center of gold rush activity. After working six years in Auburn, Jean Baptiste left in search of riches in the gold mines of Montana. He was 61 years old, and the trip was too much for him. He became ill with pneumonia and died in a remote area near Danner, Oregon, on May 16, 1866. Name A long-running controversy has related to the correct spelling, pronunciation, and etymology of the Shoshone woman's name. Linguists working on Hidatsa since the 1870s have always considered the name's Hidatsa etymology essentially indisputable. The name is a compound of two common Hidatsa nouns: cagáàga (, 'bird') and míà (, 'woman'). The compound is written as Cagáàgawia ('Bird Woman') in modern Hidatsa orthography, and pronounced (/m/ is pronounced between vowels in Hidatsa). The double /aa/ in the name indicates a long vowel, while the diacritics suggest a falling pitch pattern. Hidatsa is a pitch-accent language that does not have stress; therefore, in the Hidatsa pronunciation all syllables in are pronounced with roughly the same relative emphasis. However, most English speakers perceive the accented syllable (the long /aa/) as stressed. In faithful rendering of Cagáàgawia to other languages, it is advisable to emphasize the second, long syllable, rather than the last, as is common in English. The name has several spelling traditions in English. The origin of each tradition is described in the following sections. Sacagawea Sacagawea (/s??kɑ?ɡ??wi??/) is the most widely used spelling of her name, pronounced with a hard "g" sound, rather than a soft "g" or "j" sound. Lewis and Clark's original journals mention Sacagawea by name seventeen times, spelled eight different ways, each time with a "g". Clark used Sahkahgarwea, Sahcahgagwea, Sarcargahwea, and Sahcahgahweah, while Lewis used Sahcahgahwea, Sahcahgarweah, Sahcargarweah, and Sahcahgar Wea. The spelling Sacagawea was established in 1910 by the Bureau of American Ethnology as the proper usage in government documents. It would be the spelling adopted by the U.S. Mint for use with the dollar coin, as well as the U.S. Board on Geographic Names and the National Park Service. The spelling is also used by numerous historical scholars. Sakakawea Sakakawea (/s??kɑ?k??wi??/) is the next most widely-adopted spelling, and is the most-often accepted among specialists. Proponents say the name comes from the Hidatsa tsakáka wía ('bird woman'). Charbonneau told expedition members that his wife's name meant "Bird Woman," and in May 1805 Lewis used the Hidatsa meaning in his journal: handsome river of about fifty yards in width discharged itself into the shell river… his stream we called Sah-ca-gah-we-ah or bird woman's River, after our interpreter the Snake woman. Sakakawea is the official spelling of her name according to the Three Affiliated Tribes, which include the Hidatsa. This spelling is widely used throughout North Dakota (where she is considered a state heroine), notably in the naming of Lake Sakakawea, the extensive reservoir of Garrison Dam on the Missouri River. The North Dakota State Historical Society quotes Russell Reid's 1986 book Sakakawea: The Bird Woman: Her Hidatsa name, which Charbonneau stated meant "Bird Woman," should be spelled "Tsakakawias" according to the foremost Hidatsa language authority, Dr. Washington Matthews. When this name is anglicized for easy pronunciation, it becomes Sakakawea, "Sakaka" meaning "bird" and "wea" meaning "woman." This is the spelling adopted by North Dakota. The spelling authorized for the use of federal agencies by the United States Geographic Board is Sacagawea. Although not closely following Hidatsa spelling, the pronunciation is quite similar and the Geographic Board acknowledged the name to be a Hidatsa word meaning "Bird Woman. Irving W. Anderson, president of the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, says: he Sakakawea spelling similarly is not found in the Lewis and Clark journals. To the contrary, this spelling traces its origin neither through a personal connection with her nor in any primary literature of the expedition. It has been independently constructed from two Hidatsa Indian words found in the dictionary Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians (1877), published by the Government Printing Office. Compiled by a United States Army surgeon, Dr. Washington Matthews, 65 years following Sacagawea's death, the words appear verbatim in the dictionary as "tsa-ka-ka, noun; a bird," and "mia , noun; a woman. Sacajawea The name Sacajawea or Sacajewea (/?s?k?d???wi??/), in contrast to the Hidatsa etymology, is said to have derived from Shoshone Saca-tzaw-meah, meaning 'boat puller' or 'boat launcher'. It is the preferred spelling used by the Lemhi Shoshone people, some of whom claim that her Hidatsa captors transliterated her Shoshone name in their own language, and pronounced it according to their own dialect. That is, they heard a name that approximated tsakaka and wia, and interpreted it as 'bird woman', substituting their hard "g/k" pronunciation for the softer "tz/j" sound that did not exist in the Hidatsa language. The use of this spelling almost certainly originated with Nicholas Biddle, who used the "j" when he annotated the journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition for publication in 1814. This use became more widespread with the publication in 1902 of Eva Emery Dye's novel The Conquest: The True Story of Lewis and Clark. It is likely that Dye used Biddle's secondary source for the spelling, and her highly popular book made this version ubiquitous throughout the United States (previously most non-scholars had never even heard of Sacagawea). Rozina George, great-great-great-great-granddaughter of Cameahwait, says the Agaidika tribe of Lemhi Shoshone do not recognize the spelling or pronunciation Sacagawea. Schools named in the interpreter's honor and other memorials erected in the area surrounding her birthplace use the spelling Sacajawea: The Lemhi Shoshone call her Sacajawea. It is derived from the Shoshone word for her name, Saca tzah we yaa. In his Cash Book, William Clark spells Sacajawea with a "J". Also, William Clark and Private George Shannon explained to Nicholas Biddle (Published the first Lewis and Clark Journals in 1814) about the pronunciation of her name and how the tz sounds more like a "j". What better authority on the pronunciation of her name than Clark and Shannon who traveled with her and constantly heard the pronunciation of her name? We do not believe it is a Minnetaree (Hidatsa) word for her name. Sacajawea was a Lemhi Shoshone not a Hidatsa. Idaho native John Rees explored the 'boat launcher' etymology in a long letter to the U.S. Commissioner of Indian Affairs written in the 1920s. It was republished in 1970 by the Lemhi County Historical Society as a pamphlet entitled "Madame Charbonneau" and contains many of the arguments in favor of the Shoshone derivation of the name. The spelling Sacajawea, although widely taught until the late 20th century, is generally considered incorrect in modern academia. Linguistics professor Dr. Sven Liljeblad from the Idaho State University in Pocatello has concluded that "it is unlikely that Sacajawea is a Shoshoni word.… The term for 'boat' in Shoshoni is saiki, but the rest of the alleged compound would be incomprehensible to a native speaker of Shoshoni." The spelling has subsided from general use, although the corresponding "soft j" pronunciation persists in American culture. In popular culture Some fictional accounts speculate that Sacagawea was romantically involved with Lewis or Clark during their expedition. But, while the journals show that she was friendly with Clark and would often do favors for him, the idea of a romantic liaison was created by novelists who wrote much later about the expedition. This fiction was perpetuated in the Western film The Far Horizons (1955). Film and television Several movies, both documentaries and fiction, have been made about, or featuring, Sacagawea: The Far Horizons (1955) - played by Donna Reed Lewis & Clark: Great Journey West (2002) - played by Alex Rice Jefferson's West (2003) - played by Cedar Henry Journey of Sacagawea (2004) Bill and Meriwether's Excellent Adventure (2006) - played by Crystal Lysne Night at the Museum (2006) - played by Mizuo Peck The Spirit of Sacajawea (2007) Night at the Museum 2: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009) - played by Mizuo Peck Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb (2014) - played by Mizuo Peck In 1967, the actress Victoria Vetri, under the name Angela Dorian, played Sacajawea in the episode "The Girl Who Walked the West" of the syndicated television series, Death Valley Days. Literature Two early twentieth-century novels shaped much of the public perception of Sacagawea. The Conquest: The True Story of Lewis and Clark (1902), was written by American suffragist Eva Emery Dye and published in anticipation of the expedition's centennial. The National American Woman Suffrage Association embraced her as a female hero, and numerous stories and essays about her were published in ladies' journals. A few decades later, Grace Raymond Hebard published Sacajawea: Guide and Interpreter of Lewis and Clark (1933) to even greater success. Sacagawea has since become a popular figure in historical and young adult novels. In her novel Sacajawea (1984), Anna Lee Waldo explored the story of Sacajawea's returning to Wyoming 50 years after her departure. The author was well aware of the historical research supporting an 1812 death, but she chose to explore the oral tradition. Music and theatre In Philip Glass's "Piano Concerto No. 2 after Lewis & Clark", the second movement is entitled "Sacagawea". Sacagawea is mentioned in the Schoolhouse Rock song "Elbow Room" as the guide for Lewis and Clark. Sacagewea is referenced in Stevie Wonder's song "Black Man" from the album Songs in the Key of Life (1976). Tingstad & Rumbel's 1988 album Legends includes a piece entitled "Sacajawea". Sacagawea is the name of a musical by Craig Bohmler and Mary Bracken Phillips. It was commissioned by the Willows Theatre Company in northern California and premiered at the annual John Muir Festival in the summer of 2008 at the Alhambra Performing Arts Center in Martinez. In 2010, Italian pianist and composer Alessandra Celletti released Sketches of Sacagawea, a limited-edition tribute box set with an album and accompanying book, on Al-Kemi Lab. Other media The Dinner Party, an artwork installation by feminist artist Judy Chicago, features a place setting for Sacagawea in Wing Three, part of American Revolution to the Women's Revolution. The first episode of the history podcast, The Broadsides, includes discussion of Sacagawea and her accomplishments during the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Memorials and honors Sacagawea was an important member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The National American Woman Suffrage Association of the early 20th century adopted her as a symbol of women's worth and independence, erecting several statues and plaques in her memory, and doing much to spread the story of her accomplishments. In 1959, Sacagawea was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. In 1976, she was inducted into the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas. In 2001, she was given the title of Honorary Sergeant, Regular Army, by President Bill Clinton. In 2003, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. The USS Sacagawea is one of several United States ships named in her honor. Coinage In 2000, the United States Mint issued the Sacagawea dollar coin in her honor, depicting Sacagawea and her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. Because no contemporary image of Sacagawea exists, the face on the coin was modeled on a modern Shoshone-Bannock woman, Randy'L He-dow Teton. The portrait design is unusual, as the copyrights have been assigned to and are owned by the U.S. Mint. The portrait is not in the public domain, as most US coin designs are. Geography and parks Lake Sakakawea in North Dakota Sacajawea Memorial Area, at Lemhi Pass, a National Historic Landmark managed by the National Forest Service and located on the boundary of Montana and Idaho, where visitors can hike the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail. The Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) created the memorial area in 1932 to honor Sacajawea for her role in the success of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Mount Sacagawea, Fremont County, Wyoming, and the associated Sacagawea Glacier The Sacajawea Interpretive, Cultural, and Educational Center is a 71-acre (290,000 m2) park located in Salmon, Idaho, by the rivers and mountains of Sacajawea's homeland. It is "owned and operated by the City of Salmon, in partnership with the Bureau of Land Management, Idaho Governor's Lewis & Clark Trail Committee, Salmon-Challis National Forest, Idaho Department of Fish & Game, and numerous non-profit and volunteer organizations." Sacagawea Heritage Trail, a bike trail in Tri-Cities, Washington Sacajawea Patera, a caldera on the planet Venus Sacajawea Peak Wallowa County, Oregon Sacagawea Park, Gallatin County, Montana Custer County, Idaho Sacagawea River in Montana Sacajawea State Park in Pasco, Washington Sculpture Astoria, Oregon — Sacagawea and Baby by Jim Demetro: a life-size bronze statue of Sacagawea and Jean-Baptiste, located at the Clatsop National Memorial, Netul Landing in Lewis and Clark National Historical Park, outside the visitor center. Bismarck, North Dakota — by Leonard Crunelle (1910): depicted with baby Pomp, located on the grounds of the North Dakota State Capitol. In 2003, the state gave a replica to the National Statuary Hall Collection in the U.S. Capitol Visitor Center. Boise, Idaho: installed in front of the Idaho History Museum in July 2003. Charlottesville, Virginia — monument was removed by the city on July 10, 2021; titled Their First View of the Pacific by Charles Keck (1919). It was a statue of Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, and Sacagawea. The Charlottesville City Council voted in November 2019 to remove the statue from its location, a decision "cheered by the local Native American tribe, the Monacan Indian Nation, and descendants of Sacagawea’s family in Idaho. They said the statue presented a weak and servile image of Sacagawea, who was rather an essential guide and interpreter for Lewis and Clark." Cheney, Washington — by Harold Balazs (1960): a statue of Sacagawea is displayed in the rose garden in front of the President's House at Eastern Washington University. Cody, Wyoming — by Harry Jackson (1980): painted bronze, 114 inches, the statue is located in the Greever Cashman Garden at the Buffalo Bill Historical Center Cody, Wyoming — by Richard V. Greeves (2005): Bronze, 72 inches, the sculpture is in the Robbie Powwow Garden at the Buffalo Bill Historical Center. Fort Benton, Montana — by Robert Scriver: a sculpture of Sacagawea and her baby, and Captains Lewis and Clark, in the riverside sculpture park. Fort Worth, Texas — by Glenna Goodacre (2001): Sacajawea statue outside the National Cowgirl Hall of Fame. Godfrey, Illinois — by Glenna Goodacre: at Lewis and Clark Community College; by the same artist who designed the image on the Sacagawea dollar Great Falls, Montana — by Robert Scriver: bronze 3/4 scale statue of Sacagawea, her baby Jean-Baptise, Lewis, Clark, and the Newfoundland dog Seaman, at the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Interpretive Center. Kansas City, Missouri — Corps of Discovery Monument by Eugene L. Daub (2000): includes life-size figures of Sacagawea and Jean-Baptiste, York, and Seaman on the bluff at Clark's Point overlook (Case Park, Quality Hill) Lander, Wyoming: in local cemetery, 14 miles West on U.S. 287, and then 2 miles West (after a turn); turnoff about three miles South of Fort Washakie; there is a tall statue of Sacagawea (6 ft) with tombstones downhill of her, husband, and two children; there also is a monument on site. Lewiston, Idaho: multiple statues, including one along the main approach to the city. Longview, Washington, a statue of Sacagawea and Jean-Baptiste was placed in Lake Sacajawea Park near the Hemlock St. footbridge in 2005. Mobridge, South Dakota — The Sacagawea Monument: an obelisk erected at the supposed site of her death, which honors Sacagawea as a member of the Shoshone tribe and for her contribution to the Corps of Discovery expedition; the associated marker "dates her death as December 20, 1812 and states that her body must be buried somewhere near the site of old Fort Manuel located 30 miles north of the marker." Portland, Oregon — by Alice Cooper (1905): Sacajawea and Jean-Baptiste was unveiled July 6, 1905 and moved to Washington Park, April 6, 1906. Portland, Oregon — by Glenna Goodacre: located at Lewis & Clark College, permanently installed on September 5, 2004/ Richland, Washington — by Tom McClelland (2008) St. Louis, Missouri — by Harry Weber (2002): a statue of Sacagawea with her baby in a cradle board is included in the diorama of the Lewis & Clark expedition that is on display in the lobby of the St. Louis Drury Plaza Hotel, located in the historical International Fur Exchange building. Three Forks, Montana, in Sacajawea Park — Coming Home by Mary Michael: statue honoring Sacagawea, built in the area where she was abducted as a young girl and taken to Mandan lands. Wind River Indian Reservation, Wyoming: According to oral tradition, Sacagawea left her husband Toussaint Charbonneau and fled to Wyoming in the 1860s; her alleged burial site is located in the reservation's cemetery, with a gravestone inscription dating her death as April 9, 1884, however, oral tradition also indicates a woman named Porivo (recorded as "Bazil's mother") occupies that grave. Name: Kies Biography: Mary Dixon Kies Mary Dixon Kies (March 21, 1752 - 1837) was an American inventor. On May 5, 1809, her patent for a new technique of weaving straw with silk and thread to make hats was signed by President James Madison. She was the first woman to receive a US Patent. Biography Family life Mary's father, John Dixon, was a farmer born in 1679 in Ulster, Ireland. Her mother, Janet Kennedy, was John Dixon's third wife. They had married in Voluntown, Connecticut on August 7, 1741. Mary Dixon was born in Killingly, Connecticut on March 21, 1752. She married Isaac Pike I, and in 1770 they had a son, Isaac Pike II. After his death she married John Kies (1750-1813) who died on August 18, 1813 at age 63. She then lived with her second son, Daniel Kies, in Brooklyn, New York, until her death at age 85 in 1837. Career Because of the Napoleonic Wars, the United States had embargoed all trade with France and Great Britain, creating a need for American-made hats to replace European millinery. The straw-weaving industry filled the gap, with over $500,000 ($9 million in today's money) worth of straw bonnets produced in Massachusetts alone in 1810. Mary Kies was not the first American woman to innovate in hat-making. In 1798, New Englander Betsy Metcalf invented a method of braiding straw. Her method became very popular, and she employed many women and girls to make her hats. The method created a new industry for girls and women because the straw bonnets could be made at home from local resources, so the women and girls could do work for themselves. Thus, Betsy Metcalf started the American straw-hat industry. Under the Patent Act of 1790 she could have sought a patent, but like most women at the time, who could not legally hold property, she chose not to. Mary Kies, however, broke that pattern on May 5, 1809. Dolley Madison was so pleased by Kies' innovation that she sent a personal letter applauding her. Kies' technique proved valuable in making cost-effective work bonnets. In so doing, she bolstered New England's hat economy, which had been faltering due to the Embargo Act of 1807. However, a change in the fashion of the day made her unable to profit from her invention and she died penniless in 1837. Her original patent file was destroyed in an 1836 fire at the United States Patent Office. Legacy In 2006, she was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. Name: Humboldt Biography: Alexander von Humboldt(14 September 1769 - 6 May 1859) Position: polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer Nationality:German Fields:Geography Known for:Biogeography, Kosmos (1845-1862), Humboldt Current, magnetic storm, Humboldtian science, Berlin Romanticism Awards:Copley Medal (1852) In 1790, he went to England to cooperate with Sir Joseph Banks; in 1795, he traveled in Vienna and Italy; in 1799, he received the royal authorization from Spain to start a trip to the Americas; in South America he met many people who later became famous in the independence of South America, such as Bolívar and then all the way through Mexico and Cuba to the United States, and befriended President Jefferson; settled in Paris in 1808, and returned to his hometown of Berlin 20 years later. In 1830, when he was very old, he carried out an exploration project in Siberia at the invitation of Russia. Recognitions by contemporaries Simón Bolívar wrote that "The real discoverer of South America was Humboldt, since his work was more useful for our people than the work of all conquerors". Charles Darwin expressed his debt to Humboldt, and admiration for his work, writing to Joseph Dalton Hooker that Humboldt was the "greatest scientific traveller who ever lived". Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote that "Alexander is destined to combine ideas and follow chains of thoughts which would otherwise have remained unknown for ages. His depth, his sharp mind and his incredible speed are a rare combination." Johann Wolfgang Goethe observed that "Humboldt showers us with true treasures". Friedrich Schiller wrote that "Alexander impresses many, particularly when compared to his brother—because he shows off more!" Jose de la Luz y Caballero wrote that "Columbus gave Europe a New World; Humboldt made it known in its physical, material, intellectual, and moral aspects". Napoleon Bonaparte remarked "You have been studying Botanics? Just like my wife!" Claude Louis Berthollet said "This man is as knowledgeable as a whole academy". Thomas Jefferson remarked "I consider him the most important scientist whom I have met". Emil du Bois-Reymond wrote that "Every assiduous scholar ... is Humboldt's son; we are all his family." Robert G. Ingersoll wrote that "He was to science what Shakespeare was to the drama". Hermann von Helmholtz wrote that "During the first half of the present century we had an Alexander von Humboldt, who was able to scan the scientific knowledge of his time in its details, and to bring it within one vast generalization. At the present juncture, it is obviously very doubtful whether this task could be accomplished in a similar way, even by a mind with gifts so peculiarly suited for the purpose as Humboldt's was, and if all his time and work were devoted to the purpose." Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt (14 September 1769 - 6 May 1859) was a German polymath, geographer, naturalist, explorer, and proponent of Romantic philosophy and science. He was the younger brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher, and linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835). Humboldt's quantitative work on botanical geography laid the foundation for the field of biogeography. Humboldt's advocacy of long-term systematic geophysical measurement laid the foundation for modern geomagnetic and meteorological monitoring. Between 1799 and 1804, Humboldt travelled extensively in the Americas, exploring and describing them for the first time from a modern Western scientific point of view. His description of the journey was written up and published in several volumes over 21 years. Humboldt was one of the first people to propose that the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean were once joined (South America and Africa in particular). Humboldt resurrected the use of the word cosmos from the ancient Greek and assigned it to his multivolume treatise, Kosmos, in which he sought to unify diverse branches of scientific knowledge and culture. This important work also motivated a holistic perception of the universe as one interacting entity. He was the first person to describe the phenomenon and cause of human-induced climate change, in 1800 and again in 1831, based on observations generated during his travels. Early life and education Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin in Prussia on 14 September 1769. He was baptized as a baby in the Lutheran faith, with the Duke of Brunswick serving as godfather. Humboldt's father, Alexander Georg von Humboldt, belonged to a prominent Pomeranian family. Although not one of the titled gentry, he was a major in the Prussian Army, who had served with the Duke of Brunswick. At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the Seven Years' War with the post of royal chamberlain. He profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales. He first married the daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Schweder. In 1766, Alexander Georg married Maria Elisabeth Colomb, a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Hollwede, with whom she had a son. Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had three children: a daughter, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander. Her first-born son, Wilhelm and Alexander's half-brother, was something of a ne'er do well, not often mentioned in the family history. Alexander Georg died in 1779, leaving the brothers Humboldt in the care of their emotionally distant mother. She had high ambitions for Alexander and his older brother Wilhelm, hiring excellent tutors, who were Enlightenment thinkers, including Kantian physician Marcus Herz and botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow, who became one of the most important botanists in Germany. Humboldt's mother expected them to become civil servants of the Prussian state. The money Baron Holwede left to Alexander's mother became, after her death, instrumental in funding Alexander's explorations, contributing more than 70% of his private income. Due to his youthful penchant for collecting and labeling plants, shells, and insects, Alexander received the playful title of "the little apothecary". Marked for a political career, Alexander studied finance for six months in 1787 at the University of Frankfurt (Oder), which his mother might have chosen less for its academic excellence than its closeness to their home in Berlin. On 25 April 1789, he matriculated at the University of G?ttingen, then known for the lectures of C. G. Heyne and anatomist J. F. Blumenbach. His brother Wilhelm was already a student at G?ttingen, but they did not interact much, since their intellectual interests were quite different. His vast and varied interests were by this time fully developed. At the University of G?ttingen, Humboldt met a Steven Jan van Geuns, a Dutch student of medicine, with whom he travelled to the Rhine in the fall of 1789 and met in Mainz Georg Forster, a naturalist who had been with Captain James Cook on his second voyage. Humboldt's scientific excursion resulted in his 1790 treatise Mineralogische Beobachtungen über einige Basalte am Rhein (Brunswick, 1790) (Mineralogic Observations on Several Basalts on the River Rhine). The following year, 1790, Humboldt traveled again to Mainz to embark with Forster on a journey to England, Humboldt's first sea voyage, the Netherlands, and France. In England, he met Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, who had traveled with Captain Cook; Banks showed Humboldt his huge herbarium, with specimens of the South Sea tropics. The scientific friendship between Banks and Humboldt lasted until Banks's death in 1820, and the two shared botanical specimens for study. Banks also mobilized his scientific contacts in later years to aid Humboldt's work. Humboldt's passion for travel was of long standing. Humboldt's talents were devoted to the purpose of preparing himself as a scientific explorer. With this emphasis, he studied commerce and foreign languages at Hamburg, geology at Freiberg School of Mines in 1791 under A.G. Werner, leader of the Neptunist school of geology; from anatomy at Jena under J.C. Loder; and astronomy and the use of scientific instruments under F.X. von Zach and J.G. K?hler. At Freiberg, he met a number of men who were to prove important to him in his later career, including Spaniard Manuel del Rio, who became director of the School of Mines the crown established in Mexico; Christian Leopold von Buch, who became a regional geologist; and, most importantly, Carl Freiesleben , who became Humboldt's tutor and close friend. During this period, his brother Wilhelm married, but Alexander did not attend the nuptials. Travels and work in Europe Humboldt graduated from the Freiberg School of Mines in 1792 and was appointed to a Prussian government position in the Department of Mines as an inspector in Bayreuth and the Fichtel mountains. Humboldt was excellent at his job, with production of gold ore in his first year outstripping the previous eight years. During his period as a mine inspector, Humboldt demonstrated his deep concern for the men laboring in the mines. He opened a free school for miners, paid for out of his own pocket, which became an unchartered government training school for labor. He also sought to establish an emergency relief fund for miners, aiding them following accidents. Humboldt's researches into the vegetation of the mines of Freiberg led to the publication in Latin (1793) of his Florae Fribergensis, accedunt Aphorismi ex Doctrina, Physiologiae Chemicae Plantarum, which was a compendium of his botanical researches. That publication brought him to the attention of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who had met Humboldt at the family home when Alexander was a boy, but Goethe was now interested in meeting the young scientist to discuss metamorphism of plants. An introduction was arranged by Humboldt's brother, who lived in the university town of Jena, not far from Goethe. Goethe had developed his own extensive theories on comparative anatomy. Working before Darwin, he believed that animals had an internal force, an urform, that gave them a basic shape and then they were further adapted to their environment by an external force. Humboldt urged him to publish his theories. Together, the two discussed and expanded these ideas. Goethe and Humboldt soon became close friends. Humboldt often returned to Jena in the years that followed. Goethe remarked about Humboldt to friends that he had never met anyone so versatile. Humboldt's drive served as an inspiration for Goethe. In 1797, Humboldt returned to Jena for three months. During this time, Goethe moved from his residence in Weimar to reside in Jena. Together, Humboldt and Goethe attended university lectures on anatomy and conducted their own experiments. One experiment involved hooking up a frog leg to various metals. They found no effect until the moisture of Humboldt's breath triggered a reaction that caused the frog leg to leap off the table. Humboldt described this as one of his favorite experiments because it was as if he were "breathing life into" the leg. During this visit, a thunderstorm killed a farmer and his wife. Humboldt obtained their corpses and analyzed them in the anatomy tower of the university. In 1794, Humboldt was admitted to the famous group of intellectuals and cultural leaders of Weimar Classicism. Goethe and Schiller were the key figures at the time. Humboldt contributed (7 June 1795) to Schiller's new periodical, Die Horen, a philosophical allegory entitled Die Lebenskraft, oder der rhodische Genius (The Life Force, or the Rhodian Genius). In this short piece, the only literary story Humboldt ever authored, he tried to summarize the often contradictory results of the thousands of Galvanic experiments he had undertaken. In 1792 and 1797, Humboldt was in Vienna; in 1795 he made a geological and botanical tour through Switzerland and Italy. Although this service to the state was regarded by him as only an apprenticeship to the service of science, he fulfilled its duties with such conspicuous ability that not only did he rise rapidly to the highest post in his department, but he was also entrusted with several important diplomatic missions. Neither brother attended the funeral of their mother on 19 November 1796. Humboldt had not hidden his aversion to his mother, with one correspondent writing of him after her death, "her death... must be particularly welcomed by you". After severing his official connections, he awaited an opportunity to fulfill his long-cherished dream of travel. Humboldt was able to spend more time on writing up his research. He had used his own body for experimentation on muscular irritability, recently discovered by Luigi Galvani and published his results, Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser (Berlin, 1797) (Experiments on Stimulated Muscle and Nerve Fibres), enriched in the French translation with notes by Blumenbach. Spanish American expedition, 1799-1804 Seeking a foreign expedition Spanish royal authorization, 1799 Venezuela, 1799-1800 Cuba, 1800, 1804 The Andes, 1801-1803 New Spain (Mexico), 1803-1804 The United States, 1804 Travel diaries Humboldt kept a detailed diary of his sojourn to Spanish America, running some 4,000 pages, which he drew on directly for his multiple publications following the expedition. The leather-bound diaries themselves are now in Germany, having been returned from Russia to East Germany, where they were taken by the Red Army after World War II. Following German reunification, the diaries were returned to a descendant of Humboldt. For a time, there was concern about their being sold, but that was averted. A government-funded project to digitize the Spanish American expedition as well as his later Russian expedition has been undertaken (2014-2017) by the University of Potsdam and the German State Library—Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation. Achievements of the Latin American expedition See also: Humboldtian science Scholarly and public recognition During his lifetime Humboldt became one of the most famous men in Europe. Academies, both native and foreign, were eager to elect him to their membership, the first being The American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, which he visited at the tail end of his travel through the Americas. He was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1805. Over the years other learned societies in the U.S. elected him a member, including the American Antiquarian Society (Worcester, MA) in 1816; the Linnean Society of London in 1818; the New York Historical Society in 1820; a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.; the American Ethnological Society (New York) in 1843; and the American Geographical and Statistical Society, (New York) in 1856. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1810. The Royal Society, whose president Sir Joseph Banks had aided Humboldt as a young man, now welcomed him as a foreign member. After Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican government recognized him with high honors for his services to the nation. In 1827, the first President of Mexico, Guadalupe Victoria granted Humboldt Mexican citizenship and in 1859, the President of Mexico, Benito Juárez, named Humboldt a hero of the nation (benemerito de la nación). The gestures were purely honorary; he never returned to the Americas following his expedition. Importantly for Humboldt's long-term financial stability, King Frederick William III of Prussia conferred upon him the honor of the post of royal chamberlain, without at the time exacting the duties. The appointment had a pension of 2,500 thalers, afterwards doubled. This official stipend became his main source of income in later years when he exhausted his fortune on the publications of his research. Financial necessity forced his permanent relocation to Berlin in 1827 from Paris. In Paris he found not only scientific sympathy, but the social stimulus which his vigorous and healthy mind eagerly craved. He was equally in his element as the lion of the salons and as the savant of the Institut de France and the observatory. On 12 May 1827 he settled permanently in Berlin, where his first efforts were directed towards the furtherance of the science of terrestrial magnetism. In 1827, he began giving public lectures in Berlin, which became the basis for his last major publication, Kosmos (1845-62). For many years, it had been one of his favorite schemes to secure, by means of simultaneous observations at distant points, a thorough investigation of the nature and law of "magnetic storms" (a term invented by him to designate abnormal disturbances of Earth's magnetism). The meeting at Berlin, on 18 September 1828, of a newly formed scientific association, of which he was elected president, gave him the opportunity of setting on foot an extensive system of research in combination with his diligent personal observations. His appeal to the Russian government, in 1829, led to the establishment of a line of magnetic and meteorological stations across northern Asia. Meanwhile, his letter to the Duke of Sussex, then (April 1836) president of the Royal Society, secured for the undertaking, the wide basis of the British dominions. The Encyclop?dia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, observes, "Thus that scientific conspiracy of nations which is one of the noblest fruits of modern civilization was by his exertions first successfully organized". However, earlier examples of international scientific cooperation exist, notably the 18th-century observations of the transits of Venus. In 1869, the 100th year of his birth, Humboldt's fame was so great that cities all over America celebrated his birth with large festivals. In New York City, a bust of his head was unveiled in Central Park. Expedition in Russia, 1829 In 1811, and again in 1818, projects of Asiatic exploration were proposed to Humboldt, first by Czar Nicolas I's Russian government, and afterwards by the Prussian government; but on each occasion, untoward circumstances interposed. It was not until he had begun his sixtieth year that he resumed his early role of traveler in the interests of science. The Russian Foreign Minister, Count Georg von Cancrin contacted Humboldt about whether a platinum-based currency was possible in Russia and invited him to visit the Ural Mountains. Humboldt was not encouraging about a platinum-based currency, when silver was the standard as a world currency. But the invitation to visit the Urals was intriguing, especially since Humboldt had long dreamed of going to Asia. He had wanted to travel to India and made considerable efforts to persuade the British East India Company to authorize a trip, but those efforts were fruitless. When Russia renewed its earlier invitation to Humboldt, he accepted. The Russians sought to entice Humboldt by engaging his enduring interest in mining sites, for comparative scientific purposes for Humboldt, but for the Russians to gain expert knowledge about their resources. For Humboldt, the Russian monarch's promise to fund the trip was extremely important, since Humboldt's inherited 100,000 thaler fortune was gone and he lived on the Prussian government pension of 2,500-3,000 thalers as the monarch's chamberlain. The Russian government gave an advance of 1200 chervontsev in Berlin and another 20,000 when he arrived in St. Petersburg. Humboldt was eager to travel not just to the Urals, but also across the steppes of Siberia to Russia's border with China. Humboldt wrote Cancrin saying that he intended to learn Russian to read mining journals in the language. As the details of the expedition were worked out, Humboldt said that he would travel to Russia in his own French coach, with a German servant, as well as Gustav Rose, a professor of chemistry and mineralogy. He also invited Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg to join the expedition, to study water micro-organisms in Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea. Humboldt himself was keen to continue his studies of magnetism of mountains and mineral deposits. As was usual for his research, he brought scientific instruments to take the most accurate measurements. The Russians organized the local arrangements, including lodging, horses, accompanying crew. Humboldt's title for the expedition was as an official of the Department of Mines. As the expedition neared dangerous areas, he had to travel in a convoy with an escort. Physically Humboldt was in good condition, despite his advancing years, writing to Cancrin "I still walk very lightly on foot, nine to ten hours without resting, despite my age and my white hair". Between May and November 1829 he and the growing expedition traversed the wide expanse of the Russian empire from the Neva to the Yenisei, accomplishing in twenty-five weeks a distance of 9,614 miles (15,472 km). Humboldt and the expedition party traveled by coach on well maintained roads, with rapid progress being made because of changes of horses at way stations. The party had grown, with Johann Seifert, who was a huntsman and collector of animal specimens; a Russian mining official; Count Adolphe Polier, one of Humboldt's friends from Paris; a cook; plus a contingent of Cossacks for security. Three carriages were filled with people, supplies, and scientific instruments. For Humboldt's magnetic readings to be accurate, they carried an iron-free tent. This expedition was unlike his Spanish American travels with Bonpland, with the two alone and sometimes accompanied by local guides. The Russian government was interested in Humboldt finding prospects for mining and commercial advancement of the realm and made it clear that Humboldt was not to investigate social issues, nor criticize social conditions of Russian serfs. In his publications on Spanish America, he did comment on the conditions of the indigenous populations, and deplored black slavery, but well after he had left those territories. As Humboldt discovered, the government kept tight control of the expedition, even when it was 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from Moscow, with local government officials greeting the expedition at every stop. The itinerary was planned with Tobolsk the farthest destination, then a return to St Petersburg. Humboldt wrote to the Russian Minister Cancrin that he was extending his travel, knowing that the missive would not reach him in time to scuttle the plan. The further east he journeyed into wilder territory, the more Humboldt enjoyed it. They still followed the Siberian Highway and made excellent progress, sometimes a hundred miles (160 km) in a day. Although they were halted at the end of July and warned of an anthrax outbreak, Humboldt decided to continue despite the danger. "At my age, nothing should be postponed". The journey though carried out with all the advantages afforded by the immediate patronage of the Russian government, was too rapid to be profitable scientifically. The correction of the prevalent exaggerated estimate of the height of the Central Asian plateau, and the prediction of the discovery of diamonds in the gold-washings of the Urals, were important aspects of these travels. In the end, the expedition took 8 months, traveled 15,500 km, stopped at 658 post stations, and used 12,244 horses. Publications Cosmos See also: Kosmos (Humboldt) Other publications Other aspects of Humboldt's life and career Humboldt and the Prussian monarchy In the Napoleonic wars, Prussia had capitulated to France, signing the Treaty of Tilsit. The Prussian royal family returned to Berlin, but sought better terms of the treaty and Friedrich Wilhelm III commissioned his younger brother Prince Wilhelm with this. Friedrich Wilhelm III asked Alexander to be part of the mission, charged with introducing the prince to Paris society. This turn of events for Humboldt could not have been better, since he desired to live in Paris rather than Berlin. In 1814 Humboldt accompanied the allied sovereigns to London. Three years later he was summoned by the king of Prussia to attend him at the congress of Aachen. Again in the autumn of 1822 he accompanied the same monarch to the Congress of Verona, proceeded thence with the royal party to Rome and Naples and returned to Paris in the spring of 1823. Humboldt had long regarded Paris as his true home. Thus, when at last he received from his sovereign a summons to join his court at Berlin, he obeyed reluctantly. Between 1830 and 1848 Humboldt was frequently employed in diplomatic missions to the court of King Louis Philippe of France, with whom he always maintained the most cordial personal relations. Charles X of France had been overthrown, with Louis-Philippe of the house of Orleans becoming king. Humboldt knew the family, and he was sent by the Prussian monarch to Paris to report on events to his monarch. He spent three years in France, from 1830 to 1833. His friends Fran?ois Arago and Fran?ois Guizot, were appointed to posts in Louis-Philippe's government. Humboldt's brother, Wilhelm, died on 8 April 1835. Alexander lamented that he had lost half of himself with the death of his brother. Upon the accession of the crown prince Frederick William IV in June 1840, Humboldt's favor at court increased. Indeed, the new king's craving for Humboldt's company became at times so importunate as to leave him only a few waking hours to work on his writing. Religion Because Humboldt did not mention God in his work Cosmos, and sometimes spoke unfavourably of religious attitudes, it was occasionally speculated that he was a materialist philosopher, or perhaps an atheist. However, unlike irreligious figures such as Robert G. Ingersoll, who went so far as to use Humboldtian science to campaign against religion, Humboldt himself denied imputations of atheism. In a letter to Varnhagen von Ense he emphasized that he believed the world had indeed been created, writing of Cosmos: "...'creation' and the 'created world' are never lost sight of in the book. And did I not, only eight months ago, in the French translation, say, in the plainest terms: 'It is this necessity of things, this occult but permanent connection, this periodical return in the progress, development of formation, phenomena, and events which constitute 'Nature' submissive to a controlling power?'" It has been argued that "although Humboldt emphasizes the basis of morality in the nature of man, he does acknowledge that a belief in God is linked directly to acts of virtue" and therefore "the dignity of man lies at the centre of Humboldt's religious thought". Humboldt also believed firmly in an afterlife. A letter he wrote to his friend Charlotte Hildebrand Diede states: "God constantly appoints the course of nature and of circumstances; so that, including his existence in an eternal future, the happiness of the individual does not perish, but on the contrary grows and increases." Humboldt remained distant of organized religion, typical of a Protestant in Germany relating to the Catholic Church; Humboldt held deep respect for the ideal side of religious belief and church life within human communities. He differentiated between "negative" religions, and those "all positive religions consist of three distinct parts—a code of morals which is nearly the same in all of them, and generally very pure; a geological chimera, and a myth or a little historical novel". In Cosmos, he wrote about how rich geological descriptions were found in different religious traditions, and stated: "Christianity gradually diffused itself, and, wherever it was adopted as the religion of the state, it not only exercised a beneficial condition on the lower classes by inculcating the social freedom of mankind, but also expanded the views of men in their communion with Nature...this tendency to glorify the Deity in his works gave rise to a taste for natural observation." Humboldt showed religious tolerance towards Judaism, and he criticized the political Jews Bill, which was an initiative intended to establish legal discrimination against Jews. He called this an "abominable" law, since he hoped to see Jews being treated equally in society. Illness and death On 24 February 1857, Humboldt suffered a minor stroke, which passed without perceptible symptoms. It was not until the winter of 1858-1859 that his strength began to decline; on 6 May 1859, he died peacefully in Berlin, aged 89. His last words were reported to be "How glorious these sunbeams are! They seem to call Earth to the Heavens!" His remains were conveyed in state through the streets of Berlin, in a hearse drawn by six horses. Royal chamberlains led the cortège, each charged with carrying a pillow with Humboldt's medals and other decorations of honor. Humboldt's extended family, descendants of his brother Wilhelm, walked in the procession. Humboldt's coffin was received by the prince-regent at the door of the cathedral. He was interred at the family resting-place at Tegel, alongside his brother Wilhelm and sister-in-law Caroline. Honours and namesakes The honours which had been showered on Humboldt during life continued after his death. More species are named after Humboldt than after any other human being. The first centenary of Humboldt's birth was celebrated on 14 September 1869, with great enthusiasm in both the New and Old Worlds. Numerous monuments were constructed in his honour, such as Humboldt Park in Chicago, planned that year and constructed shortly after the Chicago fire. Newly explored regions and species named after Humboldt, as discussed below, also stand as a measure of his wide fame and popularity. Name: De Stael Biography: Germaine de Sta?l Anne Louise Germaine de Sta?l-Holstein (French: ; nee Necker; 22 April 1766 - 14 July 1817), commonly known as Madame de Sta?l (/d? ?stɑ?l/ d? STAHL, French: ), was a French woman of letters and political theorist of Genevan origin. She was a voice of moderation in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era up to the French Restoration. She was present at the Estates General of 1789 and at the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Her intellectual collaboration with Benjamin Constant between 1794 and 1810 made them one of the most celebrated intellectual couples of their time. She discovered sooner than others the tyrannical character and designs of Napoleon. For many years she lived as an exile - firstly during the Reign of Terror and later due to personal persecution by Napoleon. In exile she became the centre of the Coppet group with her unrivalled network of contacts across Europe. In 1814 one of her contemporaries observed that "there are three great powers struggling against Napoleon for the soul of Europe: England, Russia, and Madame de Sta?l". Known as a witty and brilliant conversationalist, and often dressed in daring outfits, she stimulated the political and intellectual life of her times. Her works, whether novels, travel literature or polemics, which emphasised individuality and passion, made a lasting mark on European thought. De Sta?l spread the notion of Romanticism widely by its repeated use. Germaine (or Minette, "kitty") was the only child of Suzanne Curchod, who hosted in Rue de la Chaussee-d'Antin one of the most popular salons of Paris and prominent banker and statesman Jacques Necker, who was the Director-General of Finance under King Louis XVI of France. Mme Necker wanted her daughter educated according to the principles of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and endow her with the intellectual education and Calvinist discipline instilled in her by her pastor father. On Fridays she regularly brought Germaine as a young child to sit at her feet in her salon, where the guests took pleasure in stimulating the brilliant child. At the age of 13, she read Montesquieu, Shakespeare, Rousseau and Dante. This exposure probably contributed to a nervous breakdown in adolescence, but the seeds of a literary vocation had been sown. Her father "is remembered today for taking the unprecedented step in 1781 of making public the country’s budget, a novelty in an absolute monarchy where the state of the national finances had always been kept secret, leading to his dismissal in May of that year." The family eventually took up residence in 1784 at Chateau Coppet, an estate her father purchased on Lake Geneva. The family returned to the Paris region in 1785, and Mlle Necker continued to write miscellaneous works, including the three-act romantic drama Sophie (1786) and the five-act tragedy, Jeanne Grey (1787). Marriage Aged 11, Germaine had suggested to her mother she marry Edward Gibbon, a visitor to her salon, whom she found most attractive. Then, she reasoned, he would always be around for her. In 1783, at seventeen, she was courted by William Pitt the Younger and by the fop Comte de Guibert, whose conversation, she thought, was the most far-ranging, spirited and fertile she had ever known. When she did not accept their offers Germaine's parents became impatient. In the event, a marriage was arranged with Baron Erik Magnus Sta?l von Holstein, a Protestant and attache of the Swedish legation to France. It took place on 14 January 1786 in the Swedish embassy at 97, Rue du Bac; Germaine was 20, her husband 37. On the whole, the marriage seems to have been workable for both parties, although neither seems to have had much affection for the other. The baron, also a gambler, obtained great benefits from the match as he received 80,000 pounds and was confirmed as lifetime ambassador to Paris, although his wife was almost certainly the more effective envoy. Revolutionary activities In 1788, de Sta?l published Letters on the works and character of J.J. Rousseau. In this panegyric, written initially for a limited number of friends (in which she considered his housekeeper Therèse Levasseur as unfaithful), she demonstrated evident talent, but little critical discernment. De Sta?l was at this time enthusiastic about the mixture of Rousseau's ideas about love and Montesquieu's on politics. In December 1788 her father persuaded the king to double the number of deputies at the Third Estate in order to gain enough support to raise taxes to defray the excessive costs of supporting the revolutionaries in America. This approach had serious repercussions on Necker's reputation; he appeared to consider the Estates-General as a facility designed to help the administration rather than to reform government. In an argument with the king, whose speech on 23 June he didn't attend, Necker was dismissed and exiled on 11 July. On Sunday, 12 July the news became public and an angry Camille Desmoulins suggested storming the Bastille. On 16 July he was reappointed; Necker entered Versailles in triumph. His efforts to clean up public finances were unsuccessful and his idea of a National Bank failed. Necker was attacked by Jean-Paul Marat and Count Mirabeau in the Constituante, when he did not agree with using assignats as legal tender. He resigned on 4 September 1790. Accompanied by their son-in-law, her parents left for Switzerland, without the two million livres, half of his fortune, loaned as an investment in the public treasury in 1778. The increasing disturbances caused by the Revolution made her privileges as the consort of an ambassador an important safeguard. Germaine held a salon in the Swedish embassy, where she gave "coalition dinners", which were frequented by moderates such as Talleyrand and De Narbonne, monarchists (Feuillants) such as Antoine Barnave, Charles Lameth and his brothers Alexandre and Theodore, the Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre, Pierre Victor, baron Malouet, the poet Abbe Delille, Thomas Jefferson, the one-legged Minister Plenipotentiary to France Gouverneur Morris, Paul Barras, a Jacobin (from the Plain) and the Girondin Condorcets. "The issue of leadership, or rather lack of it, was central to de Sta?l's preoccupations at this stage of her political reflections. She experienced the death of Mirabeau, accused of royalism, as a sign of great political disorientation and uncertainty. He was the only man with the necessary charisma, energy, and prestige to keep the revolutionary movement on a path of constitutional reform." Following the 1791 French legislative election, and after the French Constitution of 1791 was announced in the National Assembly, she resigned from a political career and decided not to stand for re-election. "Fine arts and letters will occupy my leisure." She did, however, play an important role in the succession of Comte de Montmorin the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in the appointment of Narbonne as minister of War and continued to be centre stage behind the scenes. Marie Antoinette wrote to Hans Axel Fersen: "Count Louis de Narbonne is finally Minister of War, since yesterday; what a glory for Mme de Sta?l and what a joy for her to have the whole army, all to herself." In 1792 the French Legislative Assembly saw an unprecedented turnover of ministers, six ministers of the interior, seven ministers of foreign affairs, and nine ministers of war. On 10 August 1792 Clermont-Tonnere was thrown out of a window of the Louvre Palace and trampled to death. De Sta?l offered baron Malouet a plan of escape for the royal family. As there was no government, militant members of the Insurrectionary Commune were given extensive police powers from the provisional, executive council, " to detain, interrogate and incarcerate suspects without anything resembling due process of law". She helped De Narbonne, dismissed for plotting, to hide under the altar in the chapel in the Swedish embassy, and lectured the sans-culottes from the section in the hall. On Sunday 2 September, the day the Elections for the National Convention and the September massacres began, she fled herself in the garb of an ambassadress. Her carriage was stopped and the crowd forced her into the Paris town hall, where Robespierre presided. That same evening she was conveyed home, escorted by the procurator Louis Pierre Manuel. The next day the commissioner to the Commune of Paris Jean-Lambert Tallien arrived with a new passport and accompanied her to the edge of the barricade. Salons at Coppet and Paris After her flight from Paris, Germaine moved to Rolle in Switzerland, where Albert was born. She was supported by de Montmorency and the Marquis de Jaucourt, whom she had previously supplied with Swedish passports. In January 1793, she made a four-month visit to England to be with her then lover, the Comte de Narbonne at Juniper Hall. (Since 1 February France and Great Britain were at war.) Within a few weeks she was pregnant; it was apparently one of the reasons for the scandal she caused in England. According to Fanny Burney, the result was that her father urged Fanny to avoid the company of de Sta?l and her circle of French emigres in Surrey. De Sta?l met Horace Walpole, James Mackintosh, Lord Sheffield, a friend of Edward Gibbon, and Lord Loughborough, the new Lord Chancellor. She was not impressed with the condition of women in English society. Individual freedom was as important to her as were abstract political liberties. In the summer of 1793, she returned to Switzerland probably because De Narbonne had cooled towards her. She published a defence of the character of Marie Antoinette, entitled, Reflexions sur le procès de la Reine, 1793 ("Reflections on the Queen's trial"). In de Sta?l's view France should have adapted from an absolute to a Constitutional monarchy as was the case in England. Living in Jouxtens-Mezery, farther away from the French border than Coppet, Germaine was visited by Adolph Ribbing. Count Ribbing was living in exile, after his conviction for taking part in a conspiracy to assassinate the Swedish king, Gustav III. In September 1794 the recently divorced Benjamin Constant visited her, wanting to meet her before he committed suicide. In May 1795 she moved to Paris, now with Constant in tow, as her protege and lover. De Sta?l rejected the idea of the right of resistance - which had been introduced into the never implemented French Constitution of 1793, but was removed from the Constitution of 1795. In 1796 she published Sur l'influence des passions, in which she praised suicide, a book which attracted the attention of the German writers Schiller and Goethe. Still absorbed by French politics, Germaine reopened her salon. It was during these years that Mme de Sta?l arguably exerted most political influence. For a time she was still visible in the diverse and eccentric society of the mid-1790s. However, on the 13 Vendemiaire the Comite de salut public ordered her to leave Paris after accusations of politicking, and put Constant in detention for one night. Germaine spent that autumn in the spa of Forges-les-Eaux. She was considered a threat to political stability and mistrusted by both sides in the political conflict. The couple moved to Ormesson-sur-Marne where they stayed with Mathieu Montmorency. In Summer 1796 Constant founded the "Cercle constitutionnel" in Luzarches with de Sta?l's support. In May 1797 she was back in Paris and eight months pregnant. She succeeded in getting Talleyrand from the list of emigres and on his return from the United States to have him appointed minister of Foreign Affairs in July. From the coup of 18 Fructidor it was announced that anyone campaigning to restore the monarchy or the French Constitution of 1793 would be shot without trial. Germaine moved to Saint-Ouen, on her father's estate and became a close friend of the beautiful and wealthy Juliette Recamier to whom she sold her parents' house in the Rue de la Chaussee-d'Antin. De Sta?l completed the initial part of her first most substantial contribution to political and constitutional theory, "Of present circumstances that can end the Revolution, and of the principles that must found the republic of France". On 6 December 1797 she had a first meeting with Napoleon Bonaparte in Talleyrand's office and again on 3 January 1798 during a ball. She made it clear to him she did not agree with his planned French invasion of Switzerland. He ignored her opinions and would not read her letters. Conflict with Napoleon In January 1800 Napoleon appointed Benjamin Constant a member of the Tribunat but, not long after, Constant became the first consul's enemy. Two years later Napoleon forced him into exile on account of his speeches which he took to be actually written by Mme de Sta?l. In August 1802 Napoleon was elected first consul for life. This put de Sta?l into opposition to him both for personal and political reasons. In her view Napoleon had begun to resemble Machiavelli; while for Napoleon, Voltaire, J.J. Rousseau and their followers were the cause of the French Revolution. This view was cemented when Jacques Necker published his "Last Views on Politics and Finance" and his daughter, her "De la litterature consideree dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales". It was her first philosophical treatment of the Europe question: it dealt with such factors as nationality, history and social institutions. Napoleon started a campaign against her latest publication. He did not like her cultural determinism and generalizations, in which she stated that "an artist must be of his own time". In his opinion a woman should stick to knitting. He said about her, according to the Memoirs of Madame de Remusat, that she "teaches people to think who had never thought before, or who had forgotten how to think". It became clear that the first man of France and de Sta?l were not likely ever to get along together. De Sta?l published a provocative, anti-Catholic novel Delphine, in which the femme incomprise (misunderstood woman) living in Paris between 1789 and 1792, is confronted with conservative ideas about divorce after the Concordat of 1801. In this tragic novel, influenced by Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther and Rousseau's Julie, ou la nouvelle Helo?se, she reflects on the legal and practical aspects on divorce, the arrests and the September Massacres, and the fate of the emigres. The main characters have traits of the unstable Benjamin Constant, and Talleyrand is depicted as an old woman, herself as the heroine with the liberal view of the Italian aristocrat and politician Melzi d'Eril. When Constant moved to Maffliers in September 1803 de Sta?l went to see him and let Napoleon know she would be wise and cautious. Thereupon her house immediately became popular again among her friends, but Napoleon, informed by Madame de Genlis, suspected a conspiracy. "Her extensive network of connections - which included foreign diplomats and known political opponents, as well as members of the government and of Bonaparte's own family - was in itself a source of suspicion and alarm for the government." Her protection of Jean Gabriel Peltier - who plotted the death of Napoleon - influenced his decision on 13 October 1803 to exile her without trial. Years of exile For ten years de Sta?l was not allowed to come within 40 leagues (almost 200 km) of Paris. She accused Napoleon of "persecuting a woman and her children". On 23 October she left for Germany "out of pride", in the hope of gaining support and to be able to return home as soon as possible. German travels With her children and Constant she stopped off in Metz and met Kant's French translator Charles de Villers. In mid-December, they arrived in Weimar, where she stayed for two and a half months at the court of the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and his mother Anna Amalia. Goethe who had become ill, hesitated about seeing her. After meeting her, Goethe went on to refer to her as an "extraordinary woman" in his private correspondence. Schiller complimented her intelligence and eloquence, but her frequent visits distracted him from completing William Tell. De Sta?l was constantly on the move, talking and asking questions. Constant decided to abandon her in Leipzig and return to Switzerland. De Sta?l travelled on to Berlin, where she made the acquaintance of August Schlegel who was lecturing there on literature. She appointed him on an enormous salary to tutor her children. On 18 April they all left Berlin when the news of her father's death reached her. Mistress of Coppet On 19 May she arrived in Coppet and found herself its wealthy and independent mistress, but her sorrow for her father was deep. She spent the summer at the chateau sorting through his writings and published an essay on his private life. In April 1804 Friedrich Schlegel married Dorothea Veit in the Swedish embassy. In July Constant wrote about her, "She exerts over everything around her a kind of inexplicable but real power. If only she could govern herself, she might have governed the world." In December 1804 she travelled to Italy, accompanied by her children, Schlegel and the historian Sismondi. There she met the poet Monti and the painter, Angelica Kauffman. "Her visit to Italy helped her to develop her theory of the difference between northern and southern societies..." She returned to Coppet in June 1805, moved to Meulan (Chateau d'Acosta) and spent nearly a year writing her next book on Italy's culture and history. In Corinne, ou L'Italie (1807), her own impressions of a sentimental and intellectual journey, the heroine appears to have been inspired by the Italian poet Diodata Saluzzo Roero. She combined romance with travelogue, showed all of Italy's works of art still in place, rather than plundered by Napoleon and taken to France. The book's publication acted as a reminder of her existence, and Napoleon sent her back to Coppet. Her house became, according to Stendhal, "the general headquarters of European thought" and was a debating club hostile to Napoleon, "turning conquered Europe into a parody of a feudal empire, with his own relatives in the roles of vassal states". Madame Recamier, also banned by Napoleon, Prince Augustus of Prussia, Charles Victor de Bonstetten, and Chateaubriand all belonged to the "Coppet group". Each day the table was laid for about thirty guests. Talking seemed to be everybody's chief activity. For a time she lived with Constant in Auxerre (1806), Rouen (1807), Aubergenville (1807). Then she met Friedrich Schlegel, whose wife Dorothea had translated Corinne into German. The use of the word Romanticism was invented by Schlegel, but spread more widely across France through its persistent use by Madame de Sta?l. Late in 1807 she set out for Vienna and visited Maurice O'Donnell. She was accompanied by her children and August Schlegel who gave his famous lectures there. In 1808 Benjamin Constant was afraid to admit to her that he had married Charlotte von Hardenberg in the meanwhile. "If men had the qualities of women", Sta?l wrote, "love would simply cease to be a problem." De Sta?l set to work on her book about Germany - in which she presented the idea of a state called "Germany" as a model of ethics and aesthetics and praised German literature and philosophy. The exchange of ideas and literary and philosophical conversations with Goethe, Schiller, and Wieland had inspired de Sta?l to write one of the most influential books of the nineteenth century on Germany. Return to France Pretending she wanted to emigrate to the United States, de Sta?l was given permission to re-enter France. She moved first into the Chateau de Chaumont (1810), then relocated to Fosse and Vend?me. She was determined to publish De l'Allemagne in France, a book in which she called French political structures into question, so indirectly criticizing Napoleon. Constrained by censorship, she wrote to the emperor a letter of complaint. The minister of police Savary had emphatically forbidden her to publish her “un-French" book. In October 1810 de Sta?l was exiled again and had to leave France within three days. August Schlegel was also ordered to leave the Swiss Confederation as an enemy of French literature. She found consolation in a wounded veteran officer named Albert de Rocca, twenty-three years her junior, to whom she got privately engaged in 1811 but did not marry publicly until 1816. East European travels The operations of the French imperial police in the case of Mme de Sta?l are rather obscure. She was at first left undisturbed, but by degrees, the chateau itself became a source of suspicion, and her visitors found themselves heavily persecuted. Fran?ois-Emmanuel Guignard, De Montmorency and Mme Recamier were exiled for the crime of visiting her. She remained at home during the winter of 1811, planning to escape to England or Sweden with the manuscript. On 23 May 1812 she left Coppet under the pretext of a short outing, but journeyed through Bern, Innsbruck and Salzburg to Vienna, where she met Metternich. There after some trepidation and trouble, she received the necessary passports to go on to Russia. During Napoleon's invasion of Russia de Sta?l, her two children and Schlegel, travelled through Galicia in the Habsburg empire from Brno to ?ańcut where Rocca, having deserted the French army and having been searched by the French gendarmerie, was waiting for her. The journey continued to Lemberg. On 14 July 1812 they arrived in Volhynia. In the meantime, Napoleon, who took a more northern route, had crossed the Niemen River with his army. In Kiev, she met Miloradovich, governor of the city. De Sta?l hesitated to travel on to Odessa, Constantinople, and decided instead to go north. Perhaps she was informed of the outbreak of plague in the Ottoman Empire. In Moscow, she was invited by the governor Fyodor Rostopchin. According to de Sta?l, it was Rostopchin who ordered his mansion in Italian style near Winkovo to be set on fire. She left only a few weeks before Napoleon arrived there. Until the end of September, her party stayed in Saint Petersburg. She met twice with the tsar Alexander I of Russia who "related to me also the lessons a la Machiavelli which Napoleon had thought proper to give him." "You see," said he, "I am careful to keep my ministers and generals at variance among themselves, in order that each may reveal to me the faults of the other; I keep up a continual jealousy by the manner I treat those who are about me: one day one thinks himself the favourite, the next day another, so that no one is ever certain of my favour." For de Sta?l that was a vulgar and vicious theory. General Kutuzov sent her letters from the Battle of Tarutino and before the end of that year he succeeded, aided by the extreme weather, in chasing the Grande Armee out of Russia. After four months of travel, she arrived in Sweden. In Stockholm she began writing her "Ten Years' Exile", detailing her travels and encounters. She did not finish the manuscript and after eight months, she set out for England, without August Schlegel, who meanwhile had been appointed secretary to the Crown Prince Carl Johan, formerly French Marshal Jean Baptiste Bernadotte (She supported Bernadotte as new ruler of France, as she hoped he would introduce a constitutional monarchy). In London she received a great welcome. She met Lord Byron, William Wilberforce, the abolitionist and Sir Humphry Davy, the chemist and inventor. According to Byron, "She preached English politics to the first of our English Whig politicians ... preached politics no less to our Tory politicians the day after." In March 1814 she invited Wilberforce for dinner and would devote the remaining years of her life to the fight for the abolition of the slave trade. Her stay was severely marred by the death of her son Albert, who as a member of the Swedish army had fallen in a duel with a Cossack officer in Doberan as a result of a gambling dispute. In October John Murray published De l'Allemagne both in French and in English translation, in which she reflected on nationalism and suggested a re-consideration on cultural rather than on natural boundaries. In May 1814, after Louis XVIII had been crowned (Bourbon Restoration) she returned to Paris. She wrote her Considerations sur la revolution fran?aise, based on Part One of "Ten Years' Exile". Again her salon became a major attraction both for Parisians and foreigners. Restoration and death When news came of Napoleon's landing on the C?te d'Azur, between Cannes and Antibes, early in March 1815, she fled again to Coppet, and never forgave Constant for approving of Napoleon's return. Although she had no affection for the Bourbons she succeeded in obtaining restitution for the huge loan Necker had made to the French state in 1778 before the Revolution (see above). In October, after the Battle of Waterloo, she set out for Italy, not only for the sake of her own health but for that of her second husband, Rocca, who was suffering from tuberculosis. In May her 19-year-old daughter Albertine married Victor, 3rd duc de Broglie in Livorno. The whole family returned to Coppet in June. Lord Byron, at that time in debt, left London in great trouble and frequently visited Mme. de Sta?l during July and August. For Byron, she was Europe's greatest living writer, but "with her pen behind her ears and her mouth full of ink". "Byron was particularly critical of de Sta?l's self-dramatizing tendencies". Byron was a supporter of Napoleon, but for de Sta?l Bonaparte "was not only a talented man but also one who represented a whole pernicious system of power", a system that "ought to be examined as a great political problem relevant to many generations." "Napoleon imposed standards of homogeneity on Europe that is, French taste in literature, art and the legal systems, all of which de Sta?l saw as inimical to her cosmopolitan point of view." Byron wrote she was "sometimes right and often wrong about Italy and England - but almost always true in delineating the heart, which is of but one nation of no country, or rather, of all." Despite her increasing ill-health, she returned to Paris for the winter of 1816-17, living at 40, rue des Mathurins. Constant argued with de Sta?l, who had asked him to pay off his debts to her. A warm friendship sprang up between Madame de Sta?l and the Duke of Wellington, whom she had first met in 1814, and she used her influence with him to have the size of the Army of Occupation greatly reduced. She had become confined to her house, paralyzed since 21 February 1817. She died on 14 July 1817. Her deathbed conversion to Roman Catholicism, after reading Thomas à Kempis, was reported but is subject to some debate. Wellington remarked that, while he knew that she was greatly afraid of death, he had thought her incapable of believing in the afterlife. Wellington makes no mention of de Stael reading Thomas à Kempis in the quote found in Elizabeth Longford's biography of the Iron Duke. Furthermore, he reports hearsay, which may explain why two modern biographies of de Sta?l - Herold and Fairweather - discount the conversion entirely. Herold states that "her last deed in life was to reaffirm in her "Considerations, her faith in Enlightenment, freedom, and progress." Fairweather makes no mention of the conversion at all. Rocca survived her by little more than six months. Offspring Beside two daughters, Gustava Sofia Magdalena (born July 1787) and Gustava Hedvig (died August 1789), who died in infancy, she had two sons, Ludwig August (1790-1827), Albert (November 1792 - July 1813), and a daughter, Albertine, baroness Sta?l von Holstein (June 1797 - 1838). It is believed Louis, Comte de Narbonne-Lara was the father of Ludvig August and Albert, and Benjamin Constant the father of red-haired Albertine. With Albert de Rocca, de Sta?l then aged 46, had one son, the disabled Louis-Alphonse de Rocca (April 1812 - 1842), who would marry Marie-Louise-Antoinette de Rambuteau, daughter of Claude-Philibert Barthelot de Rambuteau, and granddaughter of De Narbonne. Even as she gave birth, there were fifteen people in her bedroom. After the death of her husband, Mathieu de Montmorency became the legal guardian of her children. Like August Schlegel he was one of her intimates until the end of her life. Legacy Albertine Necker de Saussure, married to her cousin, wrote her biography in 1821, published as part of the collected works. Auguste Comte included Mme de Sta?l in his 1849 Calendar of Great Men. Her political legacy has been generally identified with a stout defence of "liberal" values: equality, individual freedom and the limitation of state power by constitutional rules. "Yet although she insisted to the Duke of Wellington that she needed politics in order to live, her attitude towards the propriety of female political engagement varied: at times she declared that women should simply be the guardians of domestic space for the opposite sex, while at others, that denying women access to the public sphere of activism and engagement was an abuse of human rights. This paradox partly explains the persona of the “homme-femme” she presented in society, and it remained unresolved throughout her life." Comte's disciple Frederic Harrison wrote about de Sta?l that her novels "precede the works of Walter Scott, Byron, Mary Shelley, and partly those of Chateaubriand, their historical importance is great in the development of modern Romanticism, of the romance of the heart, the delight in nature, and in the arts, antiquities, and history of Europe." Precursor of feminismRecent studies by historians, including feminists, have been assessing the specifically feminine dimension in de Sta?l's contributions both as an activist-theorist and as a writer about the tumultuous events of her time. She has been called aprecursor of feminism Name: Miranda Biography: Francisco de Miranda(March 28, 1750 - July 14, 1816) Position: Supreme Chief of Venezuela Nickname(s) The Precursor The First Universal Venezuelan The Great Universal American Allegiance: Kingdom of Spain Kingdom of France Venezuela United States Russia Rank: Generalissimo Battles/wars: American Revolutionary War,French Revolution,Siege of Melilla (1774), Venezuelan War of Independence Miranda led a romantic and adventurous life in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment that influenced all of the {Atlantic Revolutions}. He participated in three major historical and political movements of his time: the American Revolutionary War, the French Revolution and the Spanish American wars of independence. He described his experiences over this time in his journal, which reached to 63 bound volumes. An idealist, he developed a visionary plan to liberate and unify all of Spanish America, but his own military initiatives on behalf of an independent Spanish America ended in 1812. He was handed over to his enemies and four years later, died in a Spanish prison. Sebastián Francisco de Miranda y Rodríguez de Espinoza (March 28, 1750 - July 14, 1816), commonly known as Francisco de Miranda (American Spanish pronunciation: ), was a Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary. Although his own plans for the independence of the Spanish American colonies failed, he is regarded as a forerunner of Simón Bolívar, who during the Spanish American wars of independence successfully liberated much of South America. He was known as "The First Universal Venezuelan" and "The Great Universal American". Early life Miranda was born in Caracas, Venezuela Province, in the Spanish colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada, and baptized on April 5, 1750. His father, Sebastian de Miranda Ravelo, was a Spanish immigrant from the Canary Islands who had become a successful and wealthy merchant, and his mother, Francisca Antonia Rodríguez de Espinoza, was a wealthy Venezuelan. Growing up, Miranda enjoyed a wealthy upbringing and attended the finest private schools. However, he was not necessarily a member of high society; his father faced some discrimination from rivals due to his Canarian roots. Education Miranda's father, Sebastian, always strove to improve the situation of the family, and in addition to accumulating wealth and attaining important positions, he ensured his children a college education. Miranda was first tutored by Jesuits, Jorge Lindo and Juan Santaella, before entering the Academy of Santa Rosa. On January 10, 1762, Miranda began his studies at the Royal and Pontifical University of Caracas, where he studied Latin, the early grammar of Nebrija, and the Catechism of Ripalda for two years. Miranda completed this preliminary course in September 1764 and became an upperclassman. Between 1764 and 1766, Miranda continued his studies, studying the writings of Cicero and Virgil, grammar, history, religion, geography and arithmetic. In June 1767, Miranda received his baccalaureate degree in the Humanities. It is unknown if Miranda received the title of Doctor, as the only evidence in favor of this title is his personal testimony stating he received it in 1767, at age 17. Issues of ethnic lineage Beginning in 1767, Miranda's studies were disrupted in part due to his father's rising prominence in Caracas society. In 1764, Sebastian de Miranda was appointed the captain of the local militia known as the Company of the White Canary Islanders by the governor, Jose Solano y Bote. Sebastian de Miranda directed his regiment for five years, but his new title and societal position bothered the white aristocracy (the Mantuanos). In retaliation, a competing faction formed a militia of its own and two local aristocrats, Don Juan Nicolas de Ponte and Don Martin Tovar Blanco, filed a complaint against Sebastian de Miranda. Sebastian de Miranda requested and was granted honorary military discharge to avoid further antagonizing the local elite, and spent many years attempting to clear the family name and establish the "purity" of his family line. The need to establish the "cleanliness" of the family bloodline was important to maintain a place in society in Caracas, as it was what allowed the family to attend university, to marry in the church, and to attain government positions. In 1769, Sebastian produced a notarized genealogy to prove that his family had no African, Jewish or Muslim ancestors, according to the records in the National Archive of Venezuela. Miranda's father obtained a blood cleanliness certificate, which should not be confounded with the blood nobility certificate. In 1770, Sebastian lost his family's rights through an official patent, signed by Charles III, which confirmed Sebastian's title and societal standing. The court ruling, however, created an irreconcilable enmity with the aristocratic elite, who never forgot the conflict nor forgave the challenge, which inevitably influenced subsequent decisions by Miranda. Voyage to Spain (1771-1780) After the court victory of his father, Miranda decided to pursue a new life in Spain, and, on January 25, 1771, Miranda left Caracas from the port of La Guaira for Cadiz, Spain, on a Swedish frigate, the Prince Frederick. Miranda landed at the Port of Cadiz on March 1, 1771, where he stayed for two weeks with a distant relative, Jose D'Anino, before leaving for Madrid. In Madrid On March 28, 1771, Miranda travelled to Madrid and took an interest in the libraries, architecture, and art that he found there. In Madrid, Miranda pursued his education, especially modern languages, as they would allow him to travel throughout Europe. He also sought to expand his knowledge of mathematics, history, and political science, as he aimed to serve the Spanish Crown as a military officer. During this time, he also pursued genealogical research of his family name to establish his ties to Europe and Christianity, which was especially important to him after his father's struggles to legitimize their family line in Caracas. It was in Madrid that Miranda began to build his personal library, which he added to as he traveled, collecting books, manuscripts and letters. In January 1773, Miranda's father transferred 85,000 reales vellon (silver coins), to help his son obtain the position of captain in the Princess's Regiment. Early campaigns During his first year as a captain, Miranda traveled with his regiment mainly in North Africa and the southern Spanish province of Andalusia. In December 1774, Spain declared War with Morocco, and Miranda experienced his first combat during the conflict. While Miranda was assigned to guard the stations of an unwanted colonial presence in North Africa, he began to draw connections to the similar colonial presence in Spanish South America. His first military feat took place during the Siege of Melilla, held from December 9, 1774, to March 19, 1775, in which the Spanish forces managed to repel the Sultan of Morocco Mohammed ben Abdallah. However, despite the actions taken and danger faced, Miranda did not get an award or promotion and was assigned to the garrison of Cadiz. Despite Miranda's success in the military, he faced many disciplinary complaints, ranging from complaints that he spent too much time reading, to financial discrepancies, to the most serious disciplinary charges of violence and abuse of authority. One of Miranda's well-known enemies was Colonel Juan Roca, who charged Miranda with the loss of company funds and brutalities against soldiers in Miranda's regiment. The account of the dispute was sent to Inspector General O'Reilly and eventually reached King Charles III, who ordered Miranda to be transferred back to Cadiz. Missions in America (1781-1784) The American Revolution During his time in the United States, Miranda met with many important people. He was personally acquainted with George Washington in Philadelphia. He also met General Henry Knox, Thomas Paine, Alexander Hamilton, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. He also visited various institutions of the new nation that impressed him such as the Library of Newport and Princeton College. In Europe (1785-1790) Kingdom of Great Britain On December 15, 1784, Miranda left the port of Boston in the merchant frigate Neptuno for London and arrived in England on February 10, 1785. While in London, Miranda was discreetly watched by the Spanish, who were suspicious of him. The reports highlight that Miranda had meetings with people suspected of conspiring against Spain and people considered among the eminent scholars of the time. Prussia Sweden Between September and December 1787 Miranda traveled through Sweden, and he also visited Norway. Miranda arrived in Stockholm on September 21, 1787 from Saint Petersburg, and he stayed in the city until September 24, returning on October 3 and then staying for almost a month until November 1. He carried a letter of recommendation from empress Catherine the Great and was also shown support from the Russian ambassador in Stockholm Andrey Razumovsky. Through these connections he was invited to Stockholm Palace and an audience with king Gustav III on October 17. However, the Spanish ambassador in Stockholm, Ignacio de Corral, demanded that Miranda should be extradited in December, at which time he had already left. He did not win support for his cause, but he later published excerpts from his journal about his experiences in Sweden. When visiting Gothenburg he had an affair with Christina Hall, the wife of one of the wealthiest merchants of Gothenburg John Hall. He also visited the family's country retreat, Gunnebo House, on the outskirts of the city. Russia Miranda then travelled throughout Europe, including present-day Belgium, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Greece and Italy, where he remained for over a year. After passing through Constantinople, Turkey, he visited the court of Catherine the Great, who was visiting Kiev and the Crimea. In Crimea, Miranda was received by the influential Prince Potemkin and later on, when the Empress arrived, he was introduced to her. His sojourn in Russia took much longer because of the unexpected hospitality and attention received by the Court and the empress. When she realized the dangers surrounding him, particularly the Inquisition order for his apprehension, she decided to protect him at all cost. She instructed all Russian ambassadors in Europe to assist him in any form and with great care, in order to protect him from the persecution in place. She extended him a Russian passport. He was also introduced to the King of Poland with whom he exchanged many intellectual and political views on America and Europe. The King invited him to Poland. In Hungary he stayed in the palace of Prince Nicholas Esterházy, who was sympathetic to his ideas, and wrote him a letter of recommendation to meet the musician Joseph Haydn. Attempts to abduct Miranda by the diplomatic representatives of Spain failed as the Russian Ambassador in London, Semyon Vorontsov, declared on August 4, 1789, to the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, that Miranda, although a Spanish subject, was a member of the Russian diplomatic mission in London. Miranda made use of the Spanish-British diplomatic row known as the Nootka Crisis in February 1790 to present to some British Cabinet ministers his ideas about the independence of Spanish territories in America. Miranda and the French Revolution (1791-1798) Starting in 1791, Miranda took an active part in the French Revolution as marechal de camp. In Paris, he befriended the Girondists Jacques Pierre Brissot and Jer?me Petion de Villeneuve, and he briefly served as a general in the section of the French Revolutionary Army commanded by Charles Fran?ois Dumouriez, fighting in the 1792 campaign of Valmy. The Army of the North commanded by Miranda laid siege to Antwerp. Miranda failed to take Maastricht in February 1793 and was first arrested in April 1793 on the orders of Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville, Chief Prosecutor of the Revolution, and accused of conspiring against the republic with Charles Fran?ois Dumouriez, the renegade general. Though indicted before the Revolutionary Tribunal - and under attack in Jean-Paul Marat's L'Ami du peuple - he and his lawyer Claude Fran?ois Chauveau-Lagarde conducted his defence with such calm eloquence that he was declared innocent. However, Marat denounced Chauveau-Lagarde as a liberator of the guilty. Even so, the campaign of Marat and the rest of the Jacobins against him did not weaken. He was arrested again in July 1793 and incarcerated in La Force prison, effectively one of the ante-chambers of death during the prevailing Reign of Terror. Appearing again before the tribunal, he accused the Committee of Public Safety of tyranny in disregarding his previous acquittal. Miranda seems to have survived by a combination of good luck and political expediency: the revolutionary government simply could not agree on what to do with him. He remained in La Force even after the fall of Robespierre in July 1794, and was not finally released until January of the following year. The art theorist Quatremère de Quincy was among those who campaigned for his release during this time. Now convinced that the whole direction taken by the Revolution had been wrong, he started to conspire with the moderate royalists against the Directory, and was even named as the possible leader of a military coup. He was arrested and ordered out of the country, only to escape and go into hiding. He reappeared after being given permission to remain in France, though that did not stop his involvement in yet another monarchist plot in September 1797. The police were ordered to arrest the "Peruvian general", as the said general submerged himself yet again in the underground. With no more illusions about France or the Revolution, he left for England in a Danish boat, arriving in Dover in January 1798. Expeditions in South America (1804-1808) Diplomatic negotiations, 1804-1805 In 1804 with informal British help, Miranda presented a military plan to liberate the Captaincy General of Venezuela from Spanish rule. At the time, Britain was at war with Spain, an ally of Napoleon. Home Riggs Popham was commissioned by prime minister Pitt in 1805 to study the plans proposed by Miranda to the British Government, Popham then persuaded the authorities that, as the Spanish Colonies were discontented, it would be easier to promote a rising in Buenos Aires. Disappointed by this decision in November 1805, Miranda travelled to New York, where he rekindled his acquaintance with William S. Smith to organize an expedition to liberate Venezuela. Smith introduced him to merchant Samuel Ogden. Venezuela and the Caribbean, 1806 Miranda then went to Washington for private meetings with President Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison, who met with Miranda but did not involve themselves or their nation in his plans, which would have been a violation of the Neutrality Act of 1794. In New York Miranda privately began organizing a filibustering expedition to liberate Venezuela. Along with Colonel Smith he raised private funds, procured weapons, and recruited soldiers of fortune. Among the 200 volunteers who served under him in this revolt were Smith's son William Steuben and David G. Burnet, who would later serve as interim president of the Republic of Texas after its secession from Mexico in 1836. Miranda hired a ship of 20 guns from Ogden, which he rechristened Leander in honor of his oldest son, and set sail to Venezuela on 2 February 1806. In Jacmel, Haiti, Miranda acquired two other ships, the Bee and the Bacchus, and their crews. It was in Jacmel on March 12 that Miranda made and raised on the Leander, the first Venezuelan flag, which he had personally designed. On April 28, a botched landing attempt in Ocumare de la Costa resulted in two Spanish garda costas, Argos and Celoso, capturing the Bacchus and the Bee. Sixty men were imprisoned and put on trial in Puerto Cabello accused of piracy. Ten were sentenced to death, hanged and dismembered in quarters. One of the victims was the printer Miles L. Hall, who for that reason has been considered as the first martyr of the printing press in Venezuela. Miranda aboard of the Leander escaped, escorted by the packet ship HMS Lilly to the British islands of Grenada, Trinidad, and Barbados, where he met with Admiral Alexander Cochrane. As Spain was then at war with Britain, Cochrane and the governor of Trinidad Sir Thomas Hislop, 1st Baronet agreed to provide some support for a second attempt to invade Venezuela. The Leander left Port of Spain on 24 July, together with HMS Express, HMS Attentive, HMS Prevost, and HMS Lilly, carrying General Miranda and some 220 officers and men. General Miranda decided to land in La Vela de Coro and the squadron anchored there on 1 August. The next day the frigate HMS Bacchante joined them for three days. On 3 August, 60 Trinidadian volunteers under the Count de Rouveray, 60 men under Colonel Dowie, and 30 seamen and marines from HMS Lilly under Lieutenant Beddingfelt landed. This force cleared the beach of Spanish forces and captured a battery of four 9- and 12-pounder guns; the attackers had four men severely wounded, all from HMS Lilly. Shortly thereafter, boats from HMS Bacchante landed American volunteers and seamen and marines. The Spanish retreated, which enabled this force to capture two forts mounting 14 guns. General Miranda then marched on and captured Santa Ana de Coro, but found no support from the city residents. However, on 8 August a Spanish force of almost 2,000 men arrived. They captured a master of transport and 14 seamen who were getting water, unbeknownst to Lieutenant Donald Campbell. HMS Lilly landed 20 men on the morning of 10 August; this landing party killed a dozen Spaniards, but was able to rescue only one of the captive seamen. Colonel Downie and 50 men were sent, but the colonel judged the enemy force too strong and withdrew. When another 400 men came from Maracaibo, General Miranda realized that his force was too small to achieve anything further or to hold Coro for long. On August 13, Miranda ordered his force to set sail again. HMS Lilly and her squadron then carried him and his men safely to Aruba. In the aftermath of the failed expedition, the Marquis Casa de Irujo, Spanish minister in Washington, denounced the United States support given to General Miranda to invade Venezuela in violation of the Neutrality Act of 1794. The Municipal Council of Caracas indicted Miranda in absence charged him as pirate and traitor condemned to death penalty. The Colonel Smith and Ogden were indicted by a federal grand jury in New York for piracy and violating the Neutrality Act of 1794. Put on trial Colonel Smith claimed his orders came from President Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison, who refused to appear in court. Both Colonel Smith and Ogden stood trial and were found not guilty. Project to attack Venezuela, 1808 Miranda spent the next year in Trinidad as host of governor Hyslop waiting for reinforcements that never came. On his return to London, he was met with better support for his plans from the British government after the failed invasions of Buenos Aires (1806-1807). In 1808 a large military force to attack Venezuela was assembled and placed under the command of Arthur Wellesley, but Napoleon's invasion of Spain suddenly transformed Spain into an ally of Britain, and the force instead went there to fight in the Peninsular War. The First Republic of Venezuela (1811-1812) Main articles: First Republic of Venezuela and Venezuelan War of Independence Return to Venezuela Venezuela achieved de facto independence on Maundy Thursday April 19, 1810, when the Supreme Junta of Caracas was established and the colonial administrators deposed. The Junta sent a delegation to Great Britain to get British recognition and aid. This delegation, which included future Venezuelan notables Simón Bolívar and Andres Bello, met with and persuaded Miranda to return to his native land. In 1811 a delegation from the Supreme Junta, among them Bolívar, and a crowd of common people enthusiastically received Miranda in La Guaira. In Caracas he agitated for the provisional government to declare independence from Spain under the rule of Joseph Bonaparte. Miranda gathered around him a group of similarly minded individuals and helped establish an association, la Sociedad Patriotica, modeled on the political clubs of the French Revolution. By the end of the year, the Venezuelan provinces elected a congress to deal with the future of the country, and Miranda was chosen as the delegate from El Pao, Barcelona Province. On July 5, 1811, it formally declared Venezuelan independence and established a republic. The congress also adopted his tricolor as the Republic's flag. Decay of the First Republic of Venezuela Crisis of the Republic The following year Miranda and the young Republic's fortunes turned. Republican forces failed to subdue areas of Venezuela (the provinces of Coro, Maracaibo and Guyana) that had remained royalist. In addition, Venezuela's loss of the Spanish market for its main export, cocoa, caused an economic crisis, which mostly hurt the middle and lower classes, who lost enthusiasm for the Republic. Finally a powerful earthquake and its aftershocks hit the country, which caused large numbers of deaths and serious damage to buildings, mostly in republican areas. It did not help that it hit on March 26, 1812, as services for Maundy Thursday were beginning. The Caracas Junta had been established on a Maundy Thursday April 19, 1810 as well, so the earthquake fell on its second anniversary in the liturgical calendar. This was interpreted by many as a sign from Providence. It was explained by royalist authorities as divine punishment for the rebellion against the Spanish Crown. The archbishop of Caracas, Narciso Coll y Prat, referred to the event as "the terrifying but well-deserved earthquake" that "confirms in our days the prophecies revealed by God to men about the ancient impious and proud cities: Babylon, Jerusalem and the Tower of Babel". Many, including those in the Republican army and the majority of the clergy, began to secretly plot against the Republic or outright defect. Other provinces refused to send reinforcements to Caracas Province. Worse still, whole provinces began to switch sides. On July 4, an uprising brought Barcelona over to the royalist side. Miranda's dictatorship Neighboring Cumaná, now cut off from the Republican center, refused to recognize Miranda's dictatorial powers and his appointment of a commandant general. By the middle of the month, many of the outlying areas of Cumaná Province had also defected to the royalists. With these circumstances a Spanish marine frigate captain, Domingo Monteverde, operating out of Coro, was able to turn a small force under his command into a large army, as people joined him on his advance towards Valencia, leaving Miranda in charge of only a small area of central Venezuela. In these dire circumstances Miranda was given broad political powers by his government. Defeat of the Republican army Bolívar lost control of San Felipe Castle of Puerto Cabello along with its ammunition stores on 30 June 1812. Deciding that the situation was lost, Bolívar effectively abandoned his post and retreated to his estate in San Mateo. By mid-July Monteverde had taken Valencia and Miranda also saw the republican cause as lost. He started negotiations with royalists that finalized an armistice on July 25, 1812, signed in San Mateo. Then Colonel Bolívar and other revolutionary officers claimed his actions as treasonous. The arrest of Miranda Bolívar and others arrested Miranda and handed him over to the Spanish Royal Army in La Guaira port. For his apparent services to the royalist cause, Monteverde granted Bolívar a passport, and Bolívar left for Cura?ao on 27 August. Miranda went to the port of La Guaira intending to leave on a British ship before the royalists arrived, although under the armistice there was an amnesty for political offenses. Bolívar claimed afterwards that he wanted to shoot Miranda as a traitor but was restrained by the others; Bolívar's reasoning was that, "if Miranda believed the Spaniards would observe the treaty, he should have remained to keep them to their word; if he did not, he was a traitor to have sacrificed his army to it." By handing over Miranda to the Spanish, Bolívar assured himself a passport from the Spanish authorities (passports which, nevertheless, had been guaranteed to all republicans who requested them by the terms of the armistice), which allowed him to leave Venezuela unmolested, and Miranda thought that the situation was hopeless. Last years (1813-1816) Miranda never saw freedom again. His case was still being processed when he died in a prison cell at the Penal de las Cuatro Torres at the Arsenal de la Carraca, outside Cádiz, aged 66, on July 14, 1816. He was buried in a mass grave, making it impossible to identify his remains, so an empty tomb has been left for him in the National Pantheon of Venezuela. Miranda's ideals Political beliefs Miranda has long been associated with the struggle of the Spanish colonies in Latin America for independence. He envisioned an independent empire consisting of all the territories that had been under Spanish and Portuguese rule, stretching from the Mississippi River to Cape Horn. This empire was to be under the leadership of a hereditary emperor called the "Inca", in honor of the great Inca Empire, and would have a bicameral legislature. He conceived the name Colombia for this empire, after the explorer Christopher Columbus. {{Freemason}ry} Similarly to some others in the history of American Independence (George Washington, Jose de San Martín, Bernardo O'Higgins and Simón Bolívar), Miranda was a {Freemason}. In London he founded the lodge "The Great American Reunion". Personal life After fighting for Revolutionary France, Miranda finally made his home in London, where he had two children, Leandro (1803 - Paris, 1886) and Francisco (1806 - Cerinza, Colombia, 1831), with his housekeeper, Sarah Andrews, whom he later married. He had a friendship with the painter James Barry, the uncle of the surgeon James Barry; Miranda helped to keep the secret that the latter was biologically female. According to historian Linda de Pauw, "Miranda was an ardent feminist, named women as his literary executors, and published an impassioned plea for female education a year before Mary Wollstonecraft published her famous Vindication of the Rights of Women." Legacy and honours An oil painting by the Venezuelan artist Arturo Michelena, Miranda en la Carraca (1896), which portrays the hero in the Spanish jail where he died, has become a graphic symbol of Venezuelan history, and has immortalized the image of Miranda for generations of Venezuelans. In France, the name of Miranda remains engraved on the Arc de Triomphe of Paris, which was built during the First Empire, and his portrait is in the Palace of Versailles. His statue is in the Square de l'Amerique-Latine in the 17th arrondissement. Miranda's name has been honored several times, including in the name of the Venezuelan state, Miranda (created in 1889), a Venezuelan harbour, Puerto Miranda, a subway station and an important main avenue in Caracas, as well as a number of Venezuelan municipalities named "Miranda" or "Francisco de Miranda". Both Caracas airbase and a Caracas park are named after him. The Order of Francisco de Miranda was established in the 1930s. In 2006, Venezuela's Flag Day was moved to the 3rd of August, in honor of Miranda's 1806 disembarkation at La Vela de Coro. One of the Bolivarian missions, Mission Miranda, is named after him. Miranda's life was portrayed in the Venezuelan film Francisco de Miranda (2006), as well as in the unrelated film Miranda Returns (2007). Pensacola, Florida, has a square named after him. There are statues of Miranda in Paris, Bogotá, Caracas, Havana, London, Philadelphia, Patras (Greece), Pensacola (USA), S?o Paulo (Brazil), St. Petersburg (Russia), Cadiz (Spain), Puerto de La Cruz (Spain), and Valmy (France). The house where Miranda lived in London, 27 Grafton Street (now 58 Grafton Way), Bloomsbury, has a blue plaque that bears his name, and functions today as the Consulate of Venezuela in the United Kingdom. In 2016 the Municipal Council of Caracas, approved the agreement in relief to Miranda and acquit him of charges of treason, piracy, including the death penalty, imposed by the colonial councilors in 1806 after failed expedition to liberate Venezuela from Spanish rule. During the commemoration of his bicentennial dead, the Executive conferred the post-mortem Chief Admiral degree on Francisco de Miranda. The Venezuelan Remote Sensing Satellite-1 (VRSS-1), launched in 2012, was named after him. Name: Schiller Biography: Friedrich Schiller (10 November 1759 - 9 May 1805) Position: Poet, playwright, writer, historian, philosopher Allegiance: Duchy of Saxe-Weimar Literary movement:Sturm und Drang, Weimar Classicism Notable works:The Robbers,Don Carlos,Wallenstein Trilogy,Mary Stuart,Ode to Joy William Tell Johann Christoph Friedrich (von) Schiller (10 November 1759 - 9 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, and philosopher. During the last seventeen years of his life (1788-1805), Schiller developed a productive, if complicated, friendship with the already famous and influential Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. They frequently discussed issues concerning aesthetics, and Schiller encouraged Goethe to finish works that he had left as sketches. This relationship and these discussions led to a period now referred to as Weimar Classicism. They also worked together on Xenien, a collection of short satirical poems in which both Schiller and Goethe challenge opponents of their philosophical vision. Early life and career Friedrich Schiller was born on 10 November 1759, in Marbach, Württemberg, as the only son of military doctor Johann Kaspar Schiller (1733-1796) and Elisabeth Dorothea Kodwei? (1732-1802). They also had five daughters, including Christophine, the eldest. Schiller grew up in a very religious family and spent much of his youth studying the Bible, which would later influence his writing for the theatre. His father was away in the Seven Years' War when Friedrich was born. He was named after king Frederick the Great, but he was called Fritz by nearly everyone. Kaspar Schiller was rarely home during the war, but he did manage to visit the family once in a while. His wife and children also visited him occasionally wherever he happened to be stationed. When the war ended in 1763, Schiller's father became a recruiting officer and was stationed in Schw?bisch Gmünd. The family moved with him. Due to the high cost of living—especially the rent—the family moved to the nearby town of Lorch. Although the family was happy in Lorch, Schiller's father found his work unsatisfying. He sometimes took his son with him. In Lorch, Schiller received his primary education. The quality of the lessons was fairly bad, and Friedrich regularly cut class with his older sister. Because his parents wanted Schiller to become a priest, they had the priest of the village instruct the boy in Latin and Greek. Father Moser was a good teacher, and later Schiller named the cleric in his first play Die R?uber (The Robbers) after him. As a boy, Schiller was excited by the idea of becoming a cleric and often put on black robes and pretended to preach. In 1766, the family left Lorch for the Duke of Württemberg's principal residence, Ludwigsburg. Schiller's father had not been paid for three years, and the family had been living on their savings but could no longer afford to do so. So Kaspar Schiller took an assignment to the garrison in Ludwigsburg. There the boy Schiller came to the attention of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg. He entered the Karlsschule Stuttgart (an elite military academy founded by the Duke), in 1773, where he eventually studied medicine. During most of his short life, he suffered from illnesses that he tried to cure himself. While at the Karlsschule, Schiller read Rousseau and Goethe and discussed Classical ideals with his classmates. At school, he wrote his first play, The Robbers, which dramatizes the conflict between two aristocratic brothers: the elder, Karl Moor, leads a group of rebellious students into the Bohemian forest where they become Robin Hood-like bandits, while Franz Moor, the younger brother, schemes to inherit his father's considerable estate. The play's critique of social corruption and its affirmation of proto-revolutionary republican ideals astounded its original audience. Schiller became an overnight sensation. Later, Schiller would be made an honorary member of the French Republic because of this play. The play was inspired by Leisewitz' earlier play Julius of Taranto, a favourite of the young Schiller. In 1780, he obtained a post as regimental doctor in Stuttgart, a job he disliked. In order to attend the first performance of The Robbers in Mannheim, Schiller left his regiment without permission. As a result, he was arrested, sentenced to 14 days of imprisonment, and forbidden by Karl Eugen from publishing any further works. He fled Stuttgart in 1782, going via Frankfurt, Mannheim, Leipzig, and Dresden to Weimar. Along this journey he had an affair with an army officer's wife, Charlotte von Kalb. She was at the centre of an intellectual circle, and she was known for her cleverness and instability. Schiller needed help from his family and friends to extricate himself from his financial situation and attachment to a married woman. Schiller settled in Weimar in 1787. In 1789, he was appointed professor of History and Philosophy in Jena, where he wrote only historical works. Marriage and family On 22 February 1790, Schiller married Charlotte von Lengefeld (1766-1826). Two sons (Karl Friedrich Ludwig and Ernst Friedrich Wilhelm) and two daughters (Karoline Luise Henriette and Luise Henriette Emilie) were born between 1793 and 1804. The last living descendant of Schiller was a grandchild of Emilie, Baron Alexander von Gleichen-Ru?wurm, who died at Baden-Baden, Germany, in 1947. Weimar and later career Schiller returned with his family to Weimar from Jena in 1799. Goethe convinced him to return to playwriting. He and Goethe founded the Weimar Theater, which became the leading theater in Germany. Their collaboration helped lead to a renaissance of drama in Germany. For his achievements, Schiller was ennobled in 1802 by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, adding the nobiliary particle "von" to his name. He remained in Weimar, Saxe-Weimar until his death at 45 from tuberculosis in 1805. Legacy and honors The first authoritative biography of Schiller was by his sister-in-law Caroline von Wolzogen in 1830, Schillers Leben (Schiller's Life). The coffin containing what was purportedly Schiller's skeleton was brought in 1827 into the Weimarer Fürstengruft (Weimar's Ducal Vault), the burial place of the house of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in the Historical Cemetery of Weimar and later also Goethe's resting place. On 3 May 2008, scientists announced that DNA tests have shown that the skull of this skeleton is not Schiller's, and his tomb is now vacant. The physical resemblance between this skull and the extant death mask as well as to portraits of Schiller, had led many experts to believe that the skull was Schiller's. The city of Stuttgart erected in 1839 a statue in his memory on a square renamed Schillerplatz. A Schiller monument was unveiled on Berlin's Gendarmenmarkt in 1871. The German-American community of New York City donated a bronze sculpture of Schiller to Central Park in 1859. It was Central Park's first installed sculpture. There is a Friedrich Schiller statue on Belle Isle in Detroit Michigan. This statue of the German playwright was commissioned by Detroit's German-American community in 1908 at a cost of $12,000; the designer was Herman Matzen. His image appeared on the German Democratic Republic 10 Mark banknotes of the 1964 emission. In September 2008, Schiller was voted by the audience of the TV channel Arte as the second most important playwright in Europe after William Shakespeare. On 10 November 2019, Google celebrated his 260th birthday with a Google Doodle. {{Freemason}ry} Some {Freemason}s speculate that Schiller was a {Freemason}, but this has not been proven. In 1787, in his tenth letter about Don Carlos, Schiller wrote: I am neither Illuminati nor Mason, but if the fraternization has a moral purpose in common with one another, and if this purpose for human society is the most important, ... In a letter from 1829, two {Freemason}s from Rudolstadt complain about the dissolving of their Lodge Günther zum stehenden L?wen that was honoured by the initiation of Schiller. According to Schiller's great-grandson Alexander von Gleichen-Ru?wurm, Schiller was brought to the Lodge by Wilhelm Heinrich Karl von Gleichen-Ru?wurm. No membership document has been found. Writing Philosophical papers Schiller wrote many philosophical papers on ethics and aesthetics. He synthesized the thought of Immanuel Kant with the thought of the German idealist philosopher, Karl Leonhard Reinhold. He elaborated upon Christoph Martin Wieland's concept of die sch?ne Seele (the beautiful soul), a human being whose emotions have been educated by reason, so that Pflicht und Neigung (duty and inclination) are no longer in conflict with one another; thus beauty, for Schiller, is not merely an aesthetic experience, but a moral one as well: the Good is the Beautiful. The link between morality and aesthetics also occurs in Schiller's controversial poem, "Die G?tter Griechenlandes" (The Gods of Greece). The "gods" in Schiller's poem are thought by modern scholars to represent moral and aesthetic values, which Schiller tied to Paganism and an idea of enchanted nature. In this respect, Schiller's aesthetic doctrine shows the influence of Christian theosophy. There is general consensus among scholars that it makes sense to think of Schiller as a liberal, and he is frequently cited as a cosmopolitan thinker. Schiller's philosophical work was particularly concerned with the question of human freedom, a preoccupation which also guided his historical research, such as on the Thirty Years' War and the Dutch Revolt, and then found its way as well into his dramas: the Wallenstein trilogy concerns the Thirty Years' War, while Don Carlos addresses the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain. Schiller wrote two important essays on the question of the sublime (das Erhabene), entitled "Vom Erhabenen" and "über das Erhabene"; these essays address one aspect of human freedom—the ability to defy one's animal instincts, such as the drive for self-preservation, when, for example, someone willingly sacrifices themselves for conceptual ideals. Plays Schiller is considered by most Germans to be Germany's most important classical playwright. Critics like F. J. Lamport and Eric Auerbach have noted his innovative use of dramatic structure and his creation of new forms, such as the melodrama and the bourgeois tragedy. What follows is a brief chronological description of the plays. The Robbers (Die R?uber): The language of The Robbers is highly emotional, and the depiction of physical violence in the play marks it as a quintessential work of Germany's Romantic Sturm und Drang movement. The Robbers is considered by critics like Peter Brooks to be the first European melodrama. The play pits two brothers against each other in alternating scenes, as one quests for money and power, while the other attempts to create revolutionary anarchy in the Bohemian Forest. The play strongly criticises the hypocrisies of class and religion, and the economic inequities of German society; it also conducts a complicated inquiry into the nature of evil. Schiller was inspired by the play Julius of Taranto by Johann Anton Leisewitz. Fiesco (Die Verschw?rung des Fiesco zu Genua): Intrigue and Love (Kabale und Liebe): The aristocratic Ferdinand von Walter wishes to marry Luise Miller, the bourgeois daughter of the city's music instructor. Court politics involving the duke's beautiful but conniving mistress Lady Milford and Ferdinand's ruthless father create a disastrous situation reminiscent of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Schiller develops his criticisms of absolutism and bourgeois hypocrisy in this bourgeois tragedy. Act 2, scene 2 is an anti-British parody that depicts a firing-squad massacre. Young Germans who refused to join the Hessians and British to quash the American Revolutionary War are fired upon. Don Carlos: This play marks Schiller's entree into historical drama. Very loosely based on the events surrounding the real Don Carlos of Spain, Schiller's Don Carlos is another republican figure—he attempts to free Flanders from the despotic grip of his father, King Phillip. The Marquis Posa's famous speech to the king proclaims Schiller's belief in personal freedom and democracy. The Wallenstein trilogy: Consisting of Wallenstein's Camp, The Piccolomini, and Wallenstein's Death, these plays tell the story of the last days and assassination of the treasonous commander Albrecht von Wallenstein during the Thirty Years' War. Mary Stuart (Maria Stuart): This history of the Scottish queen, who was Elizabeth I's rival, portrays Mary Stuart as a tragic heroine, misunderstood and used by ruthless politicians, including and especially, Elizabeth. The Maid of Orleans (Die Jungfrau von Orleans): about Joan of Arc The Bride of Messina (Die Braut von Messina) William Tell (Wilhelm Tell) Demetrius (unfinished) Aesthetic Letters Main article: Play drive A pivotal work by Schiller was On the Aesthetic Education of Man in a Series of Letters (über die ?sthetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen), first published 1794, which was inspired by the great disenchantment Schiller felt about the French Revolution, its degeneration into violence and the failure of successive governments to put its ideals into practice. Schiller wrote that "a great moment has found a little people"; he wrote the Letters as a philosophical inquiry into what had gone wrong, and how to prevent such tragedies in the future. In the Letters he asserts that it is possible to elevate the moral character of a people, by first touching their souls with beauty, an idea that is also found in his poem Die Künstler (The Artists): "Only through Beauty's morning-gate, dost thou penetrate the land of knowledge." On the philosophical side, Letters put forth the notion of der sinnliche Trieb / Sinnestrieb ("the sensuous drive") and Formtrieb ("the formal drive"). In a comment to Immanuel Kant's philosophy, Schiller transcends the dualism between Formtrieb and Sinnestrieb with the notion of Spieltrieb ("the play drive"), derived from, as are a number of other terms, Kant's Critique of the Faculty of Judgment. The conflict between man's material, sensuous nature and his capacity for reason (Formtrieb being the drive to impose conceptual and moral order on the world), Schiller resolves with the happy union of Formtrieb and Sinnestrieb, the "play drive," which for him is synonymous with artistic beauty, or "living form." On the basis of Spieltrieb, Schiller sketches in Letters a future ideal state (a eutopia), where everyone will be content, and everything will be beautiful, thanks to the free play of Spieltrieb. Schiller's focus on the dialectical interplay between Formtrieb and Sinnestrieb has inspired a wide range of succeeding aesthetic philosophical theory, including notably Jacques Rancière's conception of the "aesthetic regime of art," as well as social philosophy in Herbert Marcuse. In the second part of his important work Eros and Civilization, Marcuse finds Schiller's notion of Spieltrieb useful in thinking a social situation without the condition of modern social alienation. He writes, "Schiller's Letters ... aim at remaking of civilization by virtue of the liberating force of the aesthetic function: it is envisaged as containing the possibility of a new reality principle." Musical settings Ludwig van Beethoven said that a great poem is more difficult to set to music than a merely good one because the composer must rise higher than the poet - "who can do that in the case of Schiller? In this respect Goethe is much easier," wrote Beethoven. There are relatively few famous musical settings of Schiller's poems. Notable exceptions are Beethoven's setting of "An die Freude" (Ode to Joy) in the final movement of his Ninth Symphony, Johannes Brahms' choral setting of "N?nie" and "Des M?dchens Klage" by Franz Schubert, who set 44 of Schiller's poems as Lieder, mostly for voice and piano, also including "Die Bürgschaft". In 2005 Graham Waterhouse set Der Handschuh (The Glove) for cello and speaking voice. The Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi admired Schiller greatly and adapted several of his stage plays for his operas: I masnadieri is based on The Robbers Giovanna d'Arco is based on The Maid of Orleans Luisa Miller is based on Intrigue and Love La forza del destino is based partly on Wallenstein's Camp Don Carlos is based on the play of the same title Donizetti's Maria Stuarda is based on Mary Stuart; Rossini's Guillaume Tell is an adaptation of William Tell. Nicola Vaccai's Giovanna d'Arco (1827) is based on The Maid of Orleans, and his La sposa di Messina (1839) on The Bride of Messina. Tchaikovsky's 1881 opera The Maid of Orleans is partly based on Schiller's work. German-Russian composer Zinaida Petrovna Ziberova created a musical setting for Schiler's William Tell in 1935. The 20th-century composer Giselher Klebe adapted The Robbers for his first opera of the same name, which premiered in 1957. Schiller's burial A poem written about the poet's burial: Two dim and paltry torches that the raging storm And rain at any moment threaten to put out. A waving pall. A vulgar coffin made of pine With not a wreath, not e'en the poorest, and no train - As if a crime were swiftly carried to the grave! The bearers hastened onward. One unknown alone, Round whom a mantle waved of wide and noble fold, Followed this coffin. 'Twas the Spirit of Mankind. —?Conrad Ferdinand Meyer Works Plays Die R?uber (The Robbers), 1781 Fiesco (Die Verschw?rung des Fiesco zu Genua), 1783 Kabale und Liebe (Intrigue and Love), 1784 Don Karlos, Infant von Spanien (Don Carlos), 1787 Wallenstein, 1800 Maria Stuart (Mary Stuart), 1800 Die Jungfrau von Orleans (The Maid of Orleans), 1801 Turandot, Prinzessin von China, 1801 Die Braut von Messina (The Bride of Messina), 1803 Wilhelm Tell (William Tell), 1804 Demetrius (unfinished at his death) Histories Geschichte des Abfalls der vereinigten Niederlande von der spanischen Regierung or The Revolt of the Netherlands Geschichte des drei?igj?hrigen Kriegs or A History of the Thirty Years' War über V?lkerwanderung, Kreuzzüge und Mittelalter or On the Barbarian Invasions, Crusaders and Middle Ages Translations Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis William Shakespeare, Macbeth Jean Racine, Phèdre Carlo Gozzi, Turandot, 1801 Prose Der Geisterseher or The Ghost-Seer (unfinished novel) (started in 1786 and published periodically. Published as book in 1789) über die ?sthetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen (On the Aesthetic Education of Man in a Series of Letters), 1794 Der Verbrecher aus verlorener Ehre (Dishonoured Irreclaimable), 1786 Poems An die Freude (Ode to Joy) (1785) became the basis for the fourth movement of Beethoven's ninth symphony Der Taucher (The Diver; set to music by Schubert) Die Kraniche des Ibykus (The Cranes of Ibykus) Der Ring des Polykrates (Polycrates' Ring) Die Bürgschaft (The Hostage; set to music by Schubert) Das Lied von der Glocke (Song of the Bell) Das verschleierte Bild zu Sais (The Veiled Statue at Sais) Der Handschuh (The Glove) N?nie (set to music by Brahms) Name: Belzoni Biography: Giovanni Battista Belzoni(5 November 1778 - 3 December 1823), Position: explorer ，pioneer archaeologist of Egyptian antiquities Nationality: Italian Known for :Egyptian antiquities Giovanni Battista Belzoni (Italian pronunciation: ; 5 November 1778 - 3 December 1823), sometimes known as The Great Belzoni, was a prolific Italian explorer and pioneer archaeologist of Egyptian antiquities. He is known for his removal to England of the seven-tonne bust of Ramesses II, the clearing of sand from the entrance of the great temple at Abu Simbel, the discovery and documentation of the tomb of Seti I (still sometimes known as "Belzoni's Tomb"), including the Sarcophagus of Seti I, and the first to penetrate into the Pyramid of Khafre, the second pyramid of the Giza complex. Early life Belzoni was born in Padua. His father was a barber who sired fourteen children. His family was from Rome and when Belzoni was 16 he went to work there, saying that he studied hydraulics. He intended on taking monastic vows, but in 1798 the occupation of the city by French troops drove him from Rome and changed his proposed career. In 1800 he moved to the Batavian Republic (now Netherlands) where he earned a living as a barber. In 1803 he fled to England to avoid being sent to jail. There he married an Englishwoman, Sarah Bane. Belzoni was a tall man at 6 feet 7 inches (2.01 m) tall (one source says that his wife was of equally generous build, but all other accounts of her describe her as being of normal build) and they both joined a travelling circus. They were for some time compelled to subsist by performing exhibitions of feats of strength and agility as a strongman at fairs and on the streets of London. In 1804 he appears engaged at the circus at Astley's Amphitheatre at a variety of performances. Belzoni had an interest in phantasmagoria and experimented with the use of magic lanterns in his shows. Egyptian antiquities In 1812 he left England and after a tour of performances in Spain, Portugal and Sicily, he went to Malta in 1815 where he met Ismael Gibraltar, an emissary of Muhammad Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who at the time was undertaking a programme of agrarian land reclamation and important irrigation works. Belzoni wanted to show Muhammad Ali a hydraulic machine of his own invention for raising the waters of the Nile. Though the experiment with this engine was successful, the project was not approved by the pasha. Belzoni, now without a job, was resolved to continue his travels. On the recommendation of the orientalist J. L. Burckhardt he was sent by Henry Salt, the British consul to Egypt, to the Ramesseum at Thebes, from where he removed with great skill the colossal bust of Ramesses II, commonly called the "Younger Memnon". Shipped by Belzoni to England, this piece is still on prominent display at the British Museum in London. This weighed over 7 tons. It took him 17 days and 130 men to tow it to the river. He used levers to lift it onto rollers. Then he had his men distributed equally with 4 ropes drag it on the rollers. On the first day (27 July) he only covered a few yards, the second he covered 50 yards deliberately breaking the bases of 2 columns to clear the way for his burden. After150 yards, it sank into the sand, and a detour of 300 yards on firmer ground was necessary. From there, it got a little easier, and, on 12 August, he finally made it to the river where he was able to load it on a boat for shipment to England. His excavation and removal of the Younger Memnon and other stones during this expedition was explicitly authorized by a firman from Muhammad Ali himself. He also expanded his investigations to the great temple of Edfu, visited Elephantine and Philae, cleared the entrance of the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand (1817), made excavations at Karnak, and opened up the sepulchre of Seti I (still sometimes known as "Belzoni's Tomb"). He was the first to penetrate into the Pyramid of Khafre, the second pyramid of the Giza complex, and the first European in modern times to visit the Bahariya Oasis. He also identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea. In 1819 he returned to England and published an account of his travels and discoveries entitled Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia, &c the following year. During 1820 and 1821 he also exhibited facsimiles of the tomb of Seti I. The exhibition was held at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London. In 1822 Belzoni showed his model in Paris. In 1823 he set out for West Africa, intending to travel to Timbuktu. Having been refused permission to pass through Morocco, he chose the Gulf of Guinea coastal route. He reached the Kingdom of Benin, but was seized with dysentery at a village called Gwato (now Ughoton), and died there. According to the celebrated traveller Richard Francis Burton he was murdered and robbed. In 1829 his widow published his drawings of the royal tombs at Thebes. Commemoration A medal depicting a profile of Belzoni created by William Brockedon was cast in 1821 by Sir Edward Thomason. Belzoni’s friend Sir Francis Ronalds had introduced artist and subject. Years later, in 1859 in Padua, Ronalds advised sculptor Rinaldo Rinaldi on the large medallion he was creating to commemorate Belzoni in his hometown. Belzoni was portrayed by Matthew Kelly in the 2005 BBC docudrama Egypt. Alberto Siliotti completed a unique scholarly edition of his travel writing, and it was subject of the Horus expedition in 1988. Horace Smith, a poet in the circle of Percy Bysshe Shelley, wrote " Address to the Mummy in Belzoni's Exhibition." Name: Pauline Biography: Pauline Bonaparte (20 October 1780 - 9 June 1825) Position: Duchess of Guastalla House: Bonaparte Religion : Roman Catholicism In popular culture Bonaparte appears as the protagonist of the Chinese anime-influenced strategy video game Banner of the Maid, as a professional soldier who plays a decisive role in the French Revolution. Pauline Bonaparte (20 October 1780 - 9 June 1825) was the first sovereign Duchess of Guastalla in Italy, an imperial French princess and the princess consort of Sulmona and Rossano. She was the sixth child of Letizia Ramolino and Carlo Buonaparte, Corsica's representative to the court of King Louis XVI of France. Her elder brother, Napoleon, was the first emperor of the French. She married Charles Leclerc, a French general, a union ended by his death in 1802. Later, she married Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona. Her only child, Dermide Leclerc, born from her first marriage, died in childhood. She was the only Bonaparte sibling to visit Napoleon in exile on his principality, Elba. Maria Paola Buonaparte, the sixth child of Letizia Ramolino and Carlo Buonaparte, Corsica's representative to the court of King Louis XVI of France, was born on 20 October 1780 in Ajaccio, Corsica. She was popularly known as "Paoletta", and her family soon took a French spelling of their surname, Bonaparte. Little is known about her childhood, except that she received no formal education. Following Carlo's death in 1785, the family was plunged into poverty. Her brother Lucien Bonaparte made seditious comments at the local Jacobin chapter in the summer of 1793, forcing the family to flee to the mainland. It was there on the mainland that she became known as "Paulette". The income the Bonapartes earned from their vineyards and other holdings on Corsica was interrupted by the British capture of the island in 1794. Their economic situation became so dire that the Bonaparte women reportedly resorted to washing clothes for payment. Regardless, they received, like others French refugees from Corsica, a stipend from the French government. From their landing place, Toulon, they moved to Marseille, where General Napoleon Bonaparte, her elder brother, introduced her to Louis-Marie Stanislas Freron, the proconsul of Marseille. He intended them to marry, but Letizia objected. Napoleon, despite the fact that Pauline loved Stanislas, married her to General Charles Leclerc in French-occupied Milan on 14 June 1797. Napoleon returned to Paris and delegated the office of commander-in-chief of the French army in Italy to his brother-in-law. Pauline gave birth to a boy, Dermide Louis Napoleon, on 20 April 1798. In celebration, General Leclerc acquired a property outside Novellara worth 160,000 French francs. Ill-health forced Leclerc to resign from his military post in October of the same year; he was transferred to Paris. Leclerc was again relocated upon arrival, this time to Brittany. Pauline stayed in Paris with Dermide. Laure de Permond—the future Duchesse d'Abrantès—and her mother welcomed Pauline into their salon at the rue Saint-Croix. Napoleon seized power in Coup of Brumaire in November 1799: deposing the Directory, he pronounced himself First Consul. Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue in the West Indies (modern-day Haiti) had been a French colony since 1697, but had been in rebellion against France since 1791. Napoleon wished to restore French authority there, and so organized an expedition. He put General Leclerc at its head, appointing him Governor-General of the island. Leclerc, Dermide, and Pauline embarked for the colony from Brest on 14 December 1801. Leclerc's fleet totaled 74 ships. The gubernatorial family occupied the flagship, l'Ocean. After a 45-day journey, the fleet arrived in Le Cap harbour. The Governor-General ordered General Christophe, who commanded a force of 5,000 soldiers, to resign Le Cap to French authority. After all attempts at conciliation failed, Leclerc attacked the town under cover of darkness. Christophe responded by razing Le Cap to the ground. Pauline, meanwhile, was left aboard the flagship with their son. According to Leclerc, in a letter dated 5 March to Napoleon, "The disastrous events in the midst of which she found herself wore her down to the point of making her ill." Leclerc succeeded in requisitioning the capitulation of the rebel leader, Toussaint L'ouverture, in May. However, celebrations were dampened by the advent of yellow fever season: 25 generals and 25,000 soldiers died from the fever. Leclerc had initially guaranteed that slavery, abolished by the Jacobin republic in 1794, would stay proscribed; however, the inhabitants caught wind of its re-establishment in another French colony, neighbouring Guadeloupe, in July. The French government had eliminated slavery in May. As a result, the indigenous residents of Saint-Domingue planned an insurrection for September 16. Black troops in Leclerc's army defected to their old commanders, and the Governor-General had a mere 2,000 men against the rebels' 10,000. Leclerc, fearing for Pauline's safety, gave express orders to Jacques de Norvin, a sergeant, to remove Pauline from Saint-Domingue at a moment's notice, but these precautions proved unnecessary when Leclerc defeated the insurgents. The climate was taking its toll on Pauline's health. She could no longer walk and was compelled to a "reclining position" for several hours a day. Both she and Dermide suffered from spells of yellow fever. She did, however, find time to take numerous lovers, including several of her husband's soldiers, and developed a reputation for "Bacchanalian promiscuity." Leclerc attempted to convince Pauline to return to Paris in August. She consented on the condition that "he ...give me 100,000 francs." When the Governor-General refused, she elected to stay in Saint-Domingue; observing that unlike in Paris, "Here, I reign like Josephine ; I hold first place." To occupy herself, she compiled a collection of local flora and established a menagerie, inhabited by native animals. On 22 October 1802, Leclerc fell ill. A doctor from the military hospital in Le Cap diagnosed him with a fever "caused by the bodily and mental hardships that the general had suffered." Biographer Flora Fraser believes that his symptoms were consistent with those of yellow fever. He died on 1 November. Seven days later, Pauline, Dermide, and Leclerc's remains were hastily ferried back to mainland France. Princess Borghese Pauline reached the Bay of Toulon on 1 January 1803. That same day she wrote to Napoleon: "I have brought with me the remains of my poor Leclerc. Pity poor Pauline, who is truly unhappy." On 11 February, she arrived in the capital, where Napoleon made arrangements for her to lodge with their brother Joseph. Parisian rumour had it that she extracted gold and jewels from the indigenous peoples in Saint-Domingue and brought the treasure back in Leclerc's sarcophagus, but this was not the case. She inherited 700,000 francs in liquid capital and assets from Leclerc. Tiring of life with Joseph, Pauline went about acquiring H?tel Charost from the duchess to whom it belonged. She confided in a friend that she "was bored" with the code of mourning outlined in the First Consul's civil code, compelling her to withdraw from Parisian society, which, before her time in Saint-Domingue, had had her at its center. Napoleon did not wish her to remain unmarried for long; he tried—but failed—to betroth her to the Duke of Lodi and Vice-President of the Napoleonic Republic of Italy, Francesco Melzi d'Eril. Pope Pius VII's envoy, Giovanni Battista Caprara, suggested Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona, a Roman noble. The First Consul believed the union would consolidate ties with French-occupied Italy, where animosity toward the aggressor was rife. That, combined with pressure from her brothers Joseph and Lucien, induced her to marry him. The marriage contract brought Camillo a dowry of 500,000 francs; to Pauline, it brought 300,000 francs worth of jewelry and the use of the Borghese family diamonds. On 28 August 1803, they were married by Caprara, but without the knowledge of Napoleon, who had wanted a November wedding for mourning protocol's sake. Upon discovering Pauline's deceit, he refused to acknowledge her new title: "Please understand, Madame, that there is no princess where I am." A civil ceremony was held in November to confirm the marriage. However, Pauline continued her extramarital affairs, including an affair with the violinist Niccolò Paganini. Camillo, Pauline, and Dermide arrived in Rome on 14 November. Pauline, anxious to learn how to behave in Roman society, received tutorship in deportment and dancing. Biographer William Carlton suggests that Pauline— a minor noble from Corsica—would never have made such an advantageous match if it weren't for Napoleon's political eminence. Pauline's initial amity toward Camillo soon morphed into dislike. Her son Dermide, always a delicate child, died on 14 August 1804 in the Aldobrandini villa in Frascati, after a violent fever and convulsions. Three years later, in 1807, his remains were moved next to those of his father in the park grounds of the Chateau de Montgobert. After Napoleon's fall In 1806, Napoleon made his sister sovereign Princess and Duchess of Guastalla; however, she soon sold the duchy to Parma for six million francs, keeping only the title of Princess of Guastalla. Pauline fell into temporary disfavor with her brother because of her hostility to his second wife, Empress Marie Louise, but when Napoleon's fortune failed, Pauline showed herself more loyal than any of his other sisters and brothers. Upon Napoleon's fall, Pauline liquidated all of her assets and moved to Elba, using that money to better Napoleon's condition. She was the only Bonaparte sibling to visit her brother during his exile on Elba. Her home in Paris, the H?tel de Charost, was sold to the British government and used by the Duke of Wellington as his official residence during his tenure as British Ambassador to France. Today the house is still the home of the British ambassador. After Waterloo Pauline moved to Rome, where she enjoyed the protection of Pope Pius VII (who once was her brother's prisoner), as did her mother, Letizia, (then at a palace on the Piazza Venezia) and other members of the Bonaparte family. Pauline lived in a villa near the Porta Pia that was called Villa Paolina after her and decorated in the Egyptomania style she favored. Her husband, Camillo, moved to Florence to distance himself from her and had a ten-year relationship with a mistress, but even so Pauline persuaded the Pope to convince the prince to return to her only three months before her death from pulmonary tuberculosis in the couple's Palazzo Borghese. Health Pauline was of frail health for much of her life, probably due to salpingitis. She died on 9 June 1825 at the age of forty-four at the Palazzo Borghese, the cause of death being given as 'tumor on the stomach' but it may have been pulmonary tuberculosis. Name: MacDonell Biography: Enrique MacDonell(1753- 23 November 1823) Position: Vice-Admiral Allegiance: Spanish Empire, Sweden Branch/service: Spanish Army, Spanish Navy, Swedish Navy，combined Franco-Spanish naval Rank: Vice-Admiral Commands held : Santa Ana, Andaluz, Diligencia, Santo Domingo, Oden,San Felipe Apolstol. Astudo, Gallardo, SanCarlos, San Nicholas de Bari, Rayo MacDonnell had a distinguished career in the navy, that saw him travel extensively and saw him in command positions in several famous battles including the battles of Roatan and Trafalgar. He was injured on several occasions but enjoyed a steady progression up through the ranks from Sub-Lieutenant to Vice-Admiral. Enrique MacDonell, also spelled MacDonnell, was an Irish-Spanish admiral noted for his participation in several sea battles including the Battle of Trafalgar. He was born in Pontevedra, Spain, into a prominent Irish-Spanish family, though his naval records state his origin as Irish. His father was a Spanish Army brigadier-general and colonel of the Irish Regiment of Irlanda, and his mother a lady-in-waiting to the royal household. Spelling of surname His surname is often incorrectly spelt MacDonell. It is actually signed MacDonnell in his letters and reports to the admiralty. Irish family origins In the Central Archive of the Spanish Armada he is listed as an Irish citizen. This is incorrect as his baptismal certificate proves he was born in Spain. Few details exists of his youth but his family had Irish origins and kept strong Irish connections. His grandfather was born in Dublin and his grandmother from Cork and they fled to Spain to escape from religious persecution in Ireland. Army career His immediate family had several generals in the Spanish Army and following that tradition he entered the Spanish Army to serve in his father's regiment the Regimento de Infantería de Ultonia in 1760 aged 7. In January 1764 he was made second lieutenant. MacDonnell was swiftly promoted to infantry lieutenant in 1769 and then advanced to the rank of captain in 1774, before requesting a transfer to the Spanish Navy. In 1775 he was named a Knight of the Order of Santiago. Early naval career MacDonnell had a distinguished career in the navy, that saw him travel extensively and saw him in command positions in several famous battles including the battles of Roatan and Trafalgar. He was injured on several occasions but enjoyed a steady progression up through the ranks from Sub-Lieutenant to Vice-Admiral. In July 1776, he joined the Spanish Navy as a sub-lieutenant and was assigned to the frigate Gaviota as part of a mission against the Algerians in the squadron of Captain Felix de Tejada. In September, he was transferred within the squadron to the 34-gun frigate Carmen. In November Carmen and its support ships fought and burned two Ottoman Algeria xebecs in Melilla cove. On 28 February 1777, he was promoted to lieutenant, and in April his next posting was lieutenant in command of the xebec Pilar bound for Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea and the West Indies. During this time he was injured in a battle with a larger English ship before returning to Cadiz. MacDonnell was briefly assigned to the ships San Isidro and Andoluz in December 1778. In February 1779, upon recovery from his injuries, he was posted to the 34-gun frigate Santa Maria Magdalena. It was part of a six-ship squadron patrolling the Azores seeking a squadron of 4-5 English vessels traveling from South America. The Spanish never made this interception but on 11 September the squadron spotted a lone English ship off Terceira Island in the Azores. Santa Maria Magdalena and another frigate gave chase, but the English ship escaped as nightfall arrived. The frigates became separated from the fleet and sailed back towards Spain alone. On 15 August 1779, Santa Maria Magdalena captured the British 10-gun privateer Duke Of Cornwall off Cape St Vincent by disguising the frigate as a merchant ship. The privateer surrendered after the first Spanish warning salvo. MacDonnell was on board the 30-gun ship Andaluz as part of a convoy to Havana led by Don Jose De Solano transporting troops from the Regimento de Infantería de Hibernia to Cuba, arriving in August 1780. In April 1871, he boarded the 74-gun ship San Gabriel, and participated in the Siege of Pensacola, where he went ashore with a detachment of marines and was wounded in action. Once recovered, on 4 August he was promoted and he received the command of the sloop Santa Ana, with the rank of commander (captain de frigata). MacDonnell was one of the commanding officers in the March 1782 Battle of Roatán. He is recorded in Spanish Naval Gazettes as being in command of one of the frigates. Elsewhere, his role has been described as a dual role, as the second-in-command on the 40-gun Santa Matilde but also as captain of one of the accompanying frigates. When the British garrison refused to surrender, MacDonnell who spoke fluent English and French was chosen to row ashore to offer terms of surrender. They were rejected. The Spanish stormed the island and took control after a short but fierce battle. The British surrendered on 17 March and its garrison of 81 soldiers were taken on board the Spanish ships as prisoners. On 26 May, he took command of the sloop Santa Ana and transferred 400 soldiers from Trujillo, Colón, to the River Tinto in Honduras and other British settlements along that coast. This helped to take possession of them. He left Santa Ana and returned to Trujillo and was back on Santa Matilde. He moved to Havana and he took in command of the Andaluz and he was promoted to full captain on 23 June 1782. In February 1783, he took command of the corvette Diligencia. On 25 November, it left Havana en route to Spain. On 4 December, it engaged in a fierce battle against a heavier-armed English privateer ship, north of Bermuda, sinking it. Diligencia travelled onwards to Cadiz, Spain. He was in the admiralty in Madrid for first nine months of 1784 before taking brief command of the 74-gun Santo Domingo and sailing it to Ferrol to be decommissioned. MacDonnell returned to Cadiz in July 1787 and was appointed to the position of port captain in autumn 1878 briefly, and reappointed from May 1788 to March 1789. Whilst based in Cadiz he applied to join for the Swedish Navy after firstly securing permission to do so from the Spanish Navy. Swedish Navy and return to Spain During the summer of 1789 MacDonnell joined the Swedish Navy to take part in the Russo-Swedish War and was assigned command of the hemmema Oden with M?ns von Rosenstein. During the 1789 Battle of Svensksund he had a ten-and-a-half-hour cannonade battle with several Russian ships. MacDonnell eventually surrendered after becoming surrounded by seven ships. Having already lost one-third of his crew and with only four cannon still operating, he was badly injured himself. He was taken a prisoner of war in St Petersburg. Upon his release he was awarded military honours by Gustav III of Sweden. He was reportedly offered the supreme command of the entire Swedish Navy with 35 ships and 20,000 sailors. He declined the position as a condition of his early release from Russia was that he would not go to war with Russia again. Correspondence with the King of Spain approved his decision to decline the offer. He did remain as a naval advisor to the king sitting on his war council. In July 1791, he returned to Spain, taking command of the 68/64-gun San Felipe Apostol conducting operations off the coast of Morocco until December. MacDonnell was captain of the 60-gun Astuto from 5 May to 31 August 1793, and sailed with the a fleet of 24 ships under the command of Don Francisco De Borja, in the Campaign of Sardinia. The fleet succeeded in the Capture of San Pietro and Sant'Antioco islands. Heavily outnumbered the French garrison of 800 men and 400 sailors surrendered without a battle, and the 36-gun frigate Helène was captured. From August 1793 until January 1794, he was captain of the 74-gun Gallardo, with Admiral De Borja's fleet. On 25 January 1794, he was promoted to commodore. In August 1794, he was commodore of the 94-gun San Carlos. Sailing from Cadiz it travelled to Havana and the Sea of the Antilles in the squadron of Amistizabal before leaving Havana in February 1795 with the ship Europa and both returning to Cadiz arriving in April 1795 laden with money, gold and goods. In May 1795 he was commodore aboard the 80-gun San Nicholas de Bari. It was a short command and in February 1796 he passed command of San Nicholas de Bari to Commordore Tomas Geraldino, who later died on board during a battle with Horatio Nelson's ship HMS Captain in the 1797 Battle of Cape St. Vincent. Geraldino and MacDonnell were colleagues while living in Cadiz. He changed ship to Angel de la Guarda and returned to Havana. During this time he was brought before his superiors following a dispute with a lieutenant, Fernando Morillo. The case was dismissed and he once again returned to Spain in 1799. That year he was made a Commander de Palmoas en la Order Santiago. Retirement and return In 1800, MacDonnell was in Spain and the following year, he retired from the navy with the honorary use of his uniform and rank. He wrote the Coordinated offensive plan of land and sea against the United States of America in 1804. In was submitted to Minister Dom Grandallana, returned apparently unread or uncommented upon. The plan submitted to the Spanish Admiralty for a full-scale war and invasion of the United States, involving naval and ground battles. Spain was becoming increasingly concerned at the growth of American power. The Third Coalition and the 1808 French destruction of the Spanish naval fleet saw this plan withdrawn. In 1805 MacDonnell came out of retirement and rejoined the navy and fought at the Battle of Trafalgar commanding the 100-gun Rayo. After the battle he led a daring rescue mission of to recapture Spanish and France ships taken during the battle. This rescue freed four ships and 3,000 prisoners including Vice-Admiral álava. This sortie also captured 150 English sailors and that enabled the Spanish and French to negotiate a prisoner swap days later. He was promoted to rear-admiral the following fortnight on 8 November. Battle of Trafalgar In 1804, Federico Carlos Gravina y Nápoli was short of experienced officers and MacDonnell volunteered to come out of retirement. Both men wrote to the Spanish admiralty at the same time seeking his reappointment. MacDonnell offered to take any rank the navy considered suitable but he was reinstated as commodore. Gravina appointed him commodore of Rayo. Before the battle itself, a war council meeting of the fourteen leading Franco-Spanish admirals and commodores was held on Pierre-Charles Villeneuve's ship in Cadiz's port. MacDonnell, a French speaker, was chosen as one of the seven senior Spanish naval officers on the Spanish side. It was a meeting that got very argumentative with raised voices. Despite Spanish warnings, Villeneuve in command of the combined fleet, decided to put to sea on 21 October. On leaving port the fleet encountered Nelson's fleet which attacked and began the Battle of Trafalgar. At the battle Rayo was positioned in the rearguard. Due to the weak wind conditions Rayo initially found it difficult to turn to join the battle. Later MacDonnell ignored the orders of the French commodore in charge or the rearguard, and was one of only two ships from the rearguard that turned back to join the centre of battle. Rayo had four deaths during the battle and its mast was seriously damaged. After the battle at sunset Rayo escaped capture and MacDonnell was the highest ranking Spanish officer to escape the battle uninjured and return to Cadiz. Trafalgar rescue sortie On 22 October, the day after the battle, a council of war meeting of senior naval officers was held in Cadiz where the surviving ships had harbored. At this meeting plans were made on the Spanish flagship Principe de Asturias by Admiral Antonio de Esca?o who reasoned that the English would find it hard to hold onto the captured ships because of the stormy weather. He ordered a rescue mission to recapture these ships which had thousands of Spanish and French prisoners on board. As the only senior officer remaining, MacDonnell was given command of the rescue squadron along with French commodore Julien Cosmao The following morning on 23 October, at 9:30am the mission began and five ships, with support frigates, set out to sea. This mission was to have the appearance of a surprise counter-attack, but the recovery of ships was the objective. The orders were only engage in battle with ships of similar size if challenged and conditions favored. The English ships on the end of their fleet, were forced to un-tow four ships and form a defensive line. The rescue fleet took control of two of the freed ships and towed them to Cadiz, while two other ships rose up and overpowered the prize crews, and sailed away, but one later grounded on rocks with the crew rescued, and the other it transferred its crew to a supporting ship and it went down in that evening's storm. The storm was also to sink two of the original rescue ships were damaged and stranded at sea, including Rayo. The following day, Rayo was crippled and was captured by HMS Donegal. The British success in capturing Rayo was short lived as it too foundered shortly after the British prize crew took command. MacDonnell was taken prisoner aboard Donegal. The entire crew was rescued by Cadiz small craft and with prize crew taken prisoner. The mission was considered a success despite the loss of two rescue ships. Two recaptured ships reached Cadiz safely. and the crew of a third ship were saved. Also, the crews of both rescue ships that sank were also saved. Most importantly for the Spanish was the recapture of Vice-Admiral álava's flagship, Santa Ana. The rescue was a disappointing but unavoidable result for the British. They lost four captured ships, including the 350 cannon on board, and 3,000 prisoners, but crucially 150 of their own men manning the prize ships were captured by the rescue crews. The capture of the prize crews was to prove crucial and forced the British to stay at Trafalgar to negotiate a prisoner swap. MacDonnell, who was on board HMS Donegal, was released in these negotiations a week after the battle. Prisoners on both sides were treated very humanly, especially officers. MacDonnell was able to write a full report to Admiral Gravina while on board Donegal indicating he was afforded cordial treatment and facilities. Captured by HMS Donegal At the time Rayo was captured on 25 October, all three of its masts were broken and it was unable to put up a defense fight. MacDonnell lowered the Spanish flag to surrender after the first cannon shot, and then threw the ship's secret signals book overboard tied to a cannonball. A prize crew from HMS Donegal including its master took control of the near crippled Rayo, and MacDonnell was taken prisoner on board Donegal. It coincidentally was the French frigate that Irish revolutionary Wolfe Tone was captured on off the coast of Ireland and it was renamed. Despite the efforts of the British prize crew Rayo was to flounder on the rocks in the storm with the loss of 25 lives. The remaining Rayo crew and 25 British sailors and officers on board were rescued by small Spanish boats. The master of HMS Donegal recounted unexpected kindness when that he was not allowed disembark the small boat in Cadiz until a small cart was reversed into the water, to ensure he could step onto it and then ashore so not to get we. MacDonnell was equally well treated while on board Donegal and he released after a week on board. While on that ship he wrote his report to the admiralty, after a week, Captain Henry Blackwood came ashore to Cadiz and both sides exchanged prisoners. War with France and British alliance After the Spanish insurrection of Seville in 1808, and the beginning of Spanish war of independence, the Spanish junta in Cadiz rose up against the French. He was appointed by the Supreme Junta of the city as commander of the Spanish fleet. His first task was to sail out to the British fleet under Admiral Collingwood to declare they were about to attack the French and to seek allegiance with Britain. He refused Collingwood's offer of assistance as this would have meant a sharing of the captured French ships after the attack that became known as the Capture of the Rosily Squadron. On his return he had orders to attack the French fleet in the port, assisting the land=based artillery, with five days hostilities ongoing the Spanish refused the British offer of assistance as they watched from sea. The French surrendered. After taking the French ships he was to board the flagship of British admiral John Child Purvis, general commander of the squadron that blockaded the city, trying to cease hostilities between Spain and Great Britain. The matter was satisfactorily resolved, with Admiral Collingwood also coming ashore to negotiate a new Spanish-British alliance. In this he was so successful that the English general Sir John Moore, offered to press for MacDonnell's appointment as the Junta's ambassador in London; but MacDonnell refused saying, "to have accepted a diplomatic post when there was a general call to arms in my country, would not have been in keeping with the dignity and character of a high-ranking officer." MacDonnell was admitted to the military hospital in Cadiz from June 1815 to June 1816. In 1817 he was promoted to vice-admiral and appointed a Minister of the Supreme Council of the Admiralty. Vice-Admiral álava, who he helped rescue at Trafalgar, had also just been made an admiral at the Admiralty at that time. The following year, the Supreme Council was abolished. In 1820 MacDonnell subdued a mutiny in Cadiz. Illness and death He returned to Cadiz, where he had to return to enter the hospital there due to illness. He died there on 23 November 1823. His funeral was paid by public subscription indicating a lack of personal funds. Popular culture Rayo was featured on a Cuba stamp in 1989. The remains of Rayo were located in 2003 by a team from the University of Huelva, 300 metres (980 ft) from shore and in waters 7 metres (23 ft) deep. Little remains today because the deposit was plundered several times historically. Name: Stendhal Biography: Stendhal Position: writer, quartermaster Masterpiece: " The Red and the Black" Allegiance: First French Empire Branches/Services: French Army Rank: Second Lieutenant Unit: Commissioner of War Supplies Literary Movement: Realism “A novel is a mirror walking along a main road.” - Stendhal, The Red and the Black Red represents the soldiers in red uniforms, and black represents the priests in black. These are two shortcuts for young people in contemporary society to get ahead. The two colors of red and black are rich in symbols in the novel. It can also symbolize revolution and the church, as well as blood and darkness. Stendhal syndrome Main article: Stendhal syndrome In 1817 Stendhal was reportedly overcome by the cultural richness of Florence he encountered when he first visited the Tuscan city. As he described in his book Naples and Florence: A Journey from Milan to Reggio: As I emerged from the porch of Santa Croce, I was seized with a fierce palpitation of the heart (that same symptom which, in Berlin, is referred to as an attack of the nerves); the well-spring of life was dried up within me, and I walked in constant fear of falling to the ground. The condition was diagnosed and named in 1979 by Italian psychiatrist Dr. Graziella Magherini, who had noticed similar psychosomatic conditions (racing heart beat, nausea and dizziness) amongst first-time visitors to the city. In homage to Stendhal, Trenitalia named their overnight train service from Paris to Venice the Stendhal Express. Marie-Henri Beyle (French: ; 23 January 1783 - 23 March 1842), better known by his pen name Stendhal (UK: /?st??dɑ?l/, US: /st?n?dɑ?l, st?n?-/; French: ), was a 19th-century French writer. Best known for the novels Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839), he is highly regarded for the acute analysis of his characters' psychology and considered one of the early and foremost practitioners of realism. He travelled extensively in Germany and was part of Napoleon's army in the 1812 invasion of Russia. Stendhal witnessed the burning of Moscow from just outside the city. He was appointed Commissioner of War Supplies and sent to Smolensk to prepare provisions for the returning army. He crossed the Berezina River by finding a usable ford rather than the overwhelmed pontoon bridge, which probably saved his life and those of his companions. Life Born in Grenoble, Isère, he was an unhappy child, disliking his "unimaginative" father and mourning his mother, whom he passionately loved, and who died when he was seven. He spent "the happiest years of his life" at the Beyle country house in Claix near Grenoble. His closest friend was his younger sister, Pauline, with whom he maintained a steady correspondence throughout the first decade of the 19th century. The military and theatrical worlds of the First French Empire were a revelation to Beyle. He was named an auditor with the Conseil d'etat on 3 August 1810, and thereafter took part in the French administration and in the Napoleonic wars in Italy. He travelled extensively in Germany and was part of Napoleon's army in the 1812 invasion of Russia. Stendhal witnessed the burning of Moscow from just outside the city. He was appointed Commissioner of War Supplies and sent to Smolensk to prepare provisions for the returning army. He crossed the Berezina River by finding a usable ford rather than the overwhelmed pontoon bridge, which probably saved his life and those of his companions. He arrived in Paris in 1813, largely unaware of the general fiasco that the retreat had become. Stendhal became known, during the Russian campaign, for keeping his wits about him, and maintaining his "sang-froid and clear-headedness." He also maintained his daily routine, shaving each day during the retreat from Moscow. After the 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau, he left for Italy, where he settled in Milan. He formed a particular attachment to Italy, where he spent much of the remainder of his career, serving as French consul at Trieste and Civitavecchia. His novel The Charterhouse of Parma, written in 52 days, is set in Italy, which he considered a more sincere and passionate country than Restoration France. An aside in that novel, referring to a character who contemplates suicide after being jilted, speaks about his attitude towards his home country: "To make this course of action clear to my French readers, I must explain that in Italy, a country very far away from us, people are still driven to despair by love." Stendhal identified with the nascent liberalism and his sojourn in Italy convinced him that Romanticism was essentially the literary counterpart of liberalism in politics. When Stendhal was appointed to a consular post in Trieste in 1830, Metternich refused his exequatur on account of Stendhal's liberalism and anti-clericalism. Stendhal was a dandy and wit about town in Paris, as well as an obsessive womaniser. His genuine empathy towards women is evident in his books; Simone de Beauvoir spoke highly of him in The Second Sex. One of his early works is On Love , a rational analysis of romantic passion that was based on his unrequited love for Mathilde, Countess Dembowska, whom he met while living at Milan. This fusion of, and tension between, clear-headed analysis and romantic feeling is typical of Stendhal's great novels; he could be considered a Romantic realist. Stendhal suffered miserable physical disabilities in his final years as he continued to produce some of his most famous work. As he noted in his journal, he was taking iodide of potassium and quicksilver to treat his syphilis, resulting in swollen armpits, difficulty swallowing, pains in his shrunken testicles, sleeplessness, giddiness, roaring in the ears, racing pulse and "tremors so bad he could scarcely hold a fork or a pen". Modern medicine has shown that his health problems were more attributable to his treatment than to his syphilis. Stendhal died on 23 March 1842, a few hours after collapsing with a seizure on the streets of Paris. He is interred in the Cimetière de Montmartre. Pseudonyms Before settling on the pen name Stendhal, he published under many pen names, including "Louis Alexandre Bombet" and "Anastasius Serpière". The only book that Stendhal published under his own name was The History of Painting (1817). From the publication of Rome, Naples, Florence (September 1817) onwards, he published his works under the pseudonym "M. de Stendhal, officier de cavalerie". He borrowed this nom de plume from the German city of Stendal, birthplace of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, an art historian and archaeologist famous at the time. In 1807 Stendhal stayed near Stendal, where he fell in love with a woman named Wilhelmine, whom he called Minette, and for whose sake he remained in the city. "I have no inclination, now, except for Minette, for this blonde and charming Minette, this soul of the north, such as I have never seen in France or Italy." Stendhal added an additional "H" to make more clear the Germanic pronunciation. Stendhal used many aliases in his autobiographical writings and correspondence, and often assigned pseudonyms to friends, some of whom adopted the names for themselves. Stendhal used more than a hundred pseudonyms, which were astonishingly diverse. Some he used no more than once, while others he returned to throughout his life. "Dominique" and "Salviati" served as intimate pet names. He coins comic names "that make him even more bourgeois than he really is: Cotonnet, Bombet, Chamier.":80 He uses many ridiculous names: "Don phlegm", "Giorgio Vasari", "William Crocodile", "Poverino", "Baron de Cutendre". One of his correspondents, Prosper Merimee, said: "He never wrote a letter without signing a false name." Stendhal's Journal and autobiographical writings include many comments on masks and the pleasures of "feeling alive in many versions." "Look upon life as a masked ball," is the advice that Stendhal gives himself in his diary for 1814.:85 In Memoirs of an Egotist he writes: "Will I be believed if I say I'd wear a mask with pleasure and be delighted to change my name?...for me the supreme happiness would be to change into a lanky, blonde German and to walk about like that in Paris." Works Contemporary readers did not fully appreciate Stendhal's realistic style during the Romantic period in which he lived. He was not fully appreciated until the beginning of the 20th century. He dedicated his writing to "the Happy Few" (in English in the original). This can be interpreted as a reference to Canto 11 of Lord Byron's Don Juan, which refers to "the thousand happy few" who enjoy high society, or to the "we few, we happy few, we band of brothers" line of William Shakespeare's Henry V, but Stendhal's use more likely refers to The Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith, parts of which he had memorized in the course of teaching himself English. In The Vicar of Wakefield, "the happy few" refers ironically to the small number of people who read the title character's obscure and pedantic treatise on monogamy. As a literary critic, such as in Racine and Shakespeare, Stendhal championed the Romantic aesthetic by unfavorably comparing the rules and strictures of Jean Racine's classicism to the freer verse and settings of Shakespeare, and supporting the writing of plays in prose. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "in his novel The Red and the Black, Stendhal refers to a novel as a mirror being carried in a basket. The metaphor of the realistic novel as a mirror of contemporary reality, accessible to the narrator, has certain limitations, which the artist is aware of. A valuable realistic work exceeds the Platonic meaning of art as a copy of reality. A mirror does not reflect reality in its entirety, nor is the artist’s aim to document it fully. In The Red and the Black, the writer emphasizes the significance of selection when it comes to describing reality, with a view to realizing the cognitive function of a work of art, achieved through the categories of unity, coherence and typicality". Today, Stendhal's works attract attention for their irony and psychological and historical dimensions. Stendhal was an avid fan of music, particularly the works of the composers Domenico Cimarosa, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Gioacchino Rossini. He wrote a biography of Rossini, Vie de Rossini (1824), now more valued for its wide-ranging musical criticism than for its historical content. In his works, Stendhal reprised excerpts appropriated from Giuseppe Carpani, Theophile Frederic Winckler, Sismondi and others. Novels Armance (1827) Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) Lucien Leuwen (1835, unfinished, published 1894) The Pink and the Green (1837, unfinished) La Chartreuse de Parme (1839) (The Charterhouse of Parma) Lamiel (1839-1842, unfinished, published 1889) Novellas Mina de Vanghel (1830, later published in the Paris periodical La Revue des Deux Mondes) Vanina Vanini (1829) Italian Chroniques, 1837-1839 Vittoria Accoramboni The Cenci (Les Cenci, 1837) The Duchess of Palliano (La Duchesse de Palliano) The Abbess of Castro (L'Abbesse de Castro, 1832) Biography A Life of Napoleon (1817-1818, published 1929) A Life of Rossini (1824) Autobiography Stendhal's brief memoir, Souvenirs d'egotisme (Memoirs of an Egotist) was published posthumously in 1892. Also published was a more extended autobiographical work, thinly disguised as the Life of Henry Brulard. The Life of Henry Brulard (1835-1836, published 1890) Souvenirs d'egotisme (Memoirs of an Egotist, written in 1832 and published in 1892) Journal (1801-1817) (The Private Diaries of Stendhal) Non-fiction Rome, Naples et Florence (1817) De L'Amour (1822) (On Love ) Racine et Shakespeare (1823-1835) (Racine and Shakespeare) His other works include short stories, journalism, travel books (A Roman Journal), a famous collection of essays on Italian painting, and biographies of several prominent figures of his time, including Napoleon, Haydn, Mozart, Rossini and Metastasio. Crystallization Main article: Crystallization (love) In Stendhal's 1822 classic On Love he describes or compares the "birth of love", in which the love object is 'crystallized' in the mind, as being a process similar or analogous to a trip to Rome. In the analogy, the city of Bologna represents indifference and Rome represents perfect love: When we are in Bologna, we are entirely indifferent; we are not concerned to admire in any particular way the person with whom we shall perhaps one day be madly in love; even less is our imagination inclined to overrate their worth. In a word, in Bologna "crystallization" has not yet begun. When the journey begins, love departs. One leaves Bologna, climbs the Apennines, and takes the road to Rome. The departure, according to Stendhal, has nothing to do with one's will; it is an instinctive moment. This transformative process actuates in terms of four steps along a journey: Admiration - one marvels at the qualities of the loved one. Acknowledgement - one acknowledges the pleasantness of having gained the loved one's interest. Hope - one envisions gaining the love of the loved one. Delight - one delights in overrating the beauty and merit of the person whose love one hopes to win. This journey or crystallization process (shown above) was detailed by Stendhal on the back of a playing card while speaking to Madame Gherardi, during his trip to the Salzburg salt mine. Critical appraisal Hippolyte Taine considered the psychological portraits of Stendhal's characters to be "real, because they are complex, many-sided, particular and original, like living human beings." emile Zola concurred with Taine's assessment of Stendhal's skills as a "psychologist", and although emphatic in his praise of Stendhal's psychological accuracy and rejection of convention, he deplored the various implausibilities of the novels and Stendhal's clear authorial intervention. The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche refers to Stendhal as "France's last great psychologist" in Beyond Good and Evil (1886). He also mentions Stendhal in the Twilight of the Idols (1889) during a discussion of Dostoevsky as a psychologist, saying that encountering Dostoevsky was "the most beautiful accident of my life, more so than even my discovery of Stendhal". Ford Madox Ford, in The English Novel, asserts that to Diderot and Stendhal "the Novel owes its next great step forward...At that point it became suddenly evident that the Novel as such was capable of being regarded as a means of profoundly serious and many-sided discussion and therefore as a medium of profoundly serious investigation into the human case." Erich Auerbach considers modern "serious realism" to have begun with Stendhal and Balzac. In Mimesis, he remarks of a scene in The Red and the Black that "it would be almost incomprehensible without a most accurate and detailed knowledge of the political situation, the social stratification, and the economic circumstances of a perfectly definite historical moment, namely, that in which France found itself just before the July Revolution." In Auerbach's view, in Stendhal's novels "characters, attitudes, and relationships of the dramatis person?, then, are very closely connected with contemporary historical circumstances; contemporary political and social conditions are woven into the action in a manner more detailed and more real than had been exhibited in any earlier novel, and indeed in any works of literary art except those expressly purporting to be politico-satirical tracts." Simone de Beauvoir uses Stendhal as an example of a feminist author. In The Second Sex de Beauvoir writes “Stendhal never describes his heroines as a function of his heroes: he provides them with their own destinies.” She furthermore points out that it “is remarkable that Stendhal is both so profoundly romantic and so decidedly feminist; feminists are usually rational minds that adopt a universal point of view in all things; but it is not only in the name of freedom in general but also in the name of individual happiness that Stendhal calls for women’s emancipation.” Yet, Beauvoir criticises Stendhal for, although wanting a woman to be his equal, her only destiny he envisions for her remains a man. Even Stendhal's autobiographical works, such as The Life of Henry Brulard or Memoirs of an Egotist, are "far more closely, essentially, and concretely connected with the politics, sociology, and economics of the period than are, for example, the corresponding works of Rousseau or Goethe; one feels that the great events of contemporary history affected Stendhal much more directly than they did the other two; Rousseau did not live to see them, and Goethe had managed to keep aloof from them." Auerbach goes on to say: We may ask ourselves how it came about that modern consciousness of reality began to find literary form for the first time precisely in Henri Beyle of Grenoble. Beyle-Stendhal was a man of keen intelligence, quick and alive, mentally independent and courageous, but not quite a great figure. His ideas are often forceful and inspired, but they are erratic, arbitrarily advanced, and, despite all their show of boldness, lacking in inward certainty and continuity. There is something unsettled about his whole nature: his fluctuation between realistic candor in general and silly mystification in particulars, between cold self-control, rapturous abandonment to sensual pleasures, and insecure and sometimes sentimental vaingloriousness, is not always easy to put up with; his literary style is very impressive and unmistakably original, but it is short-winded, not uniformly successful, and only seldom wholly takes possession of and fixes the subject. But, such as he was, he offered himself to the moment; circumstances seized him, tossed him about, and laid upon him a unique and unexpected destiny; they formed him so that he was compelled to come to terms with reality in a way which no one had done before him. Vladimir Nabokov was dismissive of Stendhal, in Strong Opinions calling him "that pet of all those who like their French plain". In the notes to his translation of Eugene Onegin, he asserts that Le Rouge et le Noir is "much overrated", and that Stendhal has a "paltry style". In Pnin Nabokov wrote satirically, "Literary departments still labored under the impression that Stendhal, Galsworthy, Dreiser, and Mann were great writers." Michael Dirda considers Stendhal "the greatest all round French writer - author of two of the top 20 French novels, author of a highly original autobiography (Vie de Henry Brulard), a superb travel writer, and as inimitable a presence on the page as any writer you'll ever meet." Stendhal syndrome Main article: Stendhal syndrome In 1817 Stendhal was reportedly overcome by the cultural richness of Florence he encountered when he first visited the Tuscan city. As he described in his book Naples and Florence: A Journey from Milan to Reggio: As I emerged from the porch of Santa Croce, I was seized with a fierce palpitation of the heart (that same symptom which, in Berlin, is referred to as an attack of the nerves); the well-spring of life was dried up within me, and I walked in constant fear of falling to the ground. The condition was diagnosed and named in 1979 by Italian psychiatrist Dr. Graziella Magherini, who had noticed similar psychosomatic conditions (racing heart beat, nausea and dizziness) amongst first-time visitors to the city. In homage to Stendhal, Trenitalia named their overnight train service from Paris to Venice the Stendhal Express. Name: Benjumeda Biography: Torcuato Benjumeda ( 4 January 1757 - 15 April 1836) Position: artillery officer, architect Allegiance: Spain Branch/service: Spain Army Rank: captain During the Siege of Cádiz, Benjumeda was a second lieutenant in the artillery battalion (26 September 1809), promoted to lieutenant in 1821 and to captain on 23 December 1829. Torcuato Jose Benjumeda y Laguada (1757, El Puerto de Santa María - 1836, Cádiz) was a Spanish architect. A disciple of Torcuato Cayón, he was one of the most important Neoclassical architects in Andalusia, designing several of the most prominent buildings in Cádiz. These include the Royal Prison, the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul and the Ayuntamiento (town hall). Biography Torcuato Jose Benjumeda y Laguada was born in El Puerto de Santa María on 4 January 1757. The son of Miguel Benjumeda and María Laguada (married in the Priory Church, El Puerto de Santa María in 1756). His father was born in Málaga, son of Francisco Benjumea and Ana Francisca de Gálves, and his mother was a native of San Pedayna in Genoa, daughter of Cayetano Laguada and Rosa Bertorela. Baptized on 9 January in the Priory Church, Benjumeda's godfather was the architect Torcuato Cayón. He married Candida Martinez de Pinillos in the church of Iglesia de San Juan Bautista (Chiclana de la Frontera) on 15 August 1789. The couple had five children. The family moved to Cádiz where they lived at 198 Plazuela de la Cruz Verde. Benjumeda was commissioned to design the Cádiz Town Hall. He died in Cadiz on 15 April 1836. Career In 1781, at the age of 24, Benjumeda replaced Torcuato Cayón as Maestro mayor de obras (master of works). In 1789 he was appointed Teniente de Arquitectura de la academia de las Nobles Artes de Cádiz (assuming responsibility for architecture at the Cádiz academy). His studio was at 169 calle Murguía (today Cánovas del Castillo). During the Siege of Cádiz, he was a second lieutenant in the artillery battalion (26 September 1809), promoted to lieutenant in 1821 and to captain on 23 December 1829. In 1973, he became an academico de merito de San Fernando (honorable academic of San Fernando), president of the Academy of Cádiz and the city's principal architect during the heights of its economic and political splendor. In Cádiz he designed the Puerta de Tuerra, Iglesia del Rosario, Iglesia de San Jose and Iglesia de San Pablo. He completed the Oratorio de la Santa Cueva, initiated by Torcuato Cayón in 1781. Benjumeda also designed the facade of the town hall, the cemetery, and several private houses. The work best reflecting his Neoclassical style is, however, the Royal Prison (1794). Outside of Cádiz, he built the Iglesia de San Juan Bautista in Chiclana de la Frontera, and the Iglesia de San Jose in Puerto Real. He participated in the design of the Casa consistorial de San Fernando and designed the Market and the Pier of Puerto Real. He also created the Neoclassical altar in the Priory Church at El Puerto de Santa María. A black spot occurred in the life of Benjumeda in connection with the Plaza de Toros of Cadiz in 1820. As city architect, he was relieved of his post and salary until he was rehabilitated in 1824. In 1833, he requested permission from the City Council for a leave of absence on health grounds, as he recovered from a nervous breakdown. His substitute was his son Francisco de Paula, who had been appointed assistant on 30 March 1829. Torcuato Benjumeda died on 15 April 1836, in considerable debt despite his achievements. He was given a second class funeral and buried in Puertas de Tierra outside the city limits of Cádiz. Name: Jean Valjean Biography: Jean Valjean Character source: "Les Miserables" Name: 24601, JeanleCric, MonsieurMadeleine, MonsieurLeMaire, 9430, UltimeFauchelevent, MonsieurLeblanc, UrbainFabre Position: Prisoner, Mayor of Montreuil Nationality: French Sex: Male Year of birth: 1769 Year of death: 1833 Current era: Atlantic Revolution Era Memorabilia: The French Revolution, June Rebellion Jean Valjean is the protagonist of Les Miserables. Les Miserables (/le? ?m?z??rɑ?b?l, -bl?/, French: ) is a French historical novel by Victor Hugo, first published in 1862, that is considered one of the greatest novels of the 19th century. In the English-speaking world, the novel is usually referred to by its original French title. However, several alternatives have been used, including The Miserables, The Wretched, The Miserable Ones, The Poor Ones, The Wretched Poor, The Victims and The Dispossessed. Beginning in 1815 and culminating in the 1832 June Rebellion in Paris, the novel follows the lives and interactions of several characters, particularly the struggles of ex-convict Jean Valjean and his experience of redemption. Examining the nature of law and grace, the novel elaborates upon the history of France, the architecture and urban design of Paris, politics, moral philosophy, antimonarchism, justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love. Les Miserables has been popularized through numerous adaptations for film, television and the stage, including a musical. Novel form Upton Sinclair described the novel as "one of the half-dozen greatest novels of the world", and remarked that Hugo set forth the purpose of Les Miserables in the Preface: So long as there shall exist, by reason of law and custom, a social condemnation, which, in the face of civilization, artificially creates hells on earth, and complicates a destiny that is divine with human fatality; so long as the three problems of the age—the degradation of man by poverty, the ruin of women by starvation, and the dwarfing of childhood by physical and spiritual night—are not solved; so long as, in certain regions, social asphyxia shall be possible; in other words, and from a yet more extended point of view, so long as ignorance and misery remain on earth, books like this cannot be useless. Towards the end of the novel, Hugo explains the work's overarching structure: The book which the reader has before him at this moment is, from one end to the other, in its entirety and details ... a progress from evil to good, from injustice to justice, from falsehood to truth, from night to day, from appetite to conscience, from corruption to life; from bestiality to duty, from hell to heaven, from nothingness to God. The starting point: matter, destination: the soul. The hydra at the beginning, the angel at the end. The novel contains various subplots, but the main thread is the story of ex-convict Jean Valjean, who becomes a force for good in the world but cannot escape his criminal past. The novel is divided into five volumes, each volume divided into several books, and subdivided into chapters, for a total of 48 books and 365 chapters. Each chapter is relatively short, commonly no longer than a few pages. The novel as a whole is one of the longest ever written, with 655,478 words in the original French. Hugo explained his ambitions for the novel to his Italian publisher: I don't know whether it will be read by everyone, but it is meant for everyone. It addresses England as well as Spain, Italy as well as France, Germany as well as Ireland, the republics that harbour slaves as well as empires that have serfs. Social problems go beyond frontiers. Humankind's wounds, those huge sores that litter the world, do not stop at the blue and red lines drawn on maps. Wherever men go in ignorance or despair, wherever women sell themselves for bread, wherever children lack a book to learn from or a warm hearth, Les Miserables knocks at the door and says: "open up, I am here for you". Digressions More than a quarter of the novel—by one count 955 of 2,783 pages—is devoted to essays that argue a moral point or display Hugo's encyclopedic knowledge but do not advance the plot, nor even a subplot, a method Hugo used in such other works as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Toilers of the Sea. One biographer noted that "the digressions of genius are easily pardoned". The topics Hugo addresses include cloistered religious orders, the construction of the Paris sewers, argot, and the street urchins of Paris. The one about convents he titles "Parenthesis" to alert the reader to its irrelevance to the story line. Hugo devotes another 19 chapters (Volume II, Book I) to an account of—and a meditation on the place in history of—the Battle of Waterloo, the battlefield which Hugo visited in 1861 and where he finished writing the novel. It opens volume 2 with such a change of subject as to seem the beginning of an entirely different work. The fact that this 'digression' occupies such a large part of the text demands that it be read in the context of the 'overarching structure' discussed above. Hugo draws his own personal conclusions, taking Waterloo to be a pivot-point in history, but definitely not a victory for the forces of reaction. Waterloo, by cutting short the demolition of European thrones by the sword, had no other effect than to cause the revolutionary work to be continued in another direction. The slashers have finished; it was the turn of the thinkers. The century that Waterloo was intended to arrest has pursued its march. That sinister victory was vanquished by liberty. One critic has called this "the spiritual gateway" to the novel, as its chance encounter of Thenardier and Colonel Pontmercy foreshadows so many of the novel's encounters "blending chance and necessity", a "confrontation of heroism and villainy". Even when not turning to other subjects outside his narrative, Hugo sometimes interrupts the straightforward recitation of events, his voice and control of the story line unconstrained by time and sequence. The novel opens with a statement about the bishop of Digne in 1815 and immediately shifts: "Although these details in no way essentially concern that which we have to tell..." Only after 14 chapters does Hugo pick up the opening thread again, "In the early days of the month of October, 1815...", to introduce Jean Valjean. Novel Valjean was born into a poor peasant family. His parents died when he was very young, leaving him with his older sister to fend for him. Unfortunately, his sister was widowed, having seven children to look after, the eldest being eight and the youngest being one year old. Valjean went into his father's line of work, getting a job in Faverolles as a tree pruner. While the job only paid the paltry sum of 18 sous a day, Valjean used his meager profits to do what he could for his family. However, when winter came there was no further need for tree pruners. As a result, Valjean was laid off and his family starved. In desperation, he broke the window of a baker named Maubert Isabeau in order to steal bread to feed his sister's children. He was sent to prison for five years for "burglary at night in an inhabited house". While Valjean only said he was given a wooden bed to sleep on when later describing his time in prison, in actuality he had to face much worse conditions as many of his fellow prisoners were dangerous felons and hardened career criminals, and diseases spread rapidly. Prison and Parole He entered the galleys in Toulon in 1796 and left in 1815. During his time there, he was known as Prisoner 24601. Upon Valjean's release, he is issued a passport jaune, or "yellow passport", which he is required to show for identification or present to the police lieutenant of any village he passes through. Valjean's yellow passport states he has been released from prison and a list of his convicted crimes, which is an effective mark of banishment. When Valjean attempts to book a room at an inn, he shows his yellow passport to identify himself, causing the owner and his wife to deny him service on account that they are law-abiding subjects of the Crown and God-fearing people who will not have anything to do with crooks. A woman sees him trying to find a shelter, and tells him to go to the church, where he encounters bishop Myriel of Digne who turns his life around by showing him mercy and encouraging him to become a changed man. While sitting and pondering on what bishop Myriel had said, he accidentally puts his foot on a forty-sous piece dropped by a young chimney-sweep named Petit Gervais. Valjean threatens him with his stick when he attempts to rouse Valjean from his reverie and retrieve his piece. He tells a passing priest his name, and the name of the young chimney-sweep, and this allows the police to charge him with armed robbery, a sentence that, if he were caught again, would return him to prison with a death-sentence. However, the priest claims there was a mistake, claiming he gave forty sous to Valjean and gives Petit Gervais an identical forty sou coin. Satisfied that there was no robbery, the police drop the accusation, causing Valjean to seriously consider the bishop's recommendation. Montreuil-sur-Mer and Monsieur le Maire The book opens on Montreuil-sur-Mer, where a laborer by the name of Madeleine has set up several jet factories. His products are cheaper, since he has found a way to make them more simply and faster, and in no time he becomes a millionaire--or rather he should be a millionaire, but he spends most of his fortune helping Montreuil: setting up two schools, whose teachers he pays out of his own pocket; endowing beds at the hospital; and so on. This gets him a lot of attention, and the king appoints him mayor twice and nominates him as a Chevalier (Knight) of the Legion of Honor. He turns down both the first appointment and the nomination, though he accepts and becomes mayor the second time. In 1817, Fantine comes and is employed at his women's factory, only to be dismissed some time later when word reaches the foreman that she has a child out of wedlock. Being unaware of this, Madeleine is unable to do anything about it. Fantine enters a decline, which she blames on Madeleine, and finally comes to his attention in 1823, when she assaults a citizen named Bamatabois and is arrested by Inspector Javert. He releases her--to Javert's chagrin--and puts her up at the hospital. The nuns tell him--but not her--that she's dying, so he begins working on bringing her daughter Cosette to Montreuil. To his surprise, Javert demands to be dismissed disgracefully--for denouncing him as Jean Valjean. He orders Javert to remain at his post, but learns where and when the trial is to be held. Madeleine--who in fact is truly Valjean, like Javert suspected--promptly has a crisis: should he remain to help the needy of Montreuil, thereby allowing an innocent man to die in his place, or should he save the old man by confessing his true identity, thereby condemning the town that is mostly dependent on him? In the end he decides to go to Champmathieu's trial in Arras, and confesses to being the convict Jean Valjean. No one believes him at first, especially since Javert is not around (being back in Montreuil), so he's able to walk out of the courthouse freely and with the determination to fulfill Fantine's last wish. However, he's barely arrived by Fantine's bedside when Javert wrathfully confronts him. She wakes up during their argument and is carelessly informed by Javert that her benefactor is none other than a convict and her daughter isn't here like he promised--she dies, a combination of shock and her illness (which isn't named but is strongly implied to be tuberculosis). Javert arrests Valjean and throws him in jail. Valjean escapes a day later. He retrieves the candlesticks from his house and his savings from Lafitte's bank in Paris, then buries them near Chelles on the road to Montfermeil. Returning to Paris, he's arrested again just as he's boarding the coach to Montfermeil. This time he's sentenced to death, since he's also falsely believed to be part of a band of highwaymen, but at the last minute an intervention from the king sentences him to hard labor for life instead. He returns to Toulon about eight years after he was paroled, this time as prisoner 9430. While aboard the boat Orion, he asks to be freed so he can help a man whose life is in danger. In the process of returning from doing so, he slips and falls into the ocean. Everyone takes him for dead, but they never find a body for the very good reason that the body is still alive--he swam to safety. Then he makes his way to Montfermeil once more. Cosette Valjean saves Cosette from the Thenardiers and brings her to Paris, where they're almost captured by Javert and his men on the Petit Rue Picpus. He and Cosette escape into a convent and are offered shelter there by Fauchelevent, an old man whose life Valjean had saved while he was mayor, and who got his current job by the recommendation of Madeleine/Valjean. Fauchelevent smuggles Valjean out so that he can officially come in, aided by a lucky coincidence caused by a nun's funeral, then secures a place for Valjean, posing as his dead brother Ultime, as the convent's second gardener. Personality Valjean is clever enough to evade Javert repeatedly; he possesses (and likely made) a case for a small saw out of a coin, which he has the sense to carry when he goes to meet Thenardier alone. He has a strong sense of duty and responsibility. As a young man he was keenly aware of his role as the provider of his family and never complained when some of his food was given instead to the children. During winter he couldn't find work, which made him desperate enough to break the law. As an employer he has a clear idea of what he owes to his employees, and more than makes up for his failings in the case of Fantine, once he finds out about them. As a mayor he takes it upon himself to have an intimate knowledge of the law--he cites specific parts to Javert to justify the release of Fantine. One of the reasons he resists arrest so long is because he feels a responsibility for Cosette, who has no other guardian or protector, and whose mother he still feels a need to compensate. His perception is highly intuitive, somewhat added to by his readings and his philosophical musings, and rarely wrong. He sees past the Thenardiers' attempts to keep Cosette (or at least exchange her for a lot of money); he knows how best to frighten the Patron-Minette gang when he is their prisoner; he recognizes Cosette's distraction as something more than what she tells him it is, though he doesn't deal with it well. Due to his love and responsibility for Cosette and the fact that he's technically on the run from the law, Valjean developed paranoia regarding any type of law enforcement around him--rather well-deserved, since Javert's among them--which makes him skittish in company and something of a recluse. This in turn makes him somewhat socially awkward, though most people tend to overlook this because of his kindness and generosity. Skills and Abilities Valjean's strength, stamina, and agility are repeatedly remarked upon throughout the story. As a young pruner or menial laborer, his strength was already well-marked by the time he was convicted, which saw him given tasks that enhanced that strength far beyond that of a normal inmate. This earned him a reputation for it, and the nickname Jean le Cric ('Jean the Jack', as in the thing you use to lift a car to change the tires). He could lift a heavily loaded cart by himself, though with considerable effort; he could climb a wall without any equipment; he could stay in the sea at sunset long enough to be presumed dead; and he could carry a young man singlehandedly for likely miles, when he was already exhausted on top of being old (by the June Rebellion, he would've been 62 or 63 years old, depending on his birthday). Valjean is at least a competent marksman; he accurately shot a mattress's fastenings so the rebels could use it to block the cannons at the barricade, when none of the others would for fear of missing and hitting the resident of the house. Musical Songs Act I "Prologue" "At The End Of The Day" "Javert's Introduction" (2012 film only) "Fantine's Arrest" "The Runaway Cart" "Javert's Apology" (2012 film only) "Who Am I?" "Come to Me (Fantine's Death)" "The Confrontation" "The Well Scene" "The Bargain/The Thenardier Waltz of Treachery" "Suddenly" (2012 film only) "The Convent" (2012 film only) "The Robbery/Javert's Intervention" "In My Life" "The Attack on Rue Plumet" "One Day More" Act II "Building the Barricade (Upon These Stones)" "Night of Anguish" "The First Attack" "Bring Him Home" "The Second Attack (Death of Gavroche)" "Dog Eats Dog (The Sewers)" "Every Day" "Valjean's Confession" ah bah daccordddddddd "Suddenly (reprise)" (silent (2012 film only)) "Valjean's Death" "Finale" External Links Jean Valjean's Wikipedia page Jean Valjean's IMDb page Les Miserables unabridged novel Trivia In both the French and English musical versions, Valjean's initial prisoner number is 24601, true to the novel. However, in the Spanish version of the musical it is 23623 and in the Swedish version it is 25601. Jean Valjean and his sister Jeanne have the same first names as their parents; their surname is their father's and is probably a sobriquet (coming from the phrase 'Voila Jean!'). Their mother's maiden name was Mathieu, which is one of the reasons no one believes that Champmathieu is telling the truth when he says he is not Jean Valjean. Valjean's mother died of the milk fever and his father died falling from a tree. He was illiterate before he went to prison. His crime was in 1795, but the start of his prison sentence was in 1796. He was paroled in 1815. In the book, Jean Valjean tells Bishop Myriel that he is 46 years old. Since the year was 1815 and he was in prison for 19 years, he was 26 when he stole the loaf of bread and 27 when he began his sentence in Toulon. During his time in Montreuil, Jean Valjean's hair is gray. However, between leaving for Arras and speaking up at the trial, it turns white. (To be more specific, he spends an hour at the courthouse listening to the trial; when he arrived, his hair was gray, but by the time he speaks up to turn the proceedings it has turned white.) Matthew 9:43 reads: "If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life maimed than with two hands to go into hell, where the fire never goes out." Coincidentally, Valjean's second prisoner number is 9430. Valjean taught Cosette how to read and spell. Valjean spent 23 francs at Thenardier's Inn Jean Valjean (French: ) is the protagonist of Victor Hugo's 1862 novel Les Miserables. The story depicts the character's 19-year-long struggle to lead a normal life after serving a prison sentence for stealing bread to feed his sister's children during a time of economic depression and various attempts to escape from prison. Valjean is also known in the novel as Monsieur Madeleine, Ultime Fauchelevent, Monsieur Leblanc, and Urbain Fabre. Valjean and police Inspector Javert, who repeatedly encounters Valjean and attempts to return him to prison, have become archetypes in literary culture. In the popular imagination, the character of Jean Valjean came to represent Hugo himself. Outline of the novel As a parolee, Valjean is issued a yellow passport with marching orders to Pontarlier, where he will be forced to live under severe restrictions. This document, often called a "passeport jaune" (yellow passport), identifies him to all as a former convict and immediately brands Valjean an outcast wherever he travels. His life turns around when Bishop Myriel of Digne, from whom he steals valuable silverware, tells the police that he has given the treasure to Valjean. Out of this encounter, Valjean becomes a repentant, honorable, and dignified man. He becomes kind, a devoted father-figure to a girl, Cosette, who loses her mother, and a benefactor to those in need. Although a known criminal and a parolee, Valjean yet grows morally to represent the best traits of humanity. Despite being classified as a criminal outcast, Valjean maintains the highest of human virtues and ethics. His antithesis, Javert, a dedicated and capable police officer, occupies a place of honour in society. The relationship of Javert and Valjean develops as a binary opposition between law and love. Javert sees Valjean only as the convict he once was, rather than the benefactor of humanity he has become. Javert's struggle against this dichotomy leads to his eventual suicide. Part One: Fantine Part Two: Cosette Part Three: Marius Part Four: Saint-Denis Part Five: Valjean Valjean plays his part in the insurrection and proves an excellent shot. To thank him, Enjolras, the barricade's leader, offers him anything he wants. Valjean asks that he be allowed to kill Javert, who has been captured as a spy. The request is granted and Valjean takes Javert out of sight to kill him but instead of executing him, sets him free, though Javert warns that he will still be bound to arrest Valjean. Valjean agrees and gives Javert his address. After Valjean releases Javert, the fighters on the barricades are all killed with the exception of Marius, whom Valjean carries to safety through miles of Parisian sewers. Valjean finds the sewer exit to the Grand-Caillou locked. Thenardier is there and has the key. He offers Valjean the key in return for payment, believing that Valjean had killed Marius for his money. Valjean gives the few sous he has to Thenardier and unlocks the sewer gate and encounters Javert, now returned to duty and in pursuit of Thenardier. Valjean requests that Javert help him carry Marius to safety and Javert summons his carriage. Valjean asks permission to return home to say goodbye to Cosette and Javert agrees, saying that he will wait out front. As he walks up the stairs, Valjean looks out the window and notices that Javert is gone. Javert confronts his life spent in pursuit of a criminal who has demonstrated a sense of justice outside of the one that Javert has upheld his entire life. Unable to accept this, he commits suicide. After recovering from his injuries, Marius receives permission from his grandfather to marry Cosette and they wed. The day after the wedding, Valjean reveals to Marius that he is an ex-convict. Marius, horrified, assumes the worst about Valjean's character and begins pushing him out of Cosette's life. After this, Valjean's previously habitual visits to Cosette at Marius' grandfather's house become shorter and shorter, until he ceases to visit at all, having become bedridden with loss of will to live. Some time after he stops coming, Thenardier visits Marius and claims that Valjean is a murderer and shows Marius several newspaper articles to prove this. Marius sees through Thenardier's disguise and, in an attempt to show Marius something that he does not already know, Thenardier shows newspaper clippings proving that M. Madeleine and Jean Valjean are the same person, and that Javert committed suicide. Marius is then told that Valjean was the man who had "assassinated" one of Marius' relatives, carrying the body through the sewers on 6 June. Realizing that Thenardier had seen Valjean saving him, Marius finishes with Thenardier and hurries with Cosette to Valjean's flat. Unfortunately, they are too late and find Valjean is dying. Valjean makes peace with Marius, with whom he had uneasy relations, and tells Cosette the name of her mother, Fantine. He dies content, under the light of the Bishop's candlesticks, and it is stated that an angel awaits to carry his soul to Heaven. He is buried in an unmarked grave, per his request, after death. An unknown person writes in pencil these four lines on the gravestone: Il dort. Quoique le sort f?t pour lui bien etrange, Il vivait. Il mourut quand il n'eut plus son ange; La chose simplement d'elle-même arriva, Comme la nuit se fait lorsque le jour s'en va. Translation: He sleeps. Although his fate was very strange, He lived. He died when he no longer had his angel. The thing came to pass simply, of itself, As the night comes when day is gone. Hugo's sources Valjean's character is loosely based on the life of Eugène Fran?ois Vidocq, an ex-convict who became a successful businessman widely noted for his social engagement and philanthropy. Vidocq helped Hugo with his research for Claude Gueux and Le Dernier jour d'un condamne (The Last Day of a Condemned Man). In 1828, Vidocq saved one of the workers in his paper factory by lifting a heavy cart on his shoulders as Valjean does. Hugo's description of Valjean rescuing a sailor on the Orion drew almost word for word on a friend's letter describing such an incident. On 22 February 1846, when he had begun work on the novel, Hugo witnessed the arrest of a bread thief while a Duchess and her child watched the scene pitilessly from their coach. The revolt of the university students is based on the 1832 June Rebellion. In 1871, when Hugo was living in Brussels during the radical revolt known as the Paris Commune, anti-revolutionary mobs attacked his house and broke windows shouting "Down with Jean Valjean!" In the musical See also: Songs from Les Miserables Differences in the musical See also: Synopsis of the musical Javert frequently refers to Jean Valjean as "Prisoner 24601", which is never done in the book. The number appears only twice in the novel, and is never spoken by Javert. Valjean's assumed name, Monsieur Madeleine, is used in the original French language concept album, but not in the later English version of the musical, where he is only called Monsieur le maire (Mr. Mayor). In the 2012 film adaptation of the musical, the factory foreman breaks up the fight between Fantine and the factory workers, announcing "Monsieur Madeleine's here!". The assumed name can also be seen on the door of his office. In the novel, Valjean is arrested for the second time after confessing to be a parole-breaker in court. Javert later chases him for escaping prison. In the musical, Valjean neither gets arrested again nor escapes from prison. Valjean and Cosette do not live in Gorbeau House and take refuge from Javert in a convent in the musical version, but the 2012 movie depicts Valjean inadvertently entering the convent with Cosette while escaping Javert, where he then encounters Fauchelevent. The Gorbeau House episode with the Thenardiers is also omitted in the musical and film adaptation. Instead, Thenardier lures Valjean into a trap on the streets with his gang and later attempts to rob him in his house, which is located on Rue Plumet. In Act 2, The First Attack, Valjean shoots a sniper who is attempting to kill Enjolras. It is unclear in the musical (due to the sniper being off stage) whether Valjean actually shoots the sniper or if he shoots the sniper's helmet to prevent him from killing Enjolras. In the novel, he shoots only at soldiers' helmets while at the barricade and purposely does not kill anyone. Valjean reveals his past to Marius before Marius and Cosette's wedding, and he also does not attend it. In the book, he does attend the wedding and confesses to Marius afterwards. Adaptations Main article: Adaptations of Les Miserables Since the original publication of Les Miserables in 1862, the character of Jean Valjean has been in a large number of adaptations in numerous types of media based on the novel, such as books, films, musicals, plays and games. Hugh Jackman played Valjean in the 2012 musical adaptation and was nominated for an Academy Award and won a Golden Globe for his performance. In Persona 5 Strikers, Valjean appears as the Persona of the playable character Zenkichi Hasegawa, given the new Arcana of the Apostle Arcana. Name: Stein Biography: Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein (25 October 1757 - 29 June 1831) Position: Politician; Minister Allegiance: Holy Roman Empire，Russian Empire，Prussia Heinrich Friedrich Karl Reichsfreiherr vom und zum Stein (25 October 1757 - 29 June 1831), commonly known as Baron vom Stein, was a Prussian statesman who introduced the Prussian reforms, which paved the way for the unification of Germany. He promoted the abolition of serfdom, with indemnification to territorial lords; subjection of the nobles to manorial imposts; and the establishment of a modern municipal system. Stein was from an old Franconian family. He was born on the family estate near Nassau, studied at G?ttingen, and entered the civil service. Prussian conservatism hampered him in his efforts to bring about changes. In 1807, he was removed from office by the King for refusing to accept the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs but was recalled after the Peace of Tilsit. After it became known that he had written a letter in which he criticised Napoleon, Stein was obliged to resign, which he did on 24 November 1808 and retired to the Austrian Empire, from which he was summoned to the Russian Empire by Tsar Alexander I in 1812. After the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, Stein became head of the council for the administration of the reconquered German countries. Early life Stein was the ninth child of Karl Philipp Freiherr vom Stein, and Henriette Karoline Langwerth von Simmern, the widow of von L?w. His father was a man of stern and irritable temperament, which his far more famous son inherited, with the addition of intellectual gifts, which the father entirely lacked. The family belonged to the order of imperial knights of the Holy Roman Empire, who occupied a middle position between sovereign princes and subjects of the empire. They owned their own domains and owed allegiance only to the emperor but had no votes for the Diet. In his old age, Stein would express his gratitude to his parents for the influence of their religious and truly German and knightly example. He added: My view of the world and of human affairs I gathered as a boy and youth, in the solitude of a country life, from ancient and modern history, and in particular I was attracted by the incidents of the eventful history of England. The influence of English ideas, so potent a factor in the lives of Voltaire, Rousseau, Talleyrand and many others in the 18th century, was therefore potently operative in the early career of Stein. He does not seem to have gone to any school except in 1773, when he went with a private tutor to the University of G?ttingen in Hanover. There, he studied jurisprudence and found time to pursue his studies in English history and politics. The latter, as he wrote, confirmed his predilection for that nation. Early career In 1777, he left G?ttingen and proceeded to Wetzlar, the legal centre of the Holy Roman Empire, to see the working of its institutions and thereby prepare himself for a career in law. Next, after a stay at each of the chief South German capitals, he settled at Regensburg to observe the methods of the Imperial Diet. In 1779 he went to Vienna. He proceeded to Berlin early in 1780. In Berlin, his admiration for Frederick the Great, together with his distaste for the pettiness of the legal procedure at Wetzlar, impelled him to take service under the Prussia monarch. He was fortunate in gaining an appointment in the department of mines and manufactures, as at the head of that office was an able and intelligent administrator, Friedrich Anton von Heynitz, who helped him to master the principles of economics and civil government. In June 1785, he was sent for a time as Prussian ambassador to the courts of Mainz, Zweibrücken and Darmstadt, but he soon felt a distaste for diplomacy, and in 1786 and 1787, he was able to indulge his taste for travel by a tour in England, where he pursued his researches into commercial and mining affairs. In November 1787, he became Kammerdirektor (director of the board of war and domains) for the king's possessions west of the river Weser, and in 1796, he was appointed supreme president of all the Westphalian chambers dealing with the commerce and mines of those Prussian lands. One of the chief benefits he conferred on these districts was the canalization of the river Ruhr, which became an important outlet for the coal of that region. He also improved the navigation of the Weser and kept the main roads committed to his care well. War with France Stein's early training, together with the sternly practical bent of his own nature, made him completely impervious to the enthusiasm that the French Revolution had aroused in many minds in Germany. He disliked its methods as an interruption to the orderly development of peoples. Nevertheless, he carefully noted the new sources of national strength its reforms called forth in France. Meanwhile, Prussia, after being at war with France in 1792 to 1795, came to terms with it at Basel in April 1795 and remained at peace until 1806 though Austria and South Germany continued the struggle with France for most of that interval. Prussia, however, lost, rather than gained strength, for Frederick William III, who succeeded the weak and sensual Frederick William II in November 1797, was lacking in foresight, judgment and strength of character. He too often allowed public affairs to be warped by the advice of secret and irresponsible counsellors and persisted in the policy of subservience to France inaugurated by the Peace of Basle. It was under those untoward circumstances that Stein in 1804 took office at Berlin, as minister of state for trade (indirect imposts, taxes, manufactures, and commerce). He introduced useful reforms in his department, particularly by abolishing various restrictions on the internal trade of the nation, but he was hampered in his endeavors by the spirit of Prussian conservatism. He soon felt constrained to protest against the effects of the Francophile policy of the chief minister, Christian Graf von Haugwitz, and the evil influences that clogged the administration. Little, however, came of Stein's protests, but they were urged with his usual incisiveness and energy. Prussian policy continued to progress on the path that led to the disaster at Jena (14 October 1806). The king then offered Stein the portfolio for foreign affairs, which the minister declined to accept on the ground of his incompetence to manage that department unless there was a complete change in the system of government. The real motive for his refusal was that he desired to see Karl August von Hardenberg take that office and effect, with his own help, the necessary administrative changes. The king refused to accept Hardenberg and, greatly irritated by Stein's unusually outspoken letters, dismissed him altogether, adding that he was "a refractory, insolent, obstinate and disobedient official". Stein now spent in retirement the months in which Napoleon completed the ruin of Prussia. Stein got to see Hardenberg called to office in April 1807 and important reforms effected in the cabinet system. During the negotiations at Tilsit, Napoleon refused to act with Hardenberg, who thereupon retired. Strangely, Napoleon, who had as yet no idea of Stein's deep and earnest patriotism, suggested Stein as a possible successor. No other strong man was at hand who could save the ship of state, and on 8 October 1807, Frederick William, utterly depressed by the terrible terms of the Treaty of Tilsit, called Stein to office and entrusted him with very wide powers. Stein was now for a time virtually dictator of the reduced and nearly-bankrupt Prussian state. The circumstances of the time and his own convictions, gained from study and experience, led him to press on drastic reforms in a way that could not otherwise have been followed. First came the Edict of Emancipation, issued at Memel on 9 October 1807, which abolished the institution of serfdom throughout Prussia from 8 October 1810. All distinctions affecting the tenure of land (noble land, peasants' land etc.) were also swept away, and the principle of free trade in land was established forthwith. The same famous edict also abrogated all class distinctions respecting occupations and callings of any and every kind, thus striking another blow at the caste system that had been so rigorous in Prussia. Stein's next step was to strengthen the cabinet by wise changes. Stein issued a measure for municipal reform (19 November 1808), which granted local self-government on enlightened yet practical lines to all Prussian towns and even to all villages possessing more than 800 inhabitants. While Stein's efforts were directed more towards civil affairs, he also furthered the progress of the military reforms, which are connected more especially with the name of Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst. They refashioned the Prussian army on modern lines, with a reserve system. Military service was made obligatory for all classes. Exile Shortly afterwards, the reformer had to flee from Prussia. In August 1808, the French agents, who swarmed throughout the land, had seized one of his letters, in which he spoke of his hope that Germany would soon be ready for a national rising like that of Spain. On 10 September, Napoleon gave orders that Stein's property in the new kingdom of Westphalia should be confiscated, and he likewise put pressure on Frederick William to dismiss him. The king evaded compliance, but the French emperor, on entering Madrid in triumph, declared (16 December) Stein to be an enemy of France and the Confederation of the Rhine and ordered the confiscation of all his property in the Confederation. Stein saw that his life was in danger and fled from Berlin (5 January 1809). Thanks to the help of his former colleague, Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Reden, who gave him an asylum in his castle in the Riesengebirge, he succeeded in crossing the frontier into Bohemia. For three years, Stein lived in the Austrian Empire, generally at Brno, but in May 1812, in danger of being surrendered by Austria to Napoleon, he received an invitation to visit Saint Petersburg from Emperor Alexander I of Russia, who saw that Austria was certain to be on the side of France in the forthcoming Franco-Russian War. At the crisis of that struggle, Stein may have been one of the influences that kept the tsar determined never to treat with Napoleon. When the miserable remains of the Grand Army reeled back into Prussia at the close of the year, Stein urged the Russian emperor to go on and free Europe from the French domination. Events now brought Stein rapidly to the front. On 30 December 1812, the Prussian general Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg signed the Convention of Tauroggen with the Russian general Hans Karl von Diebitsch for neutralization of the Prussian corps at and near Tilsit and for the free passage of the Russians through that part of the king's dominions. The Russian emperor requested Stein to act as provisional administrator of the provinces of East and West Prussia. In that capacity, he convened an assembly of representatives of the local estates, which on 5 February 1813, ordered the establishment of a militia (Landwehr), a militia reserve and a final levy (Landsturm). The energy that Stein infused into all around him contributed not a little to this important decision, which pushed on the king's government to more decided action than then seemed possible. Stein now went to Breslau, to where the King of Prussia had proceeded, but the annoyance that Frederick William felt at his irregular action lessened his influence. The 1813 Treaty of Kalisz between Russia and Prussia cannot be claimed as due to Stein's actions, which were reprehended in court circles as those of a fanatic. At that time, the great patriot fell ill of a fever and complained of total neglect by the king and court. He recovered, however, in time to take part in the drafting of a Russo-Prussian convention (19 March 1813) respecting the administration of the districts that should be delivered from French occupation. During the varying phases of the campaign of 1813 Stein continued to urge the need of war à outrance against Napoleon. The Allies, after the entry of England and Austria into the coalition, conferred on Stein the important duties of superintending the administration of the liberated territories. After the Battle of Leipzig (16-19 October 1813), Stein entered that city the day after its occupation by the Allies and thus expressed his feelings on the fall of Napoleon's domination: There it lies, then, the monstrous fabric cemented by the blood and tears of so many millions and reared by an insane and accursed tyranny. From one end of Germany to the other we may venture to say aloud that Napoleon is a villain and the enemy of the human race. Stein wanted to see Germany reconstituted as a nation but was frustrated by Austrian diplomat Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, who gained the alliance of the rulers of south and central Germany for his empire, on the understanding that they were to retain their old powers. Austria and the secondary German states resisted all unifying proposals, and Stein blamed the Prussian chancellor Hardenberg for vacillation. Stein shared in the desire of Prussian statesmen to absorb Saxony; in that too, he was doomed to disappointment. On 24 May 1815, he sent to his patron, the emperor Alexander, a detailed criticism of the federal arrangements proposed for Germany. He retired after the Congress of Vienna and disliked the postponement of the representative system of government that Frederick William had promised to Prussia in May 1815. Later life His chief interest was in the study of history, and from 1818 to 1820, he worked hard to establish the society for the encouragement of historical research and the publication of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, of which his future biographer, Georg Heinrich Pertz, became the director. Stein died at Schloss Cappenberg in Westphalia on 29 June 1831. His burial ground is in the city of Bad Ems near Koblenz. Research has shown that Stein's credit for originating many of the far-reaching reforms of 1807/8 must be shared with Theodor von Sch?n and many others. A popular legend named him as the founder of the Tugendbund, an institution that he always distrusted. Stein's enlightenment, insight into the needs of the time, and energy gave momentum to the reform movement. Marriage and issue On 8 June 1793 he married the Countess Wilhelmine Magdalene von Wallmoden (22 June 1772 - 15 September 1819), daughter of Johann Ludwig von Wallmoden-Gimborn, an illegitimate son of King George II of Great Britain. They had three daughters, including Henriette Luise (2 August 1796 - 11 October 1855). Name: Fourier Biography: Joseph Fourier(21 March 1768 - 16 May 1830) Nationality:French Alma mater:ecole Normale Superieure Known for:Fourier number,Fourier series,Fourier transform,Fourier's law of conduction, Fourier-Motzkin elimination,Greenhouse effect Fields:Mathematician, physicist, historian Fourier is an outstanding contemporary thermal scientist, who has done in-depth research on the conduction and effects of heat. During the years of the French Revolution, he actively participated in the revolution, joined the local revolutionary committee, and then joined Napoleon's army. He was a member of the team of scientists who accompanied Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (/?f?rie?, -i?r/; French: ; 21 March 1768 - 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series, which eventually developed into Fourier analysis and harmonic analysis, and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier transform and Fourier's law of conduction are also named in his honour. Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect. Biography Fourier was born at Auxerre (now in the Yonne departement of France), the son of a tailor. He was orphaned at the age of nine. Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre and, through this introduction, he was educated by the Benedictine Order of the Convent of St. Mark. The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics. He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution, serving on the local Revolutionary Committee. He was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but, in 1795, was appointed to the ecole Normale and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the ecole Polytechnique. Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, and was appointed secretary of the Institut d'egypte. Cut off from France by the British fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war. He also contributed several mathematical papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening British influence in the East. After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to France. In 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect (Governor) of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects. However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at ecole Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark ... the Prefect of the Department of Isère having recently died, I would like to express my confidence in citizen Fourier by appointing him to this place. Hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect. It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat. He presented his paper On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies to the Paris Institute on December 21, 1807. He also contributed to the monumental Description de l'egypte. In 1822, Fourier succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences. In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1830, his diminished health began to take its toll: Fourier had already experienced, in Egypt and Grenoble, some attacks of aneurism of the heart. At Paris, it was impossible to be mistaken with respect to the primary cause of the frequent suffocations which he experienced. A fall, however, which he sustained on the 4th of May 1830, while descending a flight of stairs, aggravated the malady to an extent beyond what could have been ever feared. Shortly after this event, he died in his bed on 16 May 1830. Fourier was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of Description de l'egypte. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. A bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II. Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble is named after him. The Analytic Theory of Heat In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in Theorie analytique de la chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat), in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures. This book was translated, with editorial 'corrections', into English 56 years later by Freeman (1878). The book was also edited, with many editorial corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in 1888. There were three important contributions in this work, one purely mathematical, two essentially physical. In mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series of sines of multiples of the variable. Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough. The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries. Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject. Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet was the first to give a satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions. This work provides the foundation for what is today known as the Fourier transform. One important physical contribution in the book was the concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i.e. an equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important contributions to dimensional analysis. The other physical contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential equation for conductive diffusion of heat. This equation is now taught to every student of mathematical physics. Real roots of polynomials Fourier left an unfinished work on determining and locating real roots of polynomials, which was edited by Claude-Louis Navier and published in 1831. This work contains much original matter—in particular, Fourier's theorem on polynomial real roots, published in 1820. Fran?ois Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had published independently his theorem (also known by the name of Fourier), which is very close to Fourier's theorem (each theorem is a corollary of the other). Fourier's proof is the one that was usually given, during 19th century, in textbooks on the theory of equations. A complete solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles Fran?ois Sturm. Discovery of the greenhouse effect In the 1820s, Fourier calculated that an object the size of the Earth, and at its distance from the Sun, should be considerably colder than the planet actually is if warmed by only the effects of incoming solar radiation. He examined various possible sources of the additional observed heat in articles published in 1824 and 1827. While he ultimately suggested that interstellar radiation might be responsible for a large portion of the additional warmth, Fourier's consideration of the possibility that the Earth's atmosphere might act as an insulator of some kind is widely recognized as the first proposal of what is now known as the greenhouse effect, although Fourier never called it that. In his articles, Fourier referred to an experiment by de Saussure, who lined a vase with blackened cork. Into the cork, he inserted several panes of transparent glass, separated by intervals of air. Midday sunlight was allowed to enter at the top of the vase through the glass panes. The temperature became more elevated in the more interior compartments of this device. Fourier concluded that gases in the atmosphere could form a stable barrier like the glass panes. This conclusion may have contributed to the later use of the metaphor of the "greenhouse effect" to refer to the processes that determine atmospheric temperatures. Fourier noted that the actual mechanisms that determine the temperatures of the atmosphere included convection, which was not present in de Saussure's experimental device. Name: Stephenson Biography: George Stephenson(9 June 1781 - 12 August 1848) Position: Inventor of the steam locomotive Nationality: English George Stephenson (9 June 1781 - 12 August 1848) was a British civil engineer and mechanical engineer. Renowned as the "Father of Railways", His steam engine-powered locomotive greatly promoted the industrial revolution and has indelible credit for speeding up transportation. Stephenson was considered by the Victorians a great example of diligent application and thirst for improvement. Self-help advocate Samuel Smiles particularly praised his achievements. His chosen rail gauge, sometimes called 'Stephenson gauge', was the basis for the 4 feet 8+1?2 inches (1.435 m) standard gauge used by most of the world's railways. Pioneered by Stephenson, rail transport was one of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century and a key component of the Industrial Revolution. Built by George and his son Robert's company Robert Stephenson and Company, the Locomotion No. 1 was the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line, the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. George also built the first public inter-city railway line in the world to use locomotives, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. Childhood and early life George Stephenson was born on 9 June 1781 in Wylam, Northumberland, which is 9 miles (15 km) west of Newcastle upon Tyne. He was the second child of Robert and Mabel Stephenson, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a very low wage, so there was no money for schooling. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit in Newburn nearby. George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic - he was illiterate until the age of 18. In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton Colliery south of Ponteland as a 'brakesman', controlling the winding gear at the pit. In 1802 he married Frances Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle. There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage. George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income. Their first child Robert was born in 1803, and in 1804 they moved to Dial Cottage at West Moor, near Killingworth where George worked as a brakesman at Killingworth Pit. Their second child, a daughter, was born in July 1805. She was named Frances after her mother. The child died after just three weeks and was buried in St Bartholomew's Church, Long Benton north of Newcastle. In 1806 George's wife Frances died of consumption (tuberculosis). She was buried in the same churchyard as their daughter on the 16th May 1806, though sadly the location of the grave is lost. George decided to find work in Scotland and left Robert with a local woman while he went to work in Montrose. After a few months he returned, probably because his father was blinded in a mining accident. He moved back into a cottage at West Moor and his unmarried sister Eleanor moved in to look after Robert. In 1811 the pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth was not working properly and Stephenson offered to improve it. He did so with such success that he was promoted to enginewright for the collieries at Killingworth, responsible for maintaining and repairing all the colliery engines. He became an expert in steam-driven machinery. The miner's safety lamp In 1815, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn in a gaseous atmosphere without causing an explosion. At the same time, the eminent scientist and Cornishman Humphry Davy was also looking at the problem. Despite his lack of scientific knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes, through which the flames of the lamp could not pass. A month before Davy presented his design to the Royal Society, Stephenson demonstrated his own lamp to two witnesses by taking it down Killingworth Colliery and holding it in front of a fissure from which firedamp was issuing. The two designs differed; Davy's lamp was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephenson's prototype lamp had a perforated plate contained in a glass cylinder. For his invention Davy was awarded ￡2,000, whilst Stephenson was accused of stealing the idea from Davy, because he was not seen as an adequate scientist who could have produced the lamp by any approved scientific method. Stephenson, having come from the North-East, spoke with a broad Northumberland accent and not the 'Language of Parliament,' which made him seem lowly. Realizing this, he made a point of educating his son Robert in a private school, where he was taught to speak in Standard English with a Received Pronunciation accent. It was due to this, in their future dealings with Parliament, that it became clear that the authorities preferred Robert to his father. A local committee of enquiry gathered in support of Stephenson, exonerated him, proved he had been working separately to create the 'Geordie Lamp', and awarded him ￡1,000, but Davy and his supporters refused to accept their findings, and would not see how an uneducated man such as Stephenson could come up with the solution he had. In 1833 a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp. Davy went to his grave believing that Stephenson had stolen his idea. The Stephenson lamp was used almost exclusively in North East England, whereas the Davy lamp was used everywhere else. The experience gave Stephenson a lifelong distrust of London-based, theoretical, scientific experts. In his book George and Robert Stephenson, the author L.T.C. Rolt relates that opinion varied about the two lamps' efficiency: that the Davy Lamp gave more light, but the Geordie Lamp was thought to be safer in a more gaseous atmosphere. He made reference to an incident at Oaks Colliery in Barnsley where both lamps were in use. Following a sudden strong influx of gas the tops of all the Davy Lamps became red hot (which had in the past caused an explosion, and in so doing risked another), whilst all the Geordie Lamps simply went out. There is a theory that it was Stephenson who indirectly gave the name of Geordies to the people of the North East of England. By this theory, the name of the Geordie Lamp attached to the North East pit men themselves. By 1866 any native of Newcastle upon Tyne could be called a Geordie. Early locomotives Cornishman Richard Trevithick is credited with the first realistic design for a steam locomotive in 1802. Later, he visited Tyneside and built an engine there for a mine-owner. Several local men were inspired by this, and designed their own engines. Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on the Killingworth wagonway named Blücher after the Prussian general Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher (It was suggested the name sprang from Blücher's rapid march of his army in support of Wellington at Waterloo). Blücher was modelled on Matthew Murray’s locomotive Willington, which George studied at Kenton and Coxlodge colliery on Tyneside, and was constructed in the colliery workshop behind Stephenson's home, Dial Cottage, on Great Lime Road. The locomotive could haul 30 tons of coal up a hill at 4 mph (6.4 km/h), and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive: its traction depended on contact between its flanged wheels and the rail. Altogether, Stephenson is said to have produced 16 locomotives at Killingworth, although it has not proved possible to produce a convincing list of all 16. Of those identified, most were built for use at Killingworth or for the Hetton colliery railway. A six-wheeled locomotive was built for the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway in 1817 but was withdrawn from service because of damage to the cast-iron rails. Another locomotive was supplied to Scott's Pit railroad at Llansamlet, near Swansea, in 1819 but it too was withdrawn, apparently because it was under-boilered and again caused damage to the track. The new engines were too heavy to run on wooden rails or plate-way, and iron edge rails were in their infancy, with cast iron exhibiting excessive brittleness. Together with William Losh, Stephenson improved the design of cast-iron edge rails to reduce breakage; rails were briefly made by Losh, Wilson and Bell at their Walker ironworks. According to Rolt, Stephenson managed to solve the problem caused by the weight of the engine on the primitive rails. He experimented with a steam spring (to 'cushion' the weight using steam pressure acting on pistons to support the locomotive frame), but soon followed the practice of 'distributing' weight by using a number of wheels or bogies. For the Stockton and Darlington Railway Stephenson used wrought-iron malleable rails that he had found satisfactory, notwithstanding the financial loss he suffered by not using his own patented design. Hetton Railway Stephenson was hired to build the 8-mile (13-km) Hetton colliery railway in 1820. He used a combination of gravity on downward inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches. This, the first railway using no animal power, opened in 1822. This line used a gauge of 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) which Stephenson had used before at the Killingworth wagonway. Other locomotives include: 1817-1824 The Duke for the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway Stockton and Darlington Railway In 1821, a parliamentary bill was passed to allow the building of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR). The 25-mile (40 km) railway connected collieries near Bishop Auckland to the River Tees at Stockton, passing through Darlington on the way. The original plan was to use horses to draw coal carts on metal rails, but after company director Edward Pease met Stephenson, he agreed to change the plans. Stephenson surveyed the line in 1821, and assisted by his eighteen-year-old son Robert, construction began the same year. A manufacturer was needed to provide the locomotives for the line. Pease and Stephenson had jointly established a company in Newcastle to manufacture locomotives. It was set up as Robert Stephenson and Company, and George's son Robert was the managing director. A fourth partner was Michael Longridge of Bedlington Ironworks. On an early trade card, Robert Stephenson & Co was described as "Engineers, Millwrights & Machinists, Brass & Iron Founders". In September 1825 the works at Forth Street, Newcastle completed the first locomotive for the railway: originally named Active, it was renamed Locomotion and was followed by Hope, Diligence and Black Diamond. The Stockton and Darlington Railway opened on 27 September 1825. Driven by Stephenson, Locomotion hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour nine miles (14 km) in two hours, reaching a speed of 24 miles per hour (39 kilometres per hour) on one stretch. The first purpose-built passenger car, Experiment, was attached and carried dignitaries on the opening journey. It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam locomotive railway. The rails used for the line were wrought-iron, produced by John Birkinshaw at the Bedlington Ironworks. Wrought-iron rails could be produced in longer lengths than cast-iron and were less liable to crack under the weight of heavy locomotives. William Losh of Walker Ironworks thought he had an agreement with Stephenson to supply cast-iron rails, and Stephenson's decision caused a permanent rift between them. The gauge Stephenson chose for the line was 4 feet 8+1?2 inches (1,435 mm) which subsequently was adopted as the standard gauge for railways, not only in Britain, but throughout the world. Liverpool and Manchester Railway Stephenson had ascertained by experiments at Killingworth that half the power of the locomotive was consumed by a gradient as little as 1 in 260. He concluded that railways should be kept as level as possible. He used this knowledge while working on the Bolton and Leigh Railway, and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), executing a series of difficult cuttings, embankments and stone viaducts to level their routes. Defective surveying of the original route of the L&MR caused by hostility from some affected landowners meant Stephenson encountered difficulty during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original bill, especially under cross-examination by Edward Hall Alderson. The bill was rejected and a revised bill for a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session. The revised alignment presented the problem of crossing Chat Moss, an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it. The method he used was similar to that used by John Metcalf who constructed many miles of road across marshes in the Pennines, laying a foundation of heather and branches, which became bound together by the weight of the passing coaches, with a layer of stones on top. As the L&MR approached completion in 1829, its directors arranged a competition to decide who would build its locomotives, and the Rainhill Trials were run in October 1829. Entries could weigh no more than six tons and had to travel along the track for a total distance of 60 miles (97 km). Stephenson's entry was Rocket, and its performance in winning the contest made it famous. George's son Robert had been working in South America from 1824 to 1827 and returned to run the Forth Street Works while George was in Liverpool overseeing the construction of the line. Robert was responsible for the detailed design of Rocket, although he was in constant postal communication with his father, who made many suggestions. One significant innovation, suggested by Henry Booth, treasurer of the L&MR, was the use of a fire-tube boiler, invented by French engineer Marc Seguin that gave improved heat exchange. The opening ceremony of the L&MR, on 15 September 1830, drew luminaries from the government and industry, including the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington. The day started with a procession of eight trains setting out from Liverpool. The parade was led by Northumbrian driven by George Stephenson, and included Phoenix driven by his son Robert, North Star driven by his brother Robert and Rocket driven by assistant engineer Joseph Locke. The day was marred by the death of William Huskisson, the Member of Parliament for Liverpool, who was struck by Rocket. Stephenson evacuated the injured Huskisson to Eccles with a train, but he died from his injuries. Despite the tragedy, the railway was a resounding success. Stephenson became famous, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways. Stephenson's skew arch bridge 1830 also saw the grand opening of the skew bridge in Rainhill over the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The bridge was the first to cross any railway at an angle. It required the structure to be constructed as two flat planes (overlapping in this case by 6 ft (1.8 m)) between which the stonework forms a parallelogram shape when viewed from above. It has the effect of flattening the arch and the solution is to lay the bricks forming the arch at an angle to the abutments (the piers on which the arches rest). The technique, which results in a spiral effect in the arch masonry, provides extra strength in the arch to compensate for the angled abutments. The bridge is still in use at Rainhill station, and carries traffic on the A57 (Warrington Road). The bridge is a listed structure. Life at Alton Grange George Stephenson moved to the parish of Alton Grange (now part of Ravenstone) in Leicestershire in 1830, originally to consult on the Leicester and Swannington Railway, a line primarily proposed to take coal from the western coal fields of the county to Leicester. The promoters of the line Mr William Stenson and Mr John Ellis, had difficulties in raising the necessary capital as the majority of local wealth had been invested in canals. Realising the potential and need for the rail link Stephenson himself invested ￡2,500 and raised the remaining capital through his network of connections in Liverpool. His son Robert was made chief engineer with the first part of the line opening in 1832. During this same period the Snibston estate in Leicestershire came up for auction, it lay adjoining the proposed Swannington to Leicester route and was believed to contain valuable coal reserves. Stephenson realising the financial potential of the site, given its proximity to the proposed rail link and the fact that the manufacturing town of Leicester was then being supplied coal by canal from Derbyshire, bought the estate. Employing a previously used method of mining in the midlands called tubbing to access the deep coal seams, his success could not have been greater. Stephenson’s coal mine delivered the first rail cars of coal into Leicester dramatically reducing the price of coal and saving the city some ￡40,000 per annum. Stephenson remained at Alton Grange until 1838 before moving to Tapton House in Derbyshire. Later career The next ten years were the busiest of Stephenson's life as he was besieged with requests from railway promoters. Many of the first American railroad builders came to Newcastle to learn from Stephenson and the first dozen or so locomotives utilised there were purchased from the Stephenson shops. Stephenson's conservative views on the capabilities of locomotives meant he favoured circuitous routes and civil engineering that were more costly than his successors thought necessary. For example, rather than the West Coast Main Line taking the direct route favoured by Joseph Locke over Shap between Lancaster and Carlisle, Stephenson was in favour of a longer sea-level route via Ulverston and Whitehaven. Locke's route was built. Stephenson tended to be more casual in estimating costs and paperwork in general. He worked with Joseph Locke on the Grand Junction Railway with half of the line allocated to each man. Stephenson's estimates and organising ability proved inferior to those of Locke and the board's dissatisfaction led to Stephenson's resignation causing a rift between them which was never healed. Despite Stephenson's loss of some routes to competitors due to his caution, he was offered more work than he could cope with, and was unable to accept all that was offered. He worked on the North Midland line from Derby to Leeds, the York and North Midland line from Normanton to York, the Manchester and Leeds, the Birmingham and Derby, the Sheffield and Rotherham among many others. Stephenson became a reassuring name rather than a cutting-edge technical adviser. He was the first president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers on its formation in 1847. By this time he had settled into semi-retirement, supervising his mining interests in Derbyshire - tunnelling for the North Midland Railway revealed coal seams, and Stephenson put money into their exploitation. Personal life George first courted Elizabeth (Betty) Hindmarsh, a farmer's daughter from Black Callerton, whom he met secretly in her orchard. Her father refused marriage because of Stephenson's lowly status as a miner. George next paid attention to Anne Henderson where he lodged with her family, but she rejected him and he transferred his attentions to her sister Frances (Fanny), who was nine years his senior. George and Fanny married at Newburn Church on 28 November 1802. They had two children Robert (1803) and Fanny (1805) but the latter died within months. George's wife died, probably of tuberculosis, the year after. While George was working in Scotland, Robert was brought up by a succession of neighbours and then by George's unmarried sister Eleanor (Nelly), who lived with them in Killingworth on George's return. On 29 March 1820, George (now considerably wealthier) married Betty Hindmarsh at Newburn. The marriage seems to have been happy, but there were no children and Betty died on 3 August 1845. On 11 January 1848, at St John's Church in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, George married for the third time, to Ellen Gregory, another farmer's daughter originally from Bakewell in Derbyshire, who had been his housekeeper. Seven months after his wedding, George contracted pleurisy and died, aged 67, at noon on 12 August 1848 at Tapton House in Chesterfield, Derbyshire. He was buried at Holy Trinity Church, Chesterfield, alongside his second wife. Described by Rolt as a generous man, Stephenson financially supported the wives and families of several who had died in his employment, due to accident or misadventure, some within his family, and some not. He was also a keen gardener throughout his life; during his last years at Tapton House, he built hothouses in the estate gardens, growing exotic fruits and vegetables in a 'not too friendly' rivalry with Joseph Paxton, head gardener at nearby Chatsworth House, twice beating the master of the craft. Descendants George Stephenson had two children. His son Robert was born on 16 October 1803. Robert married Frances Sanderson, daughter of a City of London professional John Sanderson, on 17 June 1829. Robert died in 1859 having no children. Robert Stephenson expanded on the work of his father and became a major railway engineer himself. Abroad, Robert was involved in the Alexandria-Cairo railway that later connected with the Suez Canal. George Stephenson's daughter was born in 1805 but died within weeks of her birth. Descendants of the wider Stephenson family continue to live in Wylam (Stephenson's birthplace) today. Also relatives connected by his marriage live in Derbyshire. Some descendants later emigrated to Perth, Australia, with later generations remaining to this day. This Stephenson engineering family is not to be confused with the lighthouse-building engineering family of Robert Stevenson, which was active in the same era. Note the spelling difference. Legacy Britain led the world in the development of railways which acted as a stimulus for the Industrial Revolution by facilitating the transport of raw materials and manufactured goods. George Stephenson, with his work on the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, paved the way for the railway engineers who followed, such as his son Robert, his assistant Joseph Locke who carried out much work on his own account and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Stephenson was farsighted in realising that the individual lines being built would eventually be joined together, and would need to have the same gauge. The standard gauge used throughout much of the world is due to him. In 2002, Stephenson was named in the BBC's television show and list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote, placing at no. 65. The Victorian self-help advocate Samuel Smiles had published his first biography of George Stephenson in 1857, and although attacked as biased in the favour of George at the expense his rivals as well as his son, it was popular and 250,000 copies were sold by 1904. The Band of Hope were selling biographies of George in 1859 at a penny a sheet, and at one point there was a suggestion to move George's body to Westminster Abbey. The centenary of George's birth was celebrated in 1881 at Crystal Palace by 15,000 people, and it was George who was featured on the reverse of the Series E five pound note issued by the Bank of England between 1990 and 2003. The Stephenson Railway Museum in North Shields is named after George and Robert Stephenson. Memorials and commemorations George Stephenson's Birthplace is an 18th-century historic house museum in the village of Wylam, and is operated by the National Trust. Dial Cottage at West Moor, his home from 1804, remains but the museum that once operated here is shut. Chesterfield Museum in Chesterfield, Derbyshire, has a gallery of Stephenson memorabilia, including straight thick glass tubes he invented for growing straight cucumbers. The museum is in the Stephenson Memorial Hall not far from both Stephenson's final home at Tapton House and Holy Trinity Church within which is his vault. In Liverpool, where he lived at 34 Upper Parliament Street, a City of Liverpool Heritage Plaque is situated next to the front door. George Stephenson College, founded in 2001 on the University of Durham's Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees, is named after him. Also named after him and his son is George Stephenson High School in Killingworth, Stephenson Memorial Primary School in Howdon, the Stephenson Railway Museum in North Shields and the Stephenson Locomotive Society. The Stephenson Centre, an SEBD Unit of Beaumont Hill School in Darlington, is named after him. His last home in Tapton, Chesterfield is now part of Chesterfield College and is called Tapton House Campus. As a tribute to his life and works, a bronze statue of Stephenson was unveiled at Chesterfield railway station (in the town where Stephenson spent the last ten years of his life) on 28 October 2005, marking the completion of improvements to the station. At the event a full-size working replica of the Rocket was on show, which then spent two days on public display at the Chesterfield Market Festival. A statue of him dressed in classical robes stands in Neville Street, Newcastle, facing the buildings that house the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne and the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, near Newcastle railway station. The statue was sculpted in 1862 by John Graham Lough and is listed Grade II. From 1990 until 2003, Stephenson's portrait appeared on the reverse of Series E ￡5 notes issued by the Bank of England. Stephenson's face is shown alongside an engraving of the Rocket steam engine and the Skerne Bridge on the Stockton to Darlington Railway. In popular culure Stephenson was portrayed by actor Gawn Grainger on television in the 1985 Doctor Who serial The Mark of the Rani. Harry Turtledove's alternate history short story "The Iron Elephant" depicts a race between a newly-invented steam engine and a mammoth-drawn train in 1782. A station master called George Stephenson features as a minor character alongside an American steam engineer called Richard Trevithick, likely indicating that they were analogous rather than historical characters. See also Name: Volta Biography: Alessandro Volta 18 February ( 1745 - 5 March 1827) Nationality:Italian Known for:Invention of the electric cell，Discovery of methane，Volt，Voltage Voltmeter Awards :Copley Medal (1794)，Legion of Honour，Order of the Iron Crown Fields: Physics and chemistry Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (/?vo?lt?, ?v?lt?/, Italian: ; 18 February 1745 - 5 March 1827) was an Italian physicist, chemist, and pioneer of electricity and power who is credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the discoverer of methane. He invented the voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800 in a two-part letter to the President of the Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry. Volta also drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, and was invited to the Institute of France to demonstrate his invention to the members of the institute. Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the emperor throughout his life and he was conferred numerous honours by him. Volta held the chair of experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students. Despite his professional success, Volta tended to be a person inclined towards domestic life and this was more apparent in his later years. At this time he tended to live secluded from public life and more for the sake of his family until his eventual death in 1827 from a series of illnesses which began in 1823. The SI unit of electric potential is named in his honour as the volt. Early life and works Volta was born in Como, a town in present-day northern Italy, on 18 February 1745. In 1794, Volta married an aristocratic lady also from Como, Teresa Peregrini, with whom he raised three sons: Zanino, Flaminio, and Luigi. His father, Filippo Volta, was of noble lineage. His mother, Donna Maddalena, came from the family of the Inzaghis. In 1774, he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como. A year later, he improved and popularised the electrophorus, a device that produced static electricity. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating on the same principle was described in 1762 by the Swedish experimenter Johan Wilcke. In 1777, he travelled through Switzerland. There he befriended H. B. de Saussure. In the years between 1776 and 1778, Volta studied the chemistry of gases. He researched and discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin of the United States on "flammable air". In November 1776, he found methane at Lake Maggiore, and by 1778 he managed to isolate methane. He devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel. Volta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential (V) and charge (Q), and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This is called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt. In 1779, he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia, a chair that he occupied for almost 40 years. Volta and Galvani Luigi Galvani, an Italian physicist, discovered something he named, "animal electricity" when two different metals were connected in series with a frog's leg and to one another. Volta realised that the frog's leg served as both a conductor of electricity (what we would now call an electrolyte) and as a detector of electricity. He also understood that the frog's legs were irrelevant to the electric current, which was caused by the two differing metals. He replaced the frog's leg with brine-soaked paper, and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies. In this way he discovered the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf) of a galvanic cell, consisting of a pair of metal electrodes separated by electrolyte, is the difference between their two electrode potentials (thus, two identical electrodes and a common electrolyte give zero net emf). This may be called Volta's Law of the electrochemical series. In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Galvani, Volta invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The voltaic pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine. Early battery In announcing his discovery of the voltaic pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo, and Abraham Bennet. The battery made by Volta is credited as one of the first electrochemical cells. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is either sulfuric acid mixed with water or a form of saltwater brine. The electrolyte exists in the form 2H+ and SO42?. Zinc metal, which is higher in the electrochemical series than both copper and hydrogen, is oxidized to zinc cations (Zn2+) and creates electrons that move to the copper electrode. The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper electrode, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode. Thus, there are two terminals, and an electric current will flow if they are connected. The chemical reactions in this voltaic cell are as follows: Zinc: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e? Sulfuric acid: 2H+ + 2e? → H2 Copper metal does not react, but rather it functions as an electrode for the electric current. Sulfate anion (SO42-) does not undergo any chemical reaction either, but migrates to the zinc anode to compensate for the charge of the zinc cations formed there. However, this cell also has some disadvantages. It is unsafe to handle, since sulfuric acid, even if diluted, can be hazardous. Also, the power of the cell diminishes over time because the hydrogen gas is not released. Instead, it accumulates on the surface of the copper electrode and forms a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte solution. Last years and retirement In 1809, Volta became associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In honour of his work, Volta was made a count by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1810. Volta retired in 1819 to his estate in Camnago, a frazione of Como, Italy, now named "Camnago Volta" in his honour. He died there on 5 March 1827, just after his 82nd birthday. Volta's remains were buried in Camnago Volta. Legacy Volta's legacy is celebrated by the Tempio Voltiano memorial located in the public gardens by the lake. There is also a museum that has been built in his honour, which exhibits some of the equipment that Volta used to conduct experiments. Nearby stands the Villa Olmo, which houses the Voltian Foundation, an organization promoting scientific activities. Volta carried out his experimental studies and produced his first inventions near Como. His image was depicted on the Italian 10,000 lire note (1990-1997) along with a sketch of his voltaic pile. In late 2017, Nvidia announced a new workstation-focused microarchitecture called Volta, succeeding Pascal and preceding Turing. The first graphics cards featuring Volta were released in December 2017, with two more cards releasing over the course of 2018. Religious beliefs Volta was raised as a Catholic and for all of his life continued to maintain his belief. Because he was not ordained a clergyman as his family expected, he was sometimes accused of being irreligious and some people have speculated about his possible unbelief, stressing that "he did not join the Church", or that he virtually "ignored the church's call". Nevertheless, he cast out doubts in a declaration of faith in which he said: I do not understand how anyone can doubt the sincerity and constancy of my attachment to the religion which I profess, the Roman, Catholic and Apostolic religion in which I was born and brought up, and of which I have always made confession, externally and internally. I have, indeed, and only too often, failed in the performance of those good works which are the mark of a Catholic Christian, and I have been guilty of many sins: but through the special mercy of God I have never, as far as I know, wavered in my faith... In this faith I recognise a pure gift of God, a supernatural grace; but I have not neglected those human means which confirm belief, and overthrow the doubts which at times arise. I studied attentively the grounds and basis of religion, the works of apologists and assailants, the reasons for and against, and I can say that the result of such study is to clothe religion with such a degree of probability, even for the merely natural reason, that every spirit unperverted by sin and passion, every naturally noble spirit must love and accept it. May this confession which has been asked from me and which I willingly give, written and subscribed by my own hand, with authority to show it to whomsoever you will, for I am not ashamed of the Gospel, may it produce some good fruit! Publications De vi attractiva ignis electrici (1769) (On the attractive force of electric fire) Name: Kosciuszko Biography: Tadeusz Kosciuszko (4 or 12 February 1746 - 15 October 1817) Allegiance: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1765-1776, 1784-1794)，United States(1776-1784) Branch/service: Continental Army，Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's Army Rank: Brevet US brigadier general, October 1783，Polish lieutenant-general, 1792 Commands: Engineer (Continental Army)，Naczelnik (commander-in-chief) (Polish Army) In 1776, Ko?ciuszko moved to North America, where he took part in the American Revolutionary War as a colonel in the Continental Army. An accomplished military architect, he designed and oversaw the construction of state-of-the-art fortifications, including those at West Point, New York. In 1783, in recognition of his services, the Continental Congress promoted him to brigadier general. Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Ko?ciuszko (English: Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure Kosciuszko; 4 or 12 February 1746 - 15 October 1817) was a Polish-Lithuanian military engineer, statesman, and military leader who became a national hero in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and the United States. He fought in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's struggles against Russia and Prussia, and on the US side in the American Revolutionary War. As Supreme Commander of the Polish National Armed Forces, he led the 1794 Ko?ciuszko Uprising. Ko?ciuszko was born in February 1746, in a manor house on the Mereczowszczyzna estate in Brest Litovsk Voivodeship, then Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At age 20, he graduated from the Corps of Cadets in Warsaw, Poland. After the start of the civil war in 1768, Ko?ciuszko moved to France in 1769 to study. He returned to the Commonwealth in 1774, two years after the First Partition, and was a tutor in Józef Sylwester Sosnowski's household. Upon returning to Poland in 1784, Ko?ciuszko was commissioned as a major general in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Army in 1789. After the Polish-Russian War of 1792 resulted in the Commonwealth's Second Partition, he commanded an uprising against the Russian Empire in March 1794 until he was captured at the Battle of Maciejowice in October 1794. The defeat of the Ko?ciuszko Uprising that November led to Poland's Third Partition in 1795, which ended the Commonwealth. In 1796, following the death of Tsaritsa Catherine II, Ko?ciuszko was pardoned by her successor, Tsar Paul I, and he emigrated to the United States. A close friend of Thomas Jefferson's, with whom he shared ideals of human rights, Ko?ciuszko wrote a will in 1798, dedicating his U.S. assets to the education and freedom of the U.S. slaves. Ko?ciuszko eventually returned to Europe and lived in Switzerland until his death in 1817. The execution of his testament later proved difficult, and the funds were never used for the purpose Ko?ciuszko intended. European travels In 1768, civil war broke out in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, when the Bar Confederation sought to depose King Stanis?aw August Poniatowski. One of Ko?ciuszko's brothers, Józef, fought on the side of the insurgents. Faced with a difficult choice between the rebels and his sponsors—the King and the Czartoryski family, who favored a gradualist approach to shedding Russian domination—Ko?ciuszko chose to leave Poland. In late 1769, he and a colleague, artist Aleksander Or?owski, were granted royal scholarships; on 5 October, they embarked for Paris. They wanted to further their military education. As foreigners they were barred from enrolling in French military academies, and so they enrolled in the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. There Ko?ciuszko pursued his interest in drawing and painting and took private lessons in architecture from architect Jean-Rodolphe Perronet. Ko?ciuszko did not give up on improving his military knowledge. He audited lectures for five years and frequented the libraries of the Paris military academies. His exposure to the French Enlightenment, along with the religious tolerance practiced in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, strongly influenced his later career. The French economic theory of physiocracy made a particularly strong impression on his thinking. He also developed his artistic skills, and while his career would take him in a different direction, all his life he continued drawing and painting. In the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, Russia, Prussia and Austria annexed large swaths of Commonwealth territory and gained influence over the internal politics. When Ko?ciuszko returned home in 1774, he found that his brother Józef had squandered most of the family fortune, and there was no place for him in the Army, as he could not afford to buy an officer's commission. He took a position as tutor to the family of the magnate, province governor (voivode) and hetman Józef Sylwester Sosnowski and fell in love with the governor's daughter Ludwika. Their elopement was thwarted by her father's retainers. Ko?ciuszko received a thrashing at their hands, an event that may have led to his antipathy for class distinctions. In the autumn of 1775 he emigrated to avoid Sosnowski and his retainers. In late 1775 he attempted to join the Saxon army but was turned down and decided to return to Paris. There he learned of the American Revolutionary War outbreak, in which the British colonies in North America had revolted against the British Crown and began their struggle for independence. The first American successes were well-publicized in France, and the French people and government openly supported the revolutionaries' cause. American Revolutionary War On learning of the American Revolution, Ko?ciuszko, a man of revolutionary aspirations, sympathetic to the American cause and an advocate of human rights, sailed for America in June 1776 along with other foreign officers, likely with the help of a French supporter of the American revolutionaries, Pierre Beaumarchais. On 30 August 1776, Ko?ciuszko submitted an application to the Second Continental Congress. He was assigned to the Continental Army the next day. Northern region Ko?ciuszko's first task was building fortifications at Fort Billingsport in Paulsboro, New Jersey, to protect the banks of the Delaware River and prevent a possible British advance up the river to Philadelphia. He initially served as a volunteer in the employ of Benjamin Franklin, but on 18 October 1776, Congress commissioned him a colonel of engineers in the Continental Army. In spring 1777, Ko?ciuszko was attached to the Northern Army under Major General Horatio Gates, arriving at the Canada-US border in May 1777. Subsequently posted to Fort Ticonderoga, he reviewed the defences of what had been one of the most formidable fortresses in North America. His surveys prompted him to strongly recommend the construction of a battery on Sugar Loaf, a high point overlooking the fort. His prudent recommendation, in which his fellow engineers concurred, was turned down by the garrison commander, Brigadier General Arthur St. Clair. This proved a tactical blunder: when a British army under General John Burgoyne arrived in July 1777, Burgoyne did exactly what Ko?ciuszko had warned of, and had his engineers place artillery on the hill. With the British in complete control of the high ground, the Americans realized their situation was hopeless and abandoned the fortress with hardly a shot fired in the siege of Ticonderoga. The British advance force nipped hard on the heels of the outnumbered and exhausted Continentals as they fled south. Major General Philip Schuyler, desperate to put distance between his men and their pursuers, ordered Ko?ciuszko to delay the enemy. Ko?ciuszko designed an engineer's solution: his men felled trees, dammed streams, and destroyed bridges and causeways. Encumbered by their huge supply train, the British began to bog down, giving the Americans the time needed to safely withdraw across the Hudson River. Gates tapped Ko?ciuszko to survey the country between the opposing armies, choose the most defensible position, and fortify it. Finding just such a spot near Saratoga, overlooking the Hudson at Bemis Heights, Ko?ciuszko laid out a robust array of defences, nearly impregnable. His judgment and meticulous attention to detail frustrated the British attacks during the Battle of Saratoga, and Gates accepted the surrender of Burgoyne's force there on 16 October 1777. The dwindling British army had been dealt a sound defeat, turning the tide to American advantage. Ko?ciuszko's work at Saratoga received great praise from Gates, who later told his friend Dr. Benjamin Rush: "The great tacticians of the campaign were hills and forests, which a young Polish engineer was skillful enough to select for my encampment." At some point in 1777, Ko?ciuszko composed a polonaise and scored it for the harpsichord. Named for him, and with lyrics by Rajnold Suchodolski, it later became popular with Polish patriots during the November 1830 Uprising. Around that time, Ko?ciuszko was assigned an African American orderly, Agrippa Hull, whom he treated as an equal and a friend. In March 1778 Ko?ciuszko arrived at West Point, New York, and spent more than two years strengthening the fortifications and improving the stronghold's defences. It was these defences that the American General Benedict Arnold subsequently attempted to surrender to the British when he defected. Soon after Ko?ciuszko finished fortifying West Point, in August 1780, General George Washington granted Ko?ciuszko's request to transfer to combat duty with the Southern Army. Ko?ciuszko's West Point fortifications were widely praised as innovative for the time. Southern region After travelling south through rural Virginia in October 1780, Ko?ciuszko proceeded to North Carolina to report to his former commander General Gates. Following Gates's disastrous defeat at Camden on 16 August 1780, the Continental Congress selected Washington's choice, Major General Nathanael Greene, to replace Gates as commander of the Southern Department. When Greene formally assumed command on 3 December 1780, he retained Ko?ciuszko as his chief engineer. By then, he had been praised by both Gates and Greene.During the Race to the Dan, Ko?ciuszko had helped select the site where Greene eventually returned to fight Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse. Though tactically defeated, the Americans all but destroyed Cornwallis' army as an effective fighting force and gained a permanent strategic advantage in the South. Thus, when Greene began his reconquest of South Carolina in the spring of 1781, he summoned Ko?ciuszko to rejoin the main body of the Southern Army. The combined forces of the Continentals and Southern militia gradually forced the British from the backcountry into the coastal ports during the latter half of 1781 and, on 25 April, Ko?ciuszko participated in the Second Battle of Camden. At Ninety-Six, Ko?ciuszko besieged the Star Fort from 22 May to 18 June. During the unsuccessful siege, he suffered his only wound in seven years of service, bayonetted in the buttocks during an assault by the fort's defenders on the approach trench that he was constructing. Leaving for home Having not been paid in his seven years of service, in late May 1783, Ko?ciuszko decided to collect the salary owed to him. That year, he was asked by Congress to supervise the fireworks during the July 4 celebrations at Princeton, New Jersey. On 13 October 1783, Congress promoted him to brigadier general, but he still had not received his back pay. Many other officers and soldiers were in the same situation. While waiting for his pay, unable to finance a voyage back to Europe, Ko?ciuszko, like several others, lived on money borrowed from the Polish-Jewish banker Haym Solomon. Eventually, he received a certificate for 12,280 dollars, at 6%, to be paid on 1 January 1784, and the right to 500 acres (202.34 ha; 0.78 sq mi) of land, but only if he chose to settle in the United States. For the winter of 1783-84, his former commanding officer, General Greene, invited Ko?ciuszko to stay at his mansion. He was inducted into the Society of the Cincinnati and into the American Philosophical Society in 1785. During the Revolution Ko?ciuszko carried an old Spanish sword at his side, which was inscribed with the words, Do not draw me without reason; do not sheathe me without honour. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth On 15 July 1784, Ko?ciuszko set off for Poland, where he arrived on 26 August. Due to a conflict between his patrons, the Czartoryski family, and King Stanis?aw August Poniatowski, Ko?ciuszko once again failed to get a commission in the Commonwealth Army. He settled in Siechnowicze. His brother Józef had lost most of the family's lands through bad investments, but with the help of his sister Anna, Ko?ciuszko secured part of the lands for himself. He decided to limit his male peasants' corvee (obligatory service to the lord of the manor) to two days a week and completely exempted the female peasants. His estate soon stopped being profitable, and he began going into debt. The situation was not helped by the failure of the money promised by the American government—interest on late payment for his seven years' military service—to materialize. Ko?ciuszko struck up friendships with liberal activists; Hugo Ko???taj offered him a position as lecturer at Kraków's Jagiellonian University, which Ko?ciuszko declined. Finally, the Great Sejm of 1788-92 introduced some reforms, including a planned build-up of the army to defend the Commonwealth's borders. Ko?ciuszko saw a chance to return to military service and spent some time in Warsaw, among those who engaged in the political debates outside the Great Sejm. He wrote a proposal to create a militia force, on the American model. As political pressure grew to build up the army, and Ko?ciuszko's political allies gained influence with the King, Ko?ciuszko again applied for a commission, and on 12 October 1789, received a royal commission as a major general, but to Kosciuszko's dismay in the Army of the Kingdom of Poland. He began receiving the high salary of 12,000 z?oty a year, ending his financial difficulties. On 1 February 1790, he reported for duty in W?oc?awek, and wrote in a letter after a few days, calling the local inhabitants "lazy" and "careless", in contrast to "good and economical Lithuanians". In the same letter, Kosciuszko begged general Franciszek Ksawery Niesio?owski for a transfer to the Army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but his wishes were not granted. Around summer, he commanded some infantry and cavalry units in the region between the Bug and Vistula Rivers. In August 1790 he was posted to Volhynia, stationed near Starokostiantyniv and Mi?dzyborze. Prince Józef Poniatowski, who happened to be the King's nephew, recognized Ko?ciuszko's superior experience and made him his second-in-command, leaving him in command when he was absent. Meanwhile, Ko?ciuszko became more closely involved with the political reformers, befriending Hugo Ko???taj, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and others. Ko?ciuszko argued that the peasants and Jews should receive full citizenship status, as this would motivate them to help defend Poland in the event of war. The political reformers centered in the Patriotic Party scored a significant victory with adopting the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Ko?ciuszko saw the Constitution as a step in the right direction but was disappointed that it retained the monarchy and did little to improve the situation of the most underprivileged, the peasants and the Jews. The Commonwealth's neighbors saw the Constitution's reforms as a threat to their influence over Polish internal affairs. A year after the Constitution's adoption, on 14 May 1792, reactionary magnates formed the Targowica Confederation, which asked Russia's Tsaritsa Catherine II for help in overthrowing the Constitution. Four days later, on 18 May 1792, a 100,000-man Russian army crossed the Polish border, headed for Warsaw, beginning the Polish-Russian War of 1792. Defence of the Constitution The Russians had a 3:1 advantage in strength, with some 98,000 troops against 37,000 Poles; they also had an advantage in combat experience. Before the Russians invaded, Ko?ciuszko had been appointed deputy commander of Prince Józef Poniatowski's infantry division, stationed in West Ukraine. When the Prince became Commander-in-Chief of the entire Polish (Crown) Army on 3 May 1792, Ko?ciuszko was given command of a division near Kiev. The Russians attacked a wide front with three armies. Ko?ciuszko proposed that the entire Polish army be concentrated and engage one of the Russian armies, to assure numerical parity and boost the morale of the mostly inexperienced Polish forces with a quick victory; but Poniatowski rejected this plan. On 22 May 1792, the Russian forces crossed the border in Ukraine, where Ko?ciuszko and Poniatowski were stationed. The Crown Army was judged too weak to oppose the four enemy columns advancing into West Ukraine, and began a fighting withdrawal to the western side of the Southern Bug River, with Ko?ciuszko commanding the rear guard. On 18 June, Poniatowski won the Battle of Zieleńce; Ko?ciuszko's division, on detached rear-guard duty, did not take part in the battle and rejoined the main army only at nightfall; nonetheless, his diligent protection of the main army's rear and flanks won him the newly created Virtuti Militari, to this day Poland's highest military decoration. (Storo?yński, however, states that Ko?ciuszko received the Virtuti Militari for his later, 18 July victory at Dubienka.) The Polish withdrawal continued, and on 7 July Ko?ciuszko's forces fought a delaying battle against the Russians at Volodymyr-Volynskyi (the Battle of W?odzimierz). On reaching the northern Bug River, the Polish Army was split into three divisions to hold the river defensive line—weakening the Poles' point numerical superiority, against Ko?ciuszko's counsel of a single strong, concentrated army. Ko?ciuszko's force was assigned to protect the front's southern flank, touching up to the Austrian border. At the Battle of Dubienka (18 July 1792), Ko?ciuszko repulsed a numerically superior enemy, skilfully using terrain obstacles and field fortifications, and came to be regarded as one of Poland's most brilliant military commanders of the age. With some 5,300 men, he defeated 25,000 Russians led by General Michail Kachovski. Despite the tactical victory, Ko?ciuszko had to retreat from Dubienka, as the Russians crossed the nearby Austrian border and began flanking his positions. After the battle, King Stanis?aw August Poniatowski promoted Ko?ciuszko to lieutenant-general and also offered him the Order of the White Eagle, but Ko?ciuszko, a convinced republican would not accept a royal honor. News of Ko?ciuszko's victory spread over Europe, and on 26 August he received the honorary citizenship of France from the Legislative Assembly of revolutionary France. While Ko?ciuszko considered the war's outcome to still be unsettled, the King requested a ceasefire. On 24 July 1792, before Ko?ciuszko had received his promotion to lieutenant-general, the King shocked the army by announcing his accession to the Targowica Confederation and ordering the Polish-Lithuanian troops to cease hostilities against the Russians. Ko?ciuszko considered abducting the King as the Bar Confederates had done two decades earlier, in 1771, but was dissuaded by Prince Józef Poniatowski. On 30 August, Ko?ciuszko resigned from his army position and briefly returned to Warsaw, where he received his promotion and pay, but refused the King's request to remain in the Army. Around that time, he also fell ill with jaundice. emigre The King's capitulation was a hard blow for Ko?ciuszko, who had not lost a single battle in the campaign. By mid-September 1792, he was resigned to leaving the country, and in early October, he departed from Warsaw. First, he went east, to the Czartoryski family manor at Sieniawa, which gathered various malcontents. In mid-November, he spent two weeks in Lwów, where he was welcomed by the populace. Since the war's end, his presence had drawn crowds eager to see the famed commander. Izabela Czartoryska discussed having him marry her daughter Zofia. The Russians planned to arrest him if he returned to territory under their control; the Austrians, who held Lwów, offered him a commission in the Austrian Army, which he turned down. Subsequently, they planned to deport him, but he left Lwów before they could do so. At the turn of the month, he stopped in Zamo?? at the Zamoyskis' estate, met Stanis?aw Staszic, then went on to Pu?awy. He did not tarry long there either: on 12-13 December, he was in Kraków; on 17 December, in Wroc?aw; and shortly after, he settled in Leipzig, where many notable Polish soldiers and politicians formed an emigre community. Soon he and some others began plotting an uprising against Russian rule in Poland. The politicians, grouped around Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Ko???taj, sought contacts with similar opposition groups in Poland and by spring 1793 had been joined by other politicians and revolutionaries, including Ignacy Dzia?yński. While Ko???taj and others had begun planning an uprising before Ko?ciuszko joined them, his support was a significant boon to them, as he was among the most famous individuals in Poland. After two weeks in Leipzig, before the second week of January 1793, Ko?ciuszko set off for Paris, where he tried to gain French support for Poland's planned uprising. He stayed there until summer, but despite the growing revolutionary influence, the French paid only lip service to the Polish cause and refused to commit themselves to anything concrete. Ko?ciuszko concluded that the French authorities were not interested in Poland beyond what use it could have for their cause, and he was increasingly disappointed in the pettiness of the French Revolution—the infighting among different factions, and the growing reign of terror. On 23 January 1793, Prussia and Russia signed the Second Partition of Poland. The Grodno Sejm, convened under duress in June, ratified the partition and was also forced to rescind the Constitution of 3 May 1791. With the second partition, Poland became a small country of roughly 200,000 square kilometers (77,000 sq mi) and a population of some 4 million. This came as a shock to the Targowica Confederates, who had seen themselves as defenders of centuries-old privileges of the magnates but had hardly expected that their appeal for help to the Tsarina of Russia would further reduce and weaken their country. In August 1793, Ko?ciuszko, though worried that an uprising would have little chance against the three partitioning powers, returned to Leipzig, where he was met with demands to start planning one as soon as possible. In September he clandestinely crossed the Polish border to conduct personal observations and meet with sympathetic high-ranking officers in the residual Polish Army, including General Józef Wodzicki. The preparations went slowly, and he left for Italy, planning to return in February 1794. However, the situation in Poland was changing rapidly. The Russian and Prussian governments forced Poland to again disband most of her army, and the reduced units were to be incorporated into the Russian Army. In March, Tsarist agents discovered the revolutionaries in Warsaw and began arresting notable Polish politicians and military commanders. Ko?ciuszko was forced to execute his plan earlier than he had intended and, on 15 March 1794, set off for Kraków. Ko?ciuszko Uprising Main article: Ko?ciuszko Uprising Later life The death of Tsaritsa Catherine the Great on 17 November 1796 led to a change in Russia's policies toward Poland. On 28 November, Tsar Paul I, who had hated Catherine, pardoned Ko?ciuszko and set him free after he had tendered an oath of loyalty. Paul promised to free all Polish political prisoners held in Russian prisons and forcibly settled in Siberia. The Tsar gave Ko?ciuszko 12,000 rubles, which the Pole later, in 1798, attempted to return, when also renouncing the oath. Ko?ciuszko left for the United States, via Stockholm, Sweden and London, departing from Bristol on 17 June 1797, and arriving in Philadelphia on 18 August. Though welcomed by the populace, he was viewed with suspicion by the American government, controlled by the Federalists, who distrusted Ko?ciuszko for his previous association with the Democratic-Republican Party. In March 1798, Ko?ciuszko received a bundle of letters from Europe. The news in one of them came as a shock to him, causing him, still in his wounded condition, to spring from his couch and limp unassisted to the middle of the room and exclaim to General Anthony Walton White, "I must return at once to Europe!" The letter in question contained news that Polish General Jan Henryk D?browski and Polish soldiers were fighting in France under Napoleon and that Ko?ciuszko's sister had sent his two nephews in Ko?ciuszko's name to serve in Napoleon's ranks. Around that time Ko?ciuszko also received news that Talleyrand was seeking Ko?ciuszko's moral and public endorsement for the French fight against one of Poland's partitioners, Prussia. The call of family and country drew Ko?ciuszko back to Europe. He immediately consulted then Vice President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, who procured a passport for him under a false name and arranged for his secret departure for France. Ko?ciuszko left no word for either Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, his former comrade-in-arms and fellow St. Petersburg prisoner, or for his servant, leaving only some money for them. Other factors contributed to his decision to depart. His French connections meant that he was vulnerable to deportation or imprisonment under the terms of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson was concerned that the U.S. and France were verging on the brink of war after the XYZ Affair and regarded him as an informal envoy. Ko?ciuszko later wrote, "Jefferson considered that I would be the most effective intermediary in bringing an accord with France, so I accepted the mission even if without any official authorization." Disposition of American estate Main article: Wills of Tadeusz Ko?ciuszko Return to Europe Ko?ciuszko arrived in Bayonne, France, on 28 June 1798. By that time, Talleyrand's plans had changed and no longer included him. Ko?ciuszko remained politically active in Polish emigre circles in France, and on 7 August 1799, he joined the Society of Polish Republicans (Towarzystwo Republikanów Polskich). Ko?ciuszko refused the offered command of Polish Legions being formed for service with France. On 17 October and 6 November 1799, he met with Napoleon Bonaparte. He failed to reach an agreement with the French general, who regarded Ko?ciuszko as a "fool" who "overestimated his influence" in Poland. Ko?ciuszko disliked Napoleon for his dictatorial aspirations and called him the "undertaker of the Republic". In 1807, Ko?ciuszko settled in chateau de Berville, near La Genevraye, distancing himself from politics. Ko?ciuszko did not believe that Napoleon would restore Poland in any durable form. When Napoleon's forces approached the borders of Poland, Ko?ciuszko wrote him a letter, demanding guarantees of parliamentary democracy and substantial national borders, which Napoleon ignored. Ko?ciuszko concluded that Napoleon had created the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 only as an expedient, not because he supported Polish sovereignty. Consequently, Ko?ciuszko did not move to the Duchy of Warsaw or join the new Army of the Duchy, allied with Napoleon. After the fall of Napoleon, he met with Russia's Tsar Alexander I, in Paris and then in Braunau, Switzerland. The Tsar hoped that Ko?ciuszko could be convinced to return to Poland, where the Tsar planned to create a new, Russian-allied Polish state (the Congress Kingdom). In return for his prospective services, Ko?ciuszko demanded social reforms and restoration of territory, which he wished would reach the Dvina and Dnieper Rivers in the east. However, soon afterwards, in Vienna, Ko?ciuszko learned that the Kingdom of Poland to be created by the Tsar would be even smaller than the earlier Duchy of Warsaw. Ko?ciuszko called such an entity "a joke". On 2 April 1817, Ko?ciuszko emancipated the peasants in his remaining lands in Poland, but Tsar Alexander disallowed this. Suffering from poor health and old wounds, on 15 October 1817, Ko?ciuszko died in Solothurn at age 71 after falling from a horse, developing a fever, and suffering a stroke a few days later. Ko?ciuszko's internal organs, which had been removed during embalming, were separately interred in a graveyard at Zuchwil, near Solothurn. Ko?ciuszko's organs remain there to this day; a large memorial stone was erected in 1820, next to a Polish memorial chapel. However, his heart was not interred with the other organs but instead kept in an urn at the Polish Museum in Rapperswil, Switzerland. The heart, along with the rest of the Museum's holdings, were repatriated back to Warsaw in 1927, where the heart now reposes in a chapel at the Royal Castle. Name: Artigas Biography: Jose Gervasio Artigas ( June 19, 1764 - September 23, 1850) Nickname(s) Karaí-Guasú Allegiance: Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata Branch/service: Montevideo Uruguay Army Rank: General Jose Gervasio Artigas Arnal (Spanish pronunciation: ; June 19, 1764 - September 23, 1850) is a national hero of Uruguay, sometimes called "the father of Uruguayan nationhood". Mariano Moreno, secretary of war, wrote at the Operations plan that Artigas would be a decisive ally against the royalists in Montevideo, and called him for an interview. Artigas was a staunch democrat and federalist, opposed to monarchism and centralism. Battles/wars British invasions of the River Plate Portuguese invasion of the Banda Oriental (1811-12) Argentine War of Independence Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental Argentine Civil Wars Biography Early life Artigas was born in Montevideo on June 19, 1764. His grandparents were from Zaragoza, Buenos Aires and Tenerife (Canary Islands). His grandparents fought in the War of the Spanish Succession and moved to the Americas to escape from poverty, settling in Buenos Aires in 1716. Artigas was the son of Martín Jose Artigas and Francisca Antonia Arnal, who came from a wealthy family. His parents enrolled him in the Colegio de San Bernardino, to pursue religious studies, but Artigas refused to submit to the school's strict discipline. Before he left the school, he developed a strong friendship with Fernando Otorgues, who would work with him in later years. At the age of 12, he moved to the countryside and worked on his family's farms. His contact with the customs and perspectives of gauchos and Indians made a great impression on him. Once he had come of age, he distanced himself from his parents and became involved in cattle smuggling. This made him a wanted man among the owners of haciendas and with the government in Montevideo. A reward was put out for his death. Things changed with the opening of the Anglo-Spanish War, and the threat of a British invasion upon the viceroyalty. The viceroy Antonio de Olaguer y Feliú negotiated a pardon with his family, on the condition that he joined the Corps of Blandengues with a hundred men, to form a battalion. Thus, he began his military career in 1797, at age 33, with the rank of lieutenant. The attack finally came in 1806, when William Beresford invaded Buenos Aires, in the first British invasion of the River Plate. Although Artigas's unit was tasked with patrolling the frontier with Brazil, he requested to take part in the military expedition that Santiago de Liniers launched from Montevideo to drive the British out of Buenos Aires. His request was granted, and the British were defeated. After the recapture of Buenos Aires, he was tasked with returning to Montevideo and informing the governor Pascual Ruiz Huidobro of the result of the battle. A second British invasion aimed to capture Montevideo, which was captured in the Battle of Montevideo. Artigas was taken prisoner, but he managed to escape and returned to the countryside. He organized groups of gauchos and began a guerrilla war against the British. The British tried to capture Buenos Aires a second time, but were defeated by the local armies, and returned Montevideo to Spanish control as part of the terms of capitulation. Artigas was promoted to captain in 1809. Oriental revolution The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the outbreak of the Peninsular War (from 1807 to 1814) in Spain, along with the capture of King Ferdinand VII, generated political turbulence all across the Spanish Empire. The absence of the king from the throne (replaced by the French Joseph Bonaparte) and the new ideas of the Enlightenment sparked the Spanish American wars of independence, between patriots (who wanted to establish republics or constitutional monarchies) and royalists (who wanted to keep an absolute monarchy). Artigas, who thought that the gauchos were not treated well, supported the new ideas. Buenos Aires deposed the viceroy in 1810, during the May Revolution, replacing him with the Primera Junta. Mariano Moreno, secretary of war, wrote at the Operations plan that Artigas would be a decisive ally against the royalists in Montevideo, and called him for an interview. However, by the time Artigas arrived in Buenos Aires, Moreno had already left the government. He was still welcomed, but received little help. He was promoted to colonel and received some weapons, money and 150 men, very little to organize a rebellion at the Banda Oriental. This was the last time Artigas saw the city of Buenos Aires. Spain declared Buenos Aires a rogue city, and appointed Montevideo as the new capital, with Francisco Javier de Elío as the new viceroy. The city had financial problems, and the measures taken by Elío to maintain the royalist armies were highly unpopular in the countryside. This allowed Artigas to channel the popular discontent against the colonial authorities. A hundred men met near the Asencio stream and made the cry of Asencio, a pronunciamiento against the viceroy. They captured many villages in the Banda Oriental, such as Mercedes, Santo Domingo, Colla, Maldonado, Paso del Rey, Santa Teresa and San Jose. They also captured Gualeguay, Gualeguaychú and Arroyo de la China, at the west of the Uruguay river. Elío sent some soldiers to kill Artigas, but they failed to accomplish their mission. Then, he sent Manuel Villagrán, a relative of Artigas, to offer him the pardon and appoint him general and military leader of the Banda Oriental if he gave up the rebellion. Artigas considered the offer an insult, and sent Villagrán prisoner to Buenos Aires. Montevideo was soon surrounded by Artigas's forces. A Montevidean army tried to stop the patriots at the Battle of Las Piedras, but they were defeated, and the city was put to siege. Jose Rondeau, commanding forces from Buenos Aires, joined the siege. Artigas wanted to attack the city right away, but Rondeau thought that there would be less loss of lives by establishing a blockade and waiting for the city to surrender. However, the besiegers did not consider the naval forces of Montevideo, who kept the city supplied and enabled them to endure the blockade. On the verge of defeat, Elío allied himself with Brazilian forces, requesting their intervention in the conflict. Dom Diogo de Sousa entered into the Banda Oriental, leading an army of five thousand men. This added to the Argentinian defeat of Manuel Belgrano at the Paraguay campaign, the defeat of Juan Jose Castelli at the First Upper Peru campaign and the Montevidean naval blockade of Buenos Aires. Fearing a complete defeat, Buenos Aires signed a truce with Elío, recognizing him as the ruler of the Banda Oriental and half of Entre Ríos. Artigas felt the truce to be treasonous. He broke relations with the city, and lifted the blockade over Montevideo. Artigas left the Banda Oriental and moved to Salto Chico, in Entre Ríos. All his supporters moved with him. This massive departure is known as the Oriental exodus. The Supreme Director Gervasio Antonio de Posadas offered a reward of $6.000 for the capture of Artigas, dead or alive. The only consequence of this action was increased resentment of the orientals towards Buenos Aires. Several royalist leaders, such as Vigodet or Pezuela, sought an alliance with Artigas against Buenos Aires, but he rejected them: "I may not be sold, nor do I want more reward for my efforts than to see my nation free from the Spanish rule". Despite the deep disputes, Artigas was still eager to return to good terms with Buenos Aires, but only if the city accepted a national organization based on federalist principles. Posadas sent two more armies to capture and execute Artigas, but they mutinied and joined the orientals. When the Artiguist influence expanded to Corrientes, Posadas sought to negotiate by accepting the autonomy of the provinces. Artigas accepted the terms, but clarified that such autonomy must not be understood as national independence. He did not want to secede the Banda Oriental from the United provinces, but to organize them as a confederation. Posadas, who supported the authority of Buenos Aires as the head of a centralized state, delayed the approval of the treaty. Buenos Aires renewed the military actions against Montevideo. This time, the naval skills of Argentinian William Brown helped to overcome the strength of the Montevidean navy, leading to the final defeat of the royalist stronghold. Carlos María de Alvear led the capture of Montevideo, and lured Artigas there by promising that he would turn over the city to the Oriental patriots. Alvear attacked them without warning at Las Piedras, but Artigas managed to escape from the trap. Liga Federal In 1814, Artigas organized the Liga de los Pueblos Libres (League of the Free Peoples), of which he was declared Protector. In the following year, he liberated Montevideo from the control of the "Unitarians" from Buenos Aires. In 1815, Artigas attended the Congress of Oriente, a year before the Congress of Tucuman, held in Arrollo de la China (today known as Concepción del Uruguay). It was at this congress that the provinces of the Oriental Province (today the country of Uruguay), Córdoba, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Misiones and Santa Fe declared themselves independent from Spain and formed the Liga Federal ("Federal League"). The Liga Federal invited other provinces of the former Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata to join them under a federal system. In this congress, Artigas rectified the use of the flag created by Manuel Belgrano (which would later become the flag of the Argentine Republic), adding a diagonal festoon in red, the color of federalism in Argentina at that time, and changing the Borbonic light blue for Revolutionary dark blue. Luso Brazilian invasion Main article: Luso-Brazilian invasion The continued growth of influence and prestige of the Federal League frightened the governments in Buenos Aires (because of its federalism) and Portugal (because of its republicanism), and in August 1816, Portugal invaded the Eastern Province (with tacit complicity from Buenos Aires), with the intention of destroying Artigas and his revolution. The Portuguese forces, led by Carlos Frederico Lecor, captured Artigas and his deputies and occupied Montevideo on 20 January 1817, but the struggle continued for three years in the countryside. Infuriated by Buenos Aires's passivity, Artigas declared war on Buenos Aires while he was losing to the Portuguese. His subordinates, members of the Federal League -- Francisco Ramírez, governor of Entre Ríos, and Estanislao López, governor of Santa Fe—managed to defeat the centralism of Buenos Aires. But hope for a new nation was short-lived; both commanders entered agreements with Buenos Aires that went against the principles of Artigas. They rebelled against him and left him to be crushed by the Portuguese. Without resources and men, Artigas withdrew to Paraguay in September 1820. In Paraguay, Dr. Francia, the dictator, banished him to Candelaria. He then disappeared from the political life of the region. (B. Nahum). After a long exile, he died in Paraguay in 1850, at age 86. It is said that Artigas, feeling himself to be near death, asked for a horse and died in the saddle, as a gaucho. His remains were buried and then re-interred at the Panteón Nacional in 1855. On 19 June 1977, his remains were transferred to the Artigas Mausoleum in the centre of the Plaza Independencia. Ideals Main article: Artiguism Artigas was a staunch democrat and federalist, opposed to monarchism and centralism. Artiguism has two main sources: the works of American authors such as Thomas Paine (supporters of federalism) and the French authors of the Enlightenment as Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Artigas read books in his teens as "Common Sense" of Paine and "The social contract" of Rousseau. The first "Caudillo" or Founding Father of the La Plata territory seems to be inspired more in the Anglo-Saxon enlightenment than from the French. The ideology of Artigas is partially taken from the U.S. legal texts. The American political liberalism exerted strong influence on Artigas. Other Hispanic independence leaders, however, were more influenced by the French Revolution and the authors of France. Some historians such as Eugenio Petit Mu?oz and Ariosto González, have shown that some paragraphs of the artiguist documents were taken directly from "The independence of the mainland justified by Thomas Paine, thirty years ago" published by Paine in Philadelphia in 1811 and translated immediately into Spanish, and "concise history of the United States" by John McCulloch. Artigas had both books. The first of the works cited contained a large appendix of documents with the United States Declaration of Independence, the Federal Constitution of 1787 and the State Constitutions of Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Legacy Artigas has become a national hero in Uruguay. This is significant as, since independence, many Uruguayan figures have been heroes of either the Colorado or the Blanco party, while being reviled by the other side. As such, Artigas has been the namesake of numerous places, vessels, etc. throughout Uruguayan history, particularly during periods of peace and reunification between the parties. Artigas Department, the northernmost region of Uruguay (formed 1 October 1884 from Salto Department). Artigas, its capital (established 1852). Artigas Airport (SUAG/ATI), its airport. General Artigas Bridge, which connects Paysandú, Uruguay and Colón, Argentina (completed 1975). Fort General Artigas, a military museum on Montevideo Hill (completed 1809, renamed 1882, rededicated 1916). General Artigas Military Club in Montevideo (established 1925). General Artigas Military School in Montevideo (established 1947). Artigas Base, Uruguay's Antarctic research station (established 1984). The Uruguayan 1st Cavalry Regiment (Reg. "Blandengues de Artigas" de Caballería No 1). The ROU 04 General Artigas, a converted German Lüneburg (E)-class replenishment oiler (commissioned 2005). The former ROU 02 General Artigas, a converted French Commandant Rivière-class frigate (commissioned 1988, decommissioned 2005). The former ROU Artigas (DE-2), a converted American Cannon-class destroyer escort (commissioned 1952, decommissioned 1988). The former General Artigas, an Austro-Hungarian gunboat (commissioned 1884, decommissioned 1915). The former steamship General Artigas, employed by President Flores during his successful rebellion. The Flag of Artigas, flown outside Uruguayan government buildings and used by all branches of the Armed Forces. Artigas's birthday is celebrated as a national holiday (19 June). Statues of Jose Artigas stand on Constitution Avenue in Washington, D.C.; on 6th Avenue in Spring Street Park, New York; in Plaza Artigas Salto, Uruguay; in Caracas, Venezuela; in Athens, Greece; in Mexico City; in Newark, New Jersey; in Quito, Ecuador as well as in the town centre of Montevideo, Minnesota and in Punta del Este, Uruguay. Asunción, Paraguay has a statue of Artigas in its Plaza Uruguay, and the Calle Sebastián Gaboto was renamed the Avenida Artigas in his honor in 1926. An imposing monument of the Uruguayan caudillo stands in Buenos Aires' Recoleta district on the Avenida Libertador, the work of Uruguayan sculptor Juan Jose Zorrilla de San Martín and architect Alejandro Bustillo. Additionally, an extinct giant rodent genus, whose fossils where first found in San Jose Department was named Josephoartigasia after Jose Artigas. There is also a monument and square dedicated to Artigas in Rome, in the Villa Borghese park, Italy. There is a monument in honor of Jose Artigas in Bucharest, Romania. There is a monument in honor of Jose Artigas in Sofia, Bulgaria. Jose Artigas Marg is a street named in honor of Jose Artigas in New Delhi, India. There is an order of Merit, the Order of Military Merit of the Companions of Artigas, founded in 1980. There is one in Elizabeth, New Jersey, United States April 19, 2013 See also Artiguism Flag of Artigas Order of Military Merit of the Companions of Artigas#Historical reference Statues of the Liberators Name: Ampère Biography: Andre-Marie Ampère(UK: /???p??r, ?m-/, US: /??mp??r/; French: ; 20 January 1775 - 10 June 1836) Nationality:French Known for:Ampère's circuital law Ampère's force law Ampère's right hand grip rule Avogadro-Ampère hypothesis Monge-Ampère equation Fields:Physics Institutions:ecole Polytechnique In September 1820, Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist Fran?ois Arago showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery of Danish physicist Hans Christian ?rsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current. Ampère began developing a mathematical and physical theory to understand the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Furthering ?rsted's experimental work, Ampère showed that two parallel wires carrying electric currents attract or repel each other, depending on whether the currents flow in the same or opposite directions, respectively - this laid the foundation of electrodynamics. He also applied mathematics in generalizing physical laws from these experimental results. The most important of these was the principle that came to be called Ampère's law, which states that the mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying wire is proportional to their lengths and to the intensities of their currents. Ampère also applied this same principle to magnetism, showing the harmony between his law and French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb's law of magnetic action. Ampère's devotion to, and skill with, experimental techniques anchored his science within the emerging fields of experimental physics. Andre-Marie Ampère was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as "electrodynamics". He is also the inventor of numerous applications, such as the solenoid (a term coined by him) and the electrical telegraph. As an autodidact, Ampère was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and professor at the ecole polytechnique and the Collège de France. The SI unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere, is named after him. His name is also one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. Early life Andre-Marie Ampère was born on 20 January 1775 to Jean-Jacques Ampère, a prosperous businessman, and Jeanne Antoinette Desutières-Sarcey Ampère, during the height of the French Enlightenment. He spent his childhood and adolescence at the family property at Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'Or near Lyon. Jean-Jacques Ampère, a successful merchant, was an admirer of the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose theories of education (as outlined in his treatise emile) were the basis of Ampère's education. Rousseau believed that young boys should avoid formal schooling and pursue instead an "education direct from nature." Ampère's father actualized this ideal by allowing his son to educate himself within the walls of his well-stocked library. French Enlightenment masterpieces such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon's Histoire naturelle, generale et particulière (begun in 1749) and Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopedie (volumes added between 1751 and 1772) thus became Ampère's schoolmasters. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, which enabled him to master the works of Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli. French Revolution In addition, Ampère used his access to the latest books to begin teaching himself advanced mathematics at age 12. In later life Ampère claimed that he knew as much about mathematics and science when he was eighteen as ever he knew, but as a polymath, his reading embraced history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences. His mother was a devout Catholic, so Ampère was also initiated into the Catholic faith along with Enlightenment science. The French Revolution (1789-99) that began during his youth was also influential: Ampère's father was called into public service by the new revolutionary government, becoming a justice of the peace in a small town near Lyon. When the Jacobin faction seized control of the Revolutionary government in 1792, his father Jean-Jacques Ampère resisted the new political tides, and he was guillotined on 24 November 1793, as part of the Jacobin purges of the period. In 1796 Ampère met Julie Carron, and in 1799 they were married. Andre-Marie Ampère took his first regular job in 1799 as a mathematics teacher, which gave him the financial security to marry Carron and father his first child, Jean-Jacques (named after his father), the next year. (Jean-Jacques Ampère eventually achieved his own fame as a scholar of languages.) Ampère's maturation corresponded with the transition to the Napoleonic regime in France, and the young father and teacher found new opportunities for success within the technocratic structures favoured by the new French First Consul. In 1802 Ampère was appointed a professor of physics and chemistry at the ecole Centrale in Bourg-en-Bresse, leaving his ailing wife and infant son Jean-Jacques Antoine Ampère in Lyon. He used his time in Bourg to research mathematics, producing Considerations sur la theorie mathematique de jeu (1802; "Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games"), a treatise on mathematical probability that he sent to the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1803. Teaching career After the death of his wife in July 1803, Ampère moved to Paris, where he began a tutoring post at the new ecole Polytechnique in 1804. Despite his lack of formal qualifications, Ampère was appointed a professor of mathematics at the school in 1809. As well as holding positions at this school until 1828, in 1819 and 1820 Ampère offered courses in philosophy and astronomy, respectively, at the University of Paris, and in 1824 he was elected to the prestigious chair in experimental physics at the Collège de France. In 1814 Ampère was invited to join the class of mathematicians in the new Institut Imperial, the umbrella under which the reformed state Academy of Sciences would sit. Ampère engaged in a diverse array of scientific inquiries during the years leading up to his election to the academy—writing papers and engaging in topics from mathematics and philosophy to chemistry and astronomy, which was customary among the leading scientific intellectuals of the day. Ampère claimed that "at eighteen years he found three culminating points in his life, his First Communion, the reading of Antoine Leonard Thomas's "Eulogy of Descartes", and the Taking of the Bastille. On the day of his wife's death he wrote two verses from the Psalms, and the prayer, 'O Lord, God of Mercy, unite me in Heaven with those whom you have permitted me to love on earth.' In times of duress he would take refuge in the reading of the Bible and the Fathers of the Church." For a time he took into his family the young student Frederic Ozanam (1813-1853), one of the founders of the Conference of Charity, later known as the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. Through Ampère, Ozanam had contact with leaders of the neo-Catholic movement, such as Fran?ois-Rene de Chateaubriand, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire, and Charles Forbes Rene de Montalembert. Ozanam was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1998. Work in electromagnetism Ampère also provided a physical understanding of the electromagnetic relationship, theorizing the existence of an "electrodynamic molecule" (the forerunner of the idea of the electron) that served as the component element of both electricity and magnetism. Using this physical explanation of electromagnetic motion, Ampère developed a physical account of electromagnetic phenomena that was both empirically demonstrable and mathematically predictive. In 1827 Ampère published his magnum opus, Memoire sur la theorie mathematique des phenomènes electrodynamiques uniquement deduite de l’experience (Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience), the work that coined the name of his new science, electrodynamics, and became known ever after as its founding treatise. In 1827 Ampère was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society and in 1828, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Probably the highest recognition came from James Clerk Maxwell, who in his "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism", named Ampère “the Newton of electricity”. Honours 8.10.1825: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium. Legacy In recognition of his contribution to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement, along with the coulomb, volt, ohm, watt and farad, which are named, respectively, after Ampère's contemporaries Charles-Augustin de Coulomb of France, Alessandro Volta of Italy, Georg Ohm of Germany, James Watt of Scotland and Michael Faraday of England. Ampère's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. Several items are named after Ampère; many streets and squares, schools, a Lyon metro station, a graphics processing unit microarchitecture, a mountain on the moon and an electric ferry in Norway. Name: Hamilton Biography: Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 - July 12, 1804) Position: 1st United States Secretary of the Treasury，Senior Officer of the United States Army，Delegate to the Congress of the Confederation from New York Political :party Federalist Allegiance: New York (1775-1777)，United States (1777-1800) Branch/service: New York Provincial Company of Artillery，Continental Army，United States Army Rank: Major general Commands :U.S. Army Senior Officer Education :King's College (now Columbia University) Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 - July 12, 1804) was an American statesman, politician, legal scholar, military commander, lawyer, banker, and economist. He was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was an influential interpreter and promoter of the U.S. Constitution, as well as the founder of the nation's financial system, the Federalist Party, the United States Coast Guard, and the New York Post newspaper. As the first secretary of the treasury, Hamilton was the main author of the economic policies of George Washington's administration. He took the lead in the federal government's funding of the states' debts, as well as establishing the nation's first two de facto central banks (i.e. the Bank of North America and the First Bank of the United States), a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relations with Britain. His vision included a strong central government led by a vigorous executive branch, a strong commercial economy, support for manufacturing, and a strong military. Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis. He was orphaned as a child and taken in by a prosperous merchant. When he reached his teens, he was sent to New York to pursue his education. He took an early role in the militia as the American Revolutionary War began. As an artillery officer in the new Continental Army he saw action in the New York and New Jersey campaign. In 1777, he became a senior aide to Commander in Chief General George Washington, but returned to field command in time for a pivotal action securing victory at the Siege of Yorktown. After the war, he was elected as a representative from New York to the Congress of the Confederation. He resigned to practice law and founded the Bank of New York before entering politics. Hamilton was a leader in seeking to replace the weak confederal government under the Articles of Confederation; he led the Annapolis Convention of 1786, which spurred Congress to call a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. He helped ratify the Constitution by writing 51 of the 85 installments of The Federalist Papers, which are still used as one of the most important references for Constitutional interpretation. Hamilton led the Treasury Department as a trusted member of President Washington's first Cabinet. Hamilton successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, to assume states' debts, and to create the government-backed Bank of the United States (the First Bank of the United States). These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, and later by a controversial whiskey tax. He opposed administration entanglement with the series of unstable French revolutionary governments. Hamilton's views became the basis for the Federalist Party, which was opposed to the Democratic-Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York. He called for mobilization under President John Adams in 1798-99 against French First Republic military aggression, and became Commanding General of the U.S. Army, which he reconstituted, modernized, and readied for war. The army did not see combat in the Quasi-War, and Hamilton was outraged by Adams' diplomatic approach to the crisis with France. His opposition to Adams' re-election helped cause the Federalist Party defeat in 1800. Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college, and Hamilton helped to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled, and to elect Jefferson despite philosophical differences. Hamilton continued his legal and business activities in New York City, and was active in ending the legality of the international slave trade. Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York State in 1804, and Hamilton campaigned against him as unworthy. Taking offense, Burr challenged him to a duel on July 11, 1804, in which Burr shot and mortally wounded Hamilton, who died the following day. Hamilton is generally regarded as an astute and intellectually brilliant administrator, politician and financier, if often impetuous. His ideas are credited with laying the foundation for American government and finance. Childhood in the Caribbean Alexander Hamilton was born and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis in the Leeward Islands (then part of the British West Indies). Hamilton and his older brother James Jr. (1753-1786) were born out of wedlock to Rachel Faucette, a married woman of half-British and half-French Huguenot descent, and James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton, the laird of Grange in Ayrshire. Speculation that Hamilton's mother was of mixed race, though persistent, is not substantiated by verifiable evidence. Rachel Faucette was listed as white on tax rolls. It is not certain whether Hamilton's birth was in 1755 or 1757. Most historical evidence, after Hamilton's arrival in North America, supports the idea that he was born in 1757, including Hamilton's own writings. Hamilton listed his birth year as 1757 when he first arrived in the Thirteen Colonies, and celebrated his birthday on January 11. In later life, he tended to give his age only in round figures. Historians accepted 1757 as his birth year until about 1930, when additional documentation of his early life in the Caribbean was published, initially in Danish. A probate paper from St. Croix in 1768, drafted after the death of Hamilton's mother, listed him as 13 years old, which has caused some historians since the 1930s to favor a birth year of 1755. Historians have speculated on possible reasons for two different years of birth to have appeared in historical documents. If 1755 is correct, Hamilton might have been trying to appear younger than his college classmates, or perhaps wished to avoid standing out as older. If 1757 is correct, the single probate document indicating a birth year of 1755 may have simply included an error, or Hamilton might once have given his age as 13 after his mother's death in an attempt to appear older and more employable. Historians have pointed out that the probate document contained other proven inaccuracies, demonstrating it was not entirely reliable. Richard Brookhiser noted that "a man is more likely to know his own birthday than a probate court." Hamilton's mother had been married previously on St. Croix in the Virgin Islands, then ruled by Denmark, to a Danish or German merchant, Johann Michael Lavien. They had one son, Peter Lavien. In 1750, Faucette left her husband and first son; then traveled to Saint Kitts where she met James Hamilton. Hamilton and Faucette moved together to Nevis, her birthplace, where she had inherited a seaside lot in town from her father. James Hamilton later abandoned Rachel Faucette and their two sons, James Jr. and Alexander, allegedly to "spar a charge of bigamy... after finding out that her first husband intend to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion." Thereafter, Rachel moved with her two children to St. Croix, where she supported them by keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted yellow fever and died on February 19, 1768, at 1:02 am, leaving Hamilton orphaned. This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an 18th-century childhood. In probate court, Faucette's "first husband seized her estate" and obtained the few valuables that she had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family's books and returned them to Hamilton. Hamilton became a clerk at Beekman and Cruger, a local import-export firm that traded with New York and New England. He and James Jr. were briefly taken in by their cousin Peter Lytton; however, Lytton took his own life in July 1769, leaving his property to his mistress and their son, and the Hamilton brothers were subsequently separated. James apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was given a home by Nevis merchant Thomas Stevens. Some clues have led to speculation that Stevens was Alexander Hamilton's biological father: his son Edward Stevens became a close friend of Hamilton, the two boys were described as looking much alike, both were fluent in French and shared similar interests. However, this allegation, mostly based on the comments of Timothy Pickering on the resemblance between the two men, has always been vague and unsupported. Rachel Faucette had been living on St. Kitts and Nevis for years at the time when Alexander was conceived, while Thomas Stevens lived on Antigua and St. Croix; also, James Hamilton never disclaimed paternity, and even in later years, signed his letters to Hamilton with "Your very Affectionate Father." Hamilton, despite being only in his teenage years, proved capable enough as a trader to be left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771 while the owner was at sea. He remained an avid reader and later developed an interest in writing. He began to desire a life outside the island where he lived. He wrote a letter to his father that was a detailed account of a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. The Presbyterian Reverend Hugh Knox, a tutor and mentor to Hamilton, submitted the letter for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. The biographer Ron Chernow found the letter astounding for two reasons; first, that "for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto," and second, that a teenage boy produced an apocalyptic "fire-and-brimstone sermon" viewing the hurricane as a "divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity." The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education. Education Further information: American Enlightenment and History of Columbia University Revolutionary War Early military career Further information: Hearts of Oak (New York militia) George Washington's staff Further information: George Washington in the American Revolution Hamilton was invited to become an aide to William Alexander, Lord Stirling, and another general, perhaps Nathanael Greene or Alexander McDougall. He declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington's aide, with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Washington believed that "Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch." Hamilton served four years as Washington's chief staff aide. He handled letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals of the Continental Army; he drafted many of Washington's orders and letters at the latter's direction; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton's own signature. Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including intelligence, diplomacy, and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington's emissary. During the war, Hamilton became the close friend of several fellow officers. His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette and to John Laurens, employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology, have been read by Jonathan Ned Katz as revelatory of a homosocial or even homosexual relationship. Biographer Gregory D. Massey amongst others, by contrast, dismisses all such speculation as unsubstantiated, describing their friendship as purely platonic camaraderie instead and placing their correspondence in the context of the flowery diction of the time. Field command Further information: Siege of Yorktown Return to civilian life Congress of the Confederation Main article: Congress of the Confederation Congress and the army Further information: Newburgh Conspiracy Return to New York Further information: Annapolis Convention (1786) Constitution and the Federalist Papers Main articles: United States Constitution and The Federalist Papers See also: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution and Constitutional Convention (United States) Constitutional Convention and ratification of the Constitution The Federalist Papers Main article: The Federalist Papers Reconciliation between New York and Vermont Further information: Vermont Republic Secretary of the Treasury Main article: United States Secretary of the Treasury Further information: Cabinet of the United States Report on Public Credit Main article: First Report on the Public Credit Report on a National Bank Further information: History of central banking in the United States Establishing the U.S. Mint Main article: United States Mint Revenue Cutter Service Main article: United States Revenue Cutter Service See also: United States Lighthouse Establishment Whiskey as tax revenue See also: Whiskey Rebellion Manufacturing and industry Further information: Report on Manufactures Emergence of political parties Main article: Political parties in the United States Further information: Federalist Party and Democratic-Republican Party Jay Treaty and Britain Main article: Jay Treaty Second Report on Public Credit and resignations from public office Main article: Second Report on Public Credit Post-secretary years 1796 presidential election Main article: 1796 United States presidential election Reynolds affair scandal Main article: Hamilton-Reynolds affair Quasi-War Main article: Quasi-War 1800 presidential election Main article: United States presidential election, 1800 Duel with Burr and death Main article: Burr-Hamilton duel Personal life Married life See also: Hamilton family Religion Hamilton's religious faith As a youth in the West Indies, Hamilton was an orthodox and conventional Presbyterian of the "New Light" evangelical type (as opposed to the " He wrote two or three hymns, which were published in the local newspaper. Robert Troup, his college roommate, noted that Hamilton was "in the habit of praying on his knees night and morning".:10 According to Gordon Wood, Hamilton dropped his youthful religiosity during the Revolution and became "a conventional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular churchgoer at best"; however, he returned to religion in his last years. Chernow wrote that Hamilton was nominally an Episcopalian, but: e was not clearly affiliated with the denomination and did not seem to attend church regularly or take communion. Like Adams, Franklin, and Jefferson, Hamilton had probably fallen under the sway of deism, which sought to substitute reason for revelation and dropped the notion of an active God who intervened in human affairs. At the same time, he never doubted God's existence, embracing Christianity as a system of morality and cosmic justice. Stories were circulated that Hamilton had made two quips about God at the time of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. During the French Revolution, he displayed a utilitarian approach to using religion for political ends, such as by maligning Jefferson as "the atheist", and insisting that Christianity and Jeffersonian democracy were incompatible.:316 After 1801, Hamilton further attested his belief in Christianity, proposing a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802 to take hold of "some strong feeling of the mind" to elect "fit men" to office, and advocating "Christian welfare societies" for the poor. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God's mercy. On his deathbed, Hamilton asked the Episcopal Bishop of New York, Benjamin Moore, to give him holy communion. Moore initially declined to do so, on two grounds: that to participate in a duel was a mortal sin, and that Hamilton, although undoubtedly sincere in his faith, was not a member of the Episcopalian denomination. After leaving, Moore was persuaded to return that afternoon by the urgent pleas of Hamilton's friends, and upon receiving Hamilton's solemn assurance that he repented for his part in the duel, Moore gave him communion. Bishop Moore returned the next morning, stayed with Hamilton for several hours until his death, and conducted the funeral service at Trinity Church. Relationship with Jews and Judaism Hamilton's birthplace on the island of Nevis had a large Jewish community, constituting one quarter of Charlestown's white population by the 1720s. He came into contact with Jews on a regular basis; as a small boy, he was tutored by a Jewish schoolmistress, and had learned to recite the Ten Commandments in the original Hebrew. Hamilton exhibited a degree of respect for Jews that was described by Chernow as "a life-long reverence." He believed that Jewish achievement was a result of divine providence: The state and progress of the Jews, from their earliest history to the present time, has been so entirely out of the ordinary course of human affairs, is it not then a fair conclusion, that the cause also is an extraordinary one—in other words, that it is the effect of some great providential plan? The man who will draw this conclusion, will look for the solution in the Bible. He who will not draw it ought to give us another fair solution. Based on the phonetic similarity of "Lavien" to a common Jewish surname, it has often been suggested that the first husband of Hamilton's mother, Rachel Faucette, a German or Dane named Johann Michael Lavien, was Jewish or of Jewish descent. On this foundation, historian Andrew Porwancher, a self-acknowledged "lone voice" whose "findings clash with much of the received wisdom on Hamilton", has promoted a theory that Hamilton himself was Jewish. Porwancher argues that Hamilton's mother (French Huguenot on her father's side) must have converted to Judaism before marrying Lavien, and that even after her separation and bitter divorce from Lavien, she would still have raised her children by James Hamilton as Jews. Reflecting the consensus of modern historians, historian Michael E. Newton wrote that "there is no evidence that Lavien is a Jewish name, no indication that John Lavien was Jewish, and no reason to believe that he was." Newton traced the suggestions to a 1902 work of historical fiction by novelist Gertrude Atherton. Legacy Further information: American School (economics), The Federalist, Implied powers, and History of the United States Government Hamilton's interpretations of the Constitution set forth in the Federalist Papers remain highly influential, as seen in scholarly studies and court decisions. Although the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exact balance of power between national and state governments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater federal power at the expense of the states. As Secretary of the Treasury, he established—against the intense opposition of Secretary of State Jefferson—the country's first de facto central bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, and other increased federal powers, under Congress's constitutional powers to issue currency, to regulate interstate commerce, and to do anything else that would be "necessary and proper" to enact the provisions of the Constitution. On the other hand, Jefferson took a stricter view of the Constitution. Parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy was eventually settled by the Supreme Court of the United States in McCulloch v. Maryland, which in essence adopted Hamilton's view, granting the federal government broad freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, specifically the doctrine of implied powers. Nevertheless, the American Civil War and the Progressive Era demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton's administrative republic sought to avoid. Hamilton's policies as Secretary of the Treasury greatly affected the United States government and still continue to influence it. His constitutional interpretation, specifically of the Necessary and Proper Clause, set precedents for federal authority that are still used by the courts and are considered an authority on constitutional interpretation. The prominent French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote, "I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton", adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives. Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut as both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. Hamilton's reputation was mostly negative in the eras of Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy. By the Progressive era, Herbert Croly, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Roosevelt praised his leadership of a strong government. Several nineteenth- and twentieth-century Republicans entered politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton. In more recent years, according to Sean Wilentz, favorable views of Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars, who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Modern scholars favoring Hamilton have portrayed Jefferson and his allies, in contrast, as na?ve, dreamy idealists. The older Jeffersonian view attacked Hamilton as a centralizer, sometimes to the point of accusations that he advocated monarchy. Monuments and memorials U.S. Army unit lineage The lineage of Hamilton's New York Provincial Company of Artillery has been perpetuated in the United States Army in a series of units nicknamed "Hamilton's Own". It was carried as of 2010 by the 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery Regiment. In the Regular Army, it is the oldest unit and the only one with credit for the Revolutionary War. U.S. Coast Guard vessels A number of Coast Guard vessels have been given a designation after Alexander Hamilton, including: (Alexander) Hamilton (1830) the fastest vessel in Morris-Taney Class of cutters, operated out of Boston for much of her career. It became famous for rescues and saving property and extremely popular; so much so that music was written in November 1839 titled "The Cutter Hamilton Quick step." Hamilton was lost in a gale in 1853. USS Alexander Hamilton (1871), was a revenue cutter in service from 1871 to 1906, and a participant in the Spanish-American War. Alexander Hamilton (WIX 272), as the U. S. Navy gunboat Vicksburg and others of the Annapolis-class were authorized to be built in 1895 with a mission to show the flag and keep order in foreign ports, supporting the "gunboat diplomacy" policy of the period. Gunboat technology advanced rapidly at the turn of the last century, and the class of steam and sail quickly became obsolete. The Vicksburg was transferred to the Coast Guard in 1921, and in the following year was commissioned with the name Alexander Hamilton, replacing the Itasca as the Coast Guard Academy's training ship. She was decommissioned in 1944 and was transferred to the War Shipping Administration in 1946. USCGC Alexander Hamilton (WPG-34) was a Treasury-class United States Coast Guard Cutter launched in 1937. Sunk after an attack by a German U-boat in January 1942, the Hamilton was the U.S. Coast Guard's first loss of World War II. USCGC Hamilton (WHEC-715) was a U.S. Coast Guard cutter in service from 1967 to 2011 and transferred to the Philippine Navy as an excess defense article under the Foreign Assistance Act as BRP Gregorio del Pilar. USCGC Hamilton (WMSL-753) is a U.S. Coast Guard cutter commissioned in 2014. U.S.Navy vessels A number of vessels in the U.S. Navy have borne the designation USS Hamilton, though some have been named for other men. The USS Alexander Hamilton (SSBN-617) was the second LAFAYETTE - class nuclear-powered fleet ballistic missile submarine. Portraits on currency and postage stamps Since the beginning of the American Civil War, Hamilton has been depicted on more denominations of U.S. currency than anyone else. He has appeared on the $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $1,000 notes. Hamilton also appears on the $500 Series EE Savings Bond. Hamilton's portrait has been featured on the front of the U.S. $10 bill since 1928. The source of the engraving is John Trumbull's 1805 portrait of Hamilton, in the portrait collection of New York City Hall. In June 2015, the U.S. Treasury announced a decision to replace the engraving of Hamilton with that of Harriet Tubman. It was later decided to leave Hamilton on the $10, and replace Andrew Jackson with Tubman on the $20. The first postage stamp to honor Hamilton was issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1870. The portrayals on the 1870 and 1888 issues are from the same engraved die, which was modeled after a bust of Hamilton by Italian sculptor Giuseppe Ceracchi. The Hamilton 1870 issue was the first U.S. postage stamp to honor a Secretary of the Treasury. The three-cent red commemorative issue, which was released on the 200th anniversary of Hamilton's birth in 1957, includes a rendition of the Federal Hall building, located in New York City. On March 19, 1956, the United States Postal Service issued the $5 Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Hamilton. The Grange Colleges and universities Secondary schools Alexander Hamilton High School (Los Angeles) Alexander Hamilton Jr./Sr. High School (Elmsford, New York) Alexander Hamilton High School (Brooklyn) Alexander Hamilton High School (Milwaukee) Buildings, public works and public art Geographic sites On slavery Main article: Slavery in the United States See also: New York Manumission Society and Abolitionism in the United States On economics Main article: American School (economics) In popular culture Hamilton has appeared as a significant figure in popular works of historical fiction, including many that focused on other American political figures of his time. In comparison to other Founding Fathers, Hamilton attracted relatively little attention in American popular culture in the 20th century, apart from his portrait on the $10 bill. Theatre and film A stage play called Hamilton, which ran on Broadway in 1917, was co-written by George Arliss, who played the title role. Arliss reprised the role of Hamilton in a 1931 film based on the stage play. In 2015, Hamilton's profile in popular culture was significantly raised by the hit Broadway show Hamilton: An American Musical, written by Lin-Manuel Miranda, who debuted the title role. The musical, which Miranda based on a biography by Ron Chernow, was described by The New Yorker as "an achievement of historical and cultural reimagining. In Miranda's telling, the headlong rise of one self-made immigrant becomes the story of America." The Off-Broadway production of Hamilton won the 2015 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Musical as well as seven other Drama Desk Awards. In 2016, Hamilton received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, and set a record with 16 Tony Award nominations, of which the show won 11, including Best Musical. An Obama administration plan to replace Hamilton on the $10 bill was shelved due in part to the popularity of the musical. On July 3, 2020, Disney+ released the movie Hamilton, an authorized film of the Broadway stage production performed by the original cast. Literature Novelist Gertrude Atherton wrote a fictionalized biography, The Conqueror, Being the True and Romantic Story of Alexander Hamilton, published in 1902. Gore Vidal's 1973 historical novel Burr included Hamilton as a major character. L. Neil Smith cast Hamilton as a principal villain in the historical background of his 1980 libertarian alternative history novel The Probability Broach and its sequels in the North American Confederacy series. Television The Adams Chronicles, a 1976 PBS miniseries, featured Hamilton in a major recurring role. George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation, a 1986 TV series, included Hamilton as a main character, portrayed by Richard Bekins. In the 2000 A&E TV movie The Crossing, about Valley Forge, Hamilton is played by Canadian actor Steven McCarthy and is portrayed memorably at the start of the Battle of Trenton. John Adams, a 2008 HBO miniseries in seven parts, featured Rufus Sewell as Hamilton in two episodes. Legends & Lies, a documentary series produced by Bill O'Reilly, featured Alexander McPherson as Hamilton in eight episodes that aired on Fox News in 2016. Turn: Washington's Spies, an AMC period drama, included Sean Haggerty in a recurring role as Hamilton in its final two seasons (2016-2017). Other An organized group of faithless electors in the 2016 United States presidential election called themselves "Hamilton electors", seeking to link their efforts to Hamilton's Federalist No. 68. Battles/wars American Revolutionary War Battle of Harlem Heights Battle of White Plains Battle of Trenton Battle of Princeton Battle of Brandywine Battle of Germantown Battle of Monmouth Siege of Yorktown Quasi-War Name: Adams Biography: John Adams Jr. (October 30, 1735 - July 4, 1826) Position: 2nd President of the United States, 1st Vice President of the United States, 1st United States Minister to the United Kingdom, 1st United States Minister to the Netherlands, United States Envoy to France, Chairman of the Marine Committee, Delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress Political party: Pro-Administration (before 1795),Federalist (1795 - c. 1808) Democratic-Republican (c. 1808 - 1826) Education: Harvard University (AB, AM) John Adams Jr. (October 30, 1735 - July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Before his presidency, he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain, and he served as the first vice president of the United States. Adams was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with many important figures in early American history, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams and Thomas Jefferson. A lawyer and political activist prior to the revolution, Adams was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence. He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the Boston Massacre. Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced the United States constitution, as did his essay Thoughts on Government. Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and was elected as the United States' second president in 1796. He was the only president elected under the banner of the Federalist Party. During his single term, Adams encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Navy in the undeclared Quasi-War with France. During his term, he became the first president to reside in the executive mansion now known as the White House. In his bid for reelection, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his former friend Thomas Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating a correspondence that lasted fourteen years. He and his wife generated a family of politicians, diplomats, and historians now referred to as the Adams political family, which includes their son John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 - the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence - hours after Jefferson's death. Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve that did not own slaves in their lives. Surveys of historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration. Career before the Revolution Opponent of Stamp Act Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765. The Act was imposed by the British Parliament without consulting the American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents, and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British vice admiralty courts, rather than common law courts. These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked. The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement. Adams authored the "Braintree Instructions" in 1765, in the form of a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. In it, he explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, and served as a model for other towns' instructions. Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of that year. Included were four articles to the Boston Gazette. The articles were republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America, also known as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law. He also spoke in December before the governor and council, pronouncing the Stamp Act invalid in the absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament. He noted that many protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston minister Jonathan Mayhew, invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection. While Adams took a strong stand against the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts by Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, to involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations. In 1766, a town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman. With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased. Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a clapboard house on Brattle Street that was known locally as the "White House". He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then moved to Cold Lane; still, later, they moved again to a larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city. With the death of Jeremiah Gridley and the mental collapse of Otis, Adams became Boston's most prominent lawyer. Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre Britain's passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led the British to dispatch more troops to the colonies. On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob of citizens, eight of his fellow soldiers reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, bringing about the infamous Boston Massacre. The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams was impelled to do so despite the risk to his reputation - he believed no person should be denied the right to counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed so that passions could cool. The week-long trial of the commander, Captain Thomas Preston, began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he had ordered his soldiers to fire. The remaining soldiers were tried in December when Adams made his legendary argument regarding jury decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence." He added, "It is more important that innocence be protected than it is that guilt be punished, for guilt and crimes are so frequent in this world that they cannot all be punished. But if innocence itself is brought to the bar and condemned, perhaps to die, then the citizen will say, 'whether I do good or whether I do evil is immaterial, for innocence itself is no protection,' and if such an idea as that were to take hold in the mind of the citizen that would be the end of security whatsoever." Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who had fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. Adams was paid a small sum by his clients. According to biographer John E. Ferling, during jury selection Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to a packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles." While Adams's defence was helped by a weak prosecution, he also "performed brilliantly." Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in the Massachusetts legislature, and Adams was the town's first choice to fill the vacancy. The prosperity of his law practice increased from this exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to Braintree but kept his office in Boston. He noted on the day of the family's move, "Now my family is away, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to be any where but at my Office. I am in it by 6 in the Morning - I am in it at 9 at night. ... In the Evening, I can be alone at my Office, and no where else." After some time in the capital, he became disenchanted with the rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family - in August 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street, not far from his office. In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home. Becoming a revolutionary Adams, who had been among the more conservative of the Founders, persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong and misguided, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the ultimate view of remaining part of Great Britain was a better alternative. His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in the Gazette that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was illegal. Subsequently, John Adams, Samuel, and Joseph Hawley drafted a resolution adopted by the House of Representatives threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The resolution argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament. Their original charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King. The Boston Tea Party, a historic demonstration against the British East India Company's tea monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. The British schooner Dartmouth, loaded with tea to be traded subject to the new Tea Act, had previously dropped anchor in Boston harbor. By 9:00 PM, the work of the protesters was done - they had demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds, the 1992 equivalent of about $1 million. The Dartmouth owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel regarding their liability for the destroyed shipment. Adams himself applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that the dutied tea's destruction was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. Continental Congress Member of Continental Congress In 1774, at the instigation of John's cousin Samuel Adams, the First Continental Congress was convened in response to the Intolerable Acts, a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend, despite an emotional plea from his friend Attorney General Jonathan Sewall not to. Shortly after he arrived in Philadelphia, Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to King George III. The members of the committee soon split into conservative and radical factions. Although the Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as Joseph Galloway, James Duane, and Peter Oliver who advocated a conciliatory policy towards the British or felt that the colonies had a duty to remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the time did align with those of conservative John Dickinson. Adams sought the repeal of objectionable policies, but at this early stage he continued to see benefits in maintaining the ties with Britain. He renewed his push for the right to a jury trial. He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of the other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Resolution that Three and two make five We should be entertained with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, concerning the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass the Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative." Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals. The Congress disbanded in October after sending the final petition to the King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts by endorsing the Suffolk Resolves. Adams's absence from home was hard on Abigail, who was left alone to care for the family. She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together." News of the opening hostilities with the British at the Battles of Lexington and Concord made Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Three days after the battle, he rode into a militia camp and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of the men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack of discipline. A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress as the leader of the Massachusetts delegation. He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between Loyalists, those favoring independence, and those hesitant to take any position. He became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction - away from Great Britain. Publicly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with Benjamin Franklin's confidential observation that independence was inevitable. In June 1775, with a view of promoting union among the colonies against Great Britain, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston. He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character." Adams opposed various attempts, including the Olive Branch Petition, aimed at trying to find peace between the colonies and Great Britain. Invoking the already-long list of British actions against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Artillery are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures We can adopt." After his failure to prevent the petition from being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring to Dickinson as a "piddling genius." The letter was intercepted and published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to greet Adams and he was for a time largely ostracized. Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain." In October 1775, Adams was appointed the chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777. In response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet Thoughts on Government, which laid out an influential framework for republican constitutions. Independence Throughout the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence. He kept busy on the floor of the Congress, helping push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations to govern the provisional navy. Adams drafted the preamble to the Lee resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee. He developed a rapport with Delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary. On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the Lee resolution, which stated, "These colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized and selected a Committee of Five charged with drafting a Declaration of Independence. He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman. Jefferson thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the Committee to choose Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his exchange with Jefferson: Jefferson asked, "Why will you not? You ought to do it." To which Adams responded, "I will not - reasons enough." Jefferson replied, "What can be your reasons?" and Adams responded, "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can." "Well," said Jefferson, "if you are decided, I will do as well as I can." The Committee left no minutes, and the drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are often contradictory. Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role in its completion. On July 1, the resolution was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to oppose it anyhow. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption. Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "the pillar of support on the floor of Congress, ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered." After editing the document further, Congress approved it on July 2. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent. On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never was nor will be decided among men." He predicted that "he second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America," and would be commemorated annually with great festivities. During the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an unmatched workload among the congressmen. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House." In June, Adams became head of the Board of War and Ordnance, charged with keeping an accurate record of the officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition. He was referred to as a "one man war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control. As chairman of the Board, Adams functioned as a de facto Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with a wide range of Continental Army officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly. He also authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out the Congress's requirements for a treaty with France. He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were unsteady, and the money that he received as a delegate failed even to cover his own necessary expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post. After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27, British Admiral Richard Howe determined that a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. A delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and Edward Rutledge met with Howe at the Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11. Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please, ... except that of a British subject." Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority. Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted American success. He was able to return home to Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress. Diplomatic service Main article: Diplomacy of John Adams Commissioner to France Ambassador to the Dutch Republic Treaty of Paris Ambassador to Great Britain Vice presidency (1789-1797) Election Tenure Election of 1796 Main article: 1796 United States presidential election Presidency (1797-1801) Main article: Presidency of John Adams Failed peace commission and XYZ affair Main article: XYZ Affair Alien and Sedition Acts Main article: Alien and Sedition Acts Quasi-War Fries's Rebellion Main article: Fries's Rebellion Federalist divisions and peace Establishing government institutions and move to Washington Election of 1800 Main article: 1800 United States presidential election Judicial appointments Main article: List of federal judges appointed by John Adams Retirement (1801-1826) Initial years Correspondence with Jefferson Last years and death Political writings Thoughts on Government During the First Continental Congress, Adams was sometimes solicited for his views on government. While recognizing its importance, Adams had privately criticized Thomas Paine's 1776 pamphlet Common Sense, which attacked all forms of monarchy, even constitutional monarchy of the sort advocated by John Locke. It supported a unicameral legislature and a weak executive elected by the legislature. According to Adams, the author had "a better hand at pulling down than building." He believed that the views expressed in the pamphlet were "so democratical, without any restraint or even an attempt at any equilibrium or counter poise, that it must produce confusion and every evil work." What Paine advocated was a radical democracy with the views of the majority neither checked nor counterbalanced. This was incompatible with the system of checks and balances that conservatives like Adams would implement. Some delegates urged Adams to commit his views to paper. He did so in separate letters to these colleagues. So impressed was Richard Henry Lee that, with Adams's consent, he had the most comprehensive letter printed. Published anonymously in April 1776, it was titled Thoughts on Government and styled as "a Letter from a Gentleman to his Friend." Many historians agree that none of Adams's other compositions rivaled the enduring influence of this pamphlet. Adams advised that the form of government should be chosen to attain the desired ends - the happiness and virtue of the greatest number of people. He wrote that, "There is no good government but what is republican. That the only valuable part of the British constitution is so because the very definition of a republic is an empire of laws, and not of men." The treatise defended bicameralism, for "a single assembly is liable to all the vices, follies and frailties of an individual." Adams suggested that there should be a separation of powers between the executive, the judicial and the legislative branches, and further recommended that if a continental government were to be formed then it "should sacredly be confined" to certain enumerated powers. Thoughts on Government was referenced in every state-constitution writing hall. Adams used the letter to attack opponents of independence. He claimed that John Dickinson's fear of republicanism was responsible for his refusal to support independence, and wrote that opposition from Southern planters was rooted in fear that their aristocratic slaveholding status would be endangered by it. Massachusetts Constitution Defence of the Constitutions Political philosophy and views Slavery Adams never owned a slave and declined on principle to use slave labor, saying, "I have, through my whole life, held the practice of slavery in such abhorrence, that I have never owned a negro or any other slave, though I have lived for many years in times, when the practice was not disgraceful, when the best men in my vicinity thought it not inconsistent with their character, and when it has cost me thousands of dollars for the labor and subsistence of free men, which I might have saved by the purchase of negroes at times when they were very cheap." Before the war, he occasionally represented slaves in suits for their freedom. Adams generally tried to keep the issue out of national politics, because of the anticipated Southern response during a time when unity was needed to achieve independence. He spoke out in 1777 against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts, saying that the issue was presently too divisive, and so the legislation should "sleep for a time." He also was against use of black soldiers in the Revolution due to opposition from Southerners. Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts about 1780, when it was forbidden by implication in the Declaration of Rights that John Adams wrote into the Massachusetts Constitution. Abigail Adams vocally opposed slavery. Accusations of monarchism Throughout his lifetime Adams expressed controversial and shifting views regarding the virtues of monarchical and hereditary political institutions. At times he conveyed substantial support for these approaches, suggesting for example that "hereditary monarchy or aristocracy" are the "only institutions that can possibly preserve the laws and liberties of the people." Yet at other times he distanced himself from such ideas, calling himself "a mortal and irreconcilable enemy to Monarchy" and "no friend to hereditary limited monarchy in America." Such denials did not assuage his critics, and Adams was often accused of being a monarchist. Historian Clinton Rossiter portrays Adams not as a monarchist but a revolutionary conservative who sought to balance republicanism with the stability of monarchy to create "ordered liberty." His 1790 Discourses on Davila published in the Gazette of the United States warned once again of the dangers of unbridled democracy. Many attacks on Adams were scurrilous, including suggestions that he was planning to "crown himself king" and "grooming John Quincy as heir to the throne." Peter Shaw has argued that: "he inevitable attacks on Adams, crude as they were, stumbled on a truth that he did not admit to himself. He was leaning toward monarchy and aristocracy (as distinct from kings and aristocrats) ... Decidedly, sometime after he became vice-president, Adams concluded that the United States would have to adopt a hereditary legislature and a monarch ... and he outlined a plan by which state conventions would appoint hereditary senators while a national one appointed a president for life." In contrast to such notions, Adams asserted in a letter to Thomas Jefferson: If you suppose that I have ever had a design or desire of attempting to introduce a government of King, Lords and Commons, or in other words an hereditary Executive, or an hereditary Senate, either into the government of the United States, or that of any individual state, in this country, you are wholly mistaken. There is not such a thought expressed or intimated in any public writing or private letter of mine, and I may safely challenge all of mankind to produce such a passage and quote the chapter and verse. According to Luke Mayville, Adams synthesized two strands of thought: practical study of past and present governments, and Scottish Enlightenment thinking concerning individual desires expressed in politics. Adams's conclusion was that the great danger was that an oligarchy of the wealthy would take hold to the detriment of equality. To counter that danger, the power of the wealthy needed to be channeled by institutions, and checked by a strong executive. Religious views Adams was raised a Congregationalist, since his ancestors were Puritans. According to biographer David McCullough, "as his family and friends knew, Adams was both a devout Christian, and an independent thinker, and he saw no conflict in that."[340] In a letter to Rush, Adams credited religion with the success of his ancestors since their migration to the New World.[341] He believed that regular church service was beneficial to man's moral sense. Everett (1966) concludes that "Adams strove for a religion based on a common sense sort of reasonableness" and maintained that religion must change and evolve toward perfection.[342] Fielding (1940) argues that Adams's beliefs synthesized Puritan, deist, and humanist concepts. Adams at one point said that Christianity had originally been revelatory, but was being misinterpreted in the service of superstition, fraud, and unscrupulous power.[343] Legacy Historical reputation See also: Bibliography of John Adams In memoriam Main article: List of memorials to John Adams Name: Napoleon Biography: Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 - 5 May 1821) Position: Emperor of the French，King of Italy，First Consul of France，President of Italy，Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine Allegiance: France Branch/service: French Army Rank: Emperor Commands: Grande Armee Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 - 5 May 1821), usually referred to as simply Napoleon in English, was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. He was the de facto leader of the French Republic as First Consul from 1799 to 1804. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814 and again in 1815. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. One of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. He remains one of the most celebrated and controversial political figures in human history.Napoleon Bonaparte and his mighty Grande Armee were one of the dominant players of the Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon himself showed innovative tendencies in his use of mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, as brilliantly demonstrated in several campaigns. Born Napoleone di Buonaparte on the island of Corsica not long after its annexation by the Kingdom of France, Napoleon's modest family descended from minor Italian nobility. He supported the French Revolution in 1789 while serving in the French army, and tried to spread its ideals to his native Corsica. He rose rapidly in the Army after he saved the governing French Directory by firing on royalist insurgents. In April 1796, he began his first military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies, scoring a series of decisive victories and becoming a national hero. Two years later, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing the War of the Third Coalition by 1805. Napoleon shattered this coalition with decisive victories in the Ulm Campaign, and a historic triumph at the Battle of Austerlitz, which led to the dissolving of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly knocked out Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grande Armee deep into Eastern Europe, annihilating the Russians in June 1807 at Friedland, and forcing the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to accept the Treaties of Tilsit. Two years later, the Austrians challenged the French again during the War of the Fifth Coalition, but Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after triumphing at the Battle of Wagram. Hoping to extend the Continental System (embargo of Britain), Napoleon invaded the Iberian Peninsula and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured brutal guerrilla warfare, and culminated in a defeat for Napoleon's marshals. Napoleon launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the catastrophic retreat of Napoleon's Grande Armee and encouraged his enemies. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A chaotic military campaign culminated in a large coalition army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. The coalition invaded France and captured Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April 1814. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, between Corsica and Italy. In France, the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France, "without spilling a drop of blood" as he wished. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which ultimately defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. The British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821 at the age of 51. Napoleon had an extensive impact on the modern world, bringing liberal reforms to the numerous territories that he conquered and controlled, especially the Low Countries, Switzerland, and large parts of modern Italy and Germany. He implemented fundamental liberal policies in France and throughout Western Europe. His lasting legal achievement, the Napoleonic Code, has been highly influential. Historian Andrew Roberts says, "The ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on—were championed, consolidated, codified and geographically extended by Napoleon. To them he added a rational and efficient local administration, an end to rural banditry, the encouragement of science and the arts, the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire." Napoleon's family was of Italian origin: his paternal ancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a minor Tuscan noble family who emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century; while his maternal ancestors, the Ramolinos, descended from a minor Genoese noble family. The Buonapartes were also the relatives, by marriage and by birth, of the Pietrasentas, Costas, Paraviccinis, and Bonellis, all Corsican families of the interior. His parents Carlo Maria di Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino maintained an ancestral home called "Casa Buonaparte" in Ajaccio. It was there, at this home, that Napoleon was born, on 15 August 1769. He was the fourth child and third son of the family. He had an elder brother, Joseph, and younger siblings Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline, and Jer?me. Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic, under the name Napoleone. In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio, Napolionne, and Napulione. Napoleon was born in the same year that the Republic of Genoa (former Italian state) ceded the region of Corsica to France. The state sold sovereign rights a year before his birth and the island was conquered by France during the year of his birth. It was formally incorporated as a province in 1770, after 500 years under Genoese rule and 14 years of independence. Napoleon's parents joined the Corsican resistance and fought against the French to maintain independence, even when Maria was pregnant with him. His father was an attorney who went on to be named Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child. Later in life, Napoleon stated, "The future destiny of the child is always the work of the mother." Napoleon's maternal grandmother had married into the Swiss Fesch family in her second marriage, and Napoleon's uncle, the cardinal Joseph Fesch, would fulfill a role as protector of the Bonaparte family for some years. Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. When he turned 9 years old, he moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun in January 1779. In May, he transferred with a scholarship to a military academy at Brienne-le-Chateau. In his youth he was an outspoken Corsican nationalist and supported the state's independence from France. Like many Corsicans, Napoleon spoke and read Corsican (as his mother tongue) and Italian (as the official language of Corsica). He began learning French in school at around age 10. Although he became fluent in French, he spoke with a distinctive Corsican accent and never learned how to spell correctly in French. He was, however, not an isolated case, as it was estimated in 1790 that fewer than 3 million people, out of France's population of 28 million, were able to speak standard French, and those who could write it were even fewer. Napoleon was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms and inability to speak French quickly. Bonaparte became reserved and melancholy applying himself to reading. An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor". In early adulthood, he briefly intended to become a writer; he authored a history of Corsica and a romantic novella. On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the ecole Militaire in Paris. He trained to become an artillery officer and, when his father's death reduced his income, was forced to complete the two-year course in one year. He was the first Corsican to graduate from the ecole Militaire. He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace. Early career Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment. He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. The young man still was a fervent Corsican nationalist during this period and asked for leave to join his mentor Pasquale Paoli, when the latter was allowed to return to Corsica by the National Assembly. Paoli had no sympathy for Napoleon however as he deemed his father a traitor for having deserted his cause for Corsican independence. He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. Napoleon, however, came to embrace the ideals of the Revolution, becoming a supporter of the Jacobins and joining the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations of secession. He was given command over a battalion of volunteers and was promoted to captain in the regular army in July 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against French troops. When Corsica declared formal secession from France and requested the protection of the British government Napoleon and his commitment to the French Revolution came into conflict with Paoli, who had decided to sabotage the Corsican contribution to the Expedition de Sardaigne, by preventing a French assault on the Sardinian island of La Maddalena. Bonaparte and his family were compelled to flee to Toulon on the French mainland in June 1793 because of the split with Paoli. Although he was born "Napoleone di Buonaparte", it was after this that Napoleon began styling himself "Napoleon Bonaparte" but his family did not drop the name Buonaparte until 1796. The first known record of him signing his name as Bonaparte was at the age of 27 (in 1796). Siege of Toulon Main article: Siege of Toulon 13 Vendemiaire Main article: 13 Vendemiaire First Italian campaign Main article: Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars Egyptian expedition Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria Ruler of France Main articles: 18 Brumaire and Napoleonic era French Consulate Main articles: French Consulate and War of the Second Coalition Temporary peace in Europe See also: Haitian Revolution French Empire Main article: First French Empire See also: Coronation of Napoleon I and Napoleonic Wars War of the Third Coalition Main article: War of the Third Coalition Middle-Eastern alliances Main articles: Franco-Ottoman alliance and Franco-Persian alliance War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition Peninsular War and Erfurt Main article: Peninsular War War of the Fifth Coalition and Marie Louise Main article: War of the Fifth Coalition Invasion of Russia Main article: French invasion of Russia War of the Sixth Coalition Main article: War of the Sixth Coalition Exile to Elba The Allied Powers having declared that Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to the restoration of peace in Europe, Emperor Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, for himself and his heirs, the thrones of France and Italy, and that there is no personal sacrifice, even that of his life, which he is not ready to make in the interests of France. Done in the palace of Fontainebleau, 11 April 1814. —?Act of abdication of Napoleon In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the Allies exiled Napoleon to Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean, 20 km (12 mi) off the Tuscan coast. They gave him sovereignty over the island and allowed him to retain the title of Emperor. Napoleon attempted suicide with a pill he had carried after nearly being captured by the Russians during the retreat from Moscow. Its potency had weakened with age, however, and he survived to be exiled, while his wife and son took refuge in Austria. He was conveyed to the island on HMS Undaunted by Captain Thomas Ussher, and he arrived at Portoferraio on 30 May 1814. In the first few months on Elba he created a small navy and army, developed the iron mines, oversaw the construction of new roads, issued decrees on modern agricultural methods, and overhauled the island's legal and educational system. A few months into his exile, Napoleon learned that his ex-wife Josephine had died in France. He was devastated by the news, locking himself in his room and refusing to leave for two days. Hundred Days Main article: Hundred Days Exile on Saint Helena The British kept Napoleon on the island of Saint Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km (1,162 mi) from the west coast of Africa. They also took the precaution of sending a small garrison of soldiers to both Saint Helena and the uninhabited Ascension Island, which lay between St. Helena and Europe to prevent any escape from the island. Napoleon was moved to Longwood House on Saint Helena in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. The Times published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death. Napoleon often complained of the living conditions of Longwood House in letters to the island's governor and his custodian, Hudson Lowe, while his attendants complained of "colds, catarrhs, damp floors and poor provisions." Modern scientists have speculated that his later illness may have arisen from arsenic poisoning caused by copper arsenite in the wallpaper at Longwood House. With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his memoirs and grumbled about the living conditions. Lowe cut Napoleon's expenditure, ruled that no gifts were allowed if they mentioned his imperial status, and made his supporters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely. When he held a dinner party, men were expected to wear military dress and "women in evening gowns and gems. It was an explicit denial of the circumstances of his captivity". While in exile, Napoleon wrote a book about Julius Caesar, one of his great heroes. He also studied English under the tutelage of Count Emmanuel de Las Cases with the main aim of being able to read English newspapers and books, as access to French newspapers and books was heavily restricted to him on Saint Helena. There were rumours of plots and even of his escape from Saint Helena, but in reality, no serious attempts were ever made. For English poet Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely, and flawed genius. Death See also: Death mask of Napoleon, Retour des cendres, and Napoleon's tomb Cause of death The cause of Napoleon's death has been debated. His physician, Fran?ois Carlo Antommarchi, led the autopsy, which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer. Antommarchi did not sign the official report. Napoleon's father had died of stomach cancer, although this was apparently unknown at the time of the autopsy. Antommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer; this was the most convenient explanation for the British, who wanted to avoid criticism over their care of Napoleon. In 1955, the diaries of Napoleon's valet, Louis Marchand, were published. His description of Napoleon in the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud in a 1961 paper in Nature to put forward other causes for his death, including deliberate arsenic poisoning. Arsenic was used as a poison during the era because it was undetectable when administered over a long period. Furthermore, in a 1978 book with Ben Weider, Forshufvud noted that Napoleon's body was found to be well preserved when moved in 1840. Arsenic is a strong preservative, and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothesis. Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking large amounts of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide compounds in the almonds used for flavouring. They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his treatment prevented his stomach from expelling these compounds and that his thirst was a symptom of the poison. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left extensive tissue damage behind. According to a 2007 article, the type of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair shafts was mineral, the most toxic, and according to toxicologist Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion that he was murdered. There have been modern studies that have supported the original autopsy finding. In a 2008 study, researchers analysed samples of Napoleon's hair from throughout his life, as well as samples from his family and other contemporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, approximately 100 times higher than the current average. According to these researchers, Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives. Studies published in 2007 and 2008 dismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning, suggesting peptic ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death. Religion Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church Concordat Further information: Concordat of 1801 Arrest of Pope Pius VII In 1809, under Napoleon's orders, Pope Pius VII was placed under arrest in Italy, and in 1812 the prisoner Pontiff was transferred to France, being held in the Palace of Fontainebleau. Because the arrest was made in a clandestine manner, some sources describe it as a kidnapping. In January 1813, Napoleon personally forced the Pope to sign a humiliating "Concordat of Fontainebleau" which was later repudiated by the Pontiff. The Pope was not released until 1814, when the Coalition invaded France. Religious emancipation Further information: Napoleon and the Jews and Napoleon and Protestants Napoleon emancipated Jews, as well as Protestants in Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries, from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers. Despite the antisemitic reaction to Napoleon's policies from foreign governments and within France, he believed emancipation would benefit France by attracting Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced elsewhere. In 1806 an assembly of Jewish notables was gathered by Napoleon to discuss 12 questions broadly dealing with the relations between Jews and Christians, as well as other issues dealing with the Jewish ability to integrate into French society. Later, after the questions were answered in a satisfactory way according to the Emperor, a "great Sanhedrin" was brought together to transform the answers into decisions that would form the basis of the future status of the Jews in France and the rest of the empire Napoleon was building. He stated, "I will never accept any proposals that will obligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to me the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country. It takes weakness to chase them out of the country, but it takes strength to assimilate them". He was seen as so favourable to the Jews that the Russian Orthodox Church formally condemned him as "Antichrist and the Enemy of God". One year after the final meeting of the Sanhedrin, on 17 March 1808, Napoleon placed the Jews on probation. Several new laws restricting the citizenship the Jews had been offered 17 years previously were instituted at that time. However, despite pressure from leaders of a number of Christian communities to refrain from granting Jews emancipation, within one year of the issue of the new restrictions, they were once again lifted in response to the appeal of Jews from all over France. {{Freemason}ry} It is not known for certain if Napoleon was initiated into {{Freemason}ry}. As Emperor, he appointed his brothers to Masonic offices under his jurisdiction: Louis was given the title of Deputy Grand Master in 1805; Jerome the title of Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Westphalia; Joseph was appointed Grand Master of the Grand Orient de France; and finally Lucien was a member of the Grand Orient of France. Back from the siege of Dantzig, general Rapp who wanted to speak to Napoleon, entered his study uninvited only to find the Emperor lost in deep thoughts. Immediately Napoleon took the general by the arm and pointing to the stars, asked him repeatedly if he saw something, "What ! replied Napoleon, you cannot see it !; it is my star; it is shining before you; it has never abandoned me; I see it on all great occasions; it orders me to go forward; it is a constant sign of great fortune !." —?Napoleon Bonaparte Personality Historians emphasize the strength of the ambition that took Napoleon from an obscure village to rule over most of Europe. In-depth academic studies about his early life conclude that up until age 2, he had a "gentle disposition". His older brother, Joseph, frequently received their mother's attention which made Napoleon more assertive and approval-driven. During his early schooling years, he would be harshly bullied by classmates for his Corsican identity and limited command of the French language. To withstand the stress he became domineering, eventually developing an inferiority complex. George F. E. Rude stresses his "rare combination of will, intellect and physical vigour". In one-on-one situations he typically had a hypnotic effect on people, seemingly bending the strongest leaders to his will. He understood military technology, but was not an innovator in that regard. He was an innovator in using the financial, bureaucratic, and diplomatic resources of France. He could rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to his subordinates, keeping in mind where major units were expected to be at each future point, and like a chess master, "seeing" the best plays moves ahead. Napoleon maintained strict, efficient work habits, prioritizing what needed to be done. He cheated at cards, but repaid the losses; he had to win at everything he attempted. He kept relays of staff and secretaries at work. Unlike many generals, Napoleon did not examine history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or anyone else did in a similar situation. Critics said he won many battles simply because of luck; Napoleon responded, "Give me lucky generals", arguing that "luck" comes to leaders who recognize opportunity, and seize it. Dwyer states that Napoleon's victories at Austerlitz and Jena in 1805-06 heightened his sense of self-grandiosity, leaving him even more certain of his destiny and invincibility. "I am of the race that founds empires" he once boasted, deeming himself an heir to the Ancient Romans. In terms of influence on events, it was more than Napoleon's personality that took effect. He reorganized France itself to supply the men and money needed for wars. He inspired his men—the Duke of Wellington said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers, for he inspired confidence from privates to field marshals. The force of his personality neutralized material difficulties as his soldiers fought with the confidence that with Napoleon in charge they would surely win. Image Further information: Cultural depictions of Napoleon Reforms Napoleon instituted various reforms, such as higher education, a tax code, road and sewer systems, and established the Banque de France, the first central bank in French history. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, which sought to reconcile the mostly Catholic population to his regime. It was presented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated public worship in France. He dissolved the Holy Roman Empire prior to German Unification later in the 19th century. The sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States doubled the size of the United States. In May 1802, he instituted the Legion of Honour, a substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of chivalry, to encourage civilian and military achievements; the order is still the highest decoration in France. Napoleonic Code Main article: Napoleonic Code Warfare Further information: Napoleonic weaponry and warfare and Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte In the field of military organization, Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert, and from the reforms of preceding French governments, and then developed much of what was already in place. He continued the policy, which emerged from the Revolution, of promotion based primarily on merit. Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare. Though he consolidated the practice of modern conscription introduced by the Directory, one of the restored monarchy's first acts was to end it. His opponents learned from Napoleon's innovations. The increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed from his creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery practices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemy's defences, now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the enemy's line that was then exploited by supporting infantry and cavalry. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of the French infantry and, later, France's inferiority in cavalry numbers. Weapons and other kinds of military technology remained static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th-century operational mobility underwent change. Napoleon's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon's methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies. Napoleon was regarded by the influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as a genius in the operational art of war, and historians rank him as a great military commander. Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered: "In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon". Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmaneuvering, of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts which made wars costlier and more decisive. The political effect of war increased; defeat for a European power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves. Near-Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national efforts, intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total war. Metric system Main articles: History of the metric system, Mesures usuelles, and Units of measurement in France Education Memory and evaluation Main article: Napoleon legacy and memory Criticism Propaganda and memory Main article: Napoleonic propaganda Long-term influence outside France Main article: Influence of the French Revolution Name: Connor Biography: Ratonhnhake:ton Position: Master Assassin Allegiance: Colonial Brotherhood of Assassins Branch/service: Colonial Brotherhood, Continental Army, New England Hunting Society, Boston Brawlers, Frontiersmen "I realize now that it will take time, that the road ahead is long and shrouded in darkness. It is a road that will not always take me where I wish to go - and I doubt I will live to see it end. But I will travel down it nonetheless." -Ratonhnhake:ton, 1783. Ratonhnhake:ton (born 1756), also known by the adopted name of Connor, was a Kanien'kehá:ka-born Master Assassin of the Colonial Brotherhood of Assassins during the period of the American Revolutionary War. He is an ancestor of Desmond Miles through the paternal line. Born to the British Templar Haytham Kenway and Kaniehtí:io, a Kanien'kehá:ka woman from the village of Kanatahseton, Ratonhnhake:ton was raised in Kanatahseton. In 1760, while he was still a young child, he was assaulted by Charles Lee and other Colonial Templars seeking the First Civilization temple which the Kanien'kehá:ka were protecting, and lost his mother shortly thereafter during the burning of his village by George Washington's forces. Ratonhnhake:ton, however, mistakenly believed the Templars to be responsible for the attack. Concerned by the outside world's impact on his people, Ratonhnhake:ton eventually joined the Assassin Brotherhood under the advice of Oiá:ner, in order to protect his village and prevent the Templars from returning. Finding the Templars had wiped out the Colonial Assassins years prior, Ratonhnhake:ton convinced the Assassin Mentor Achilles Davenport to train him and adopted the more Western-sounding pseudonym of 'Connor'. During his hunt for the Templars, Ratonhnhake:ton aided the Patriot movement and protected George Washington, unwittingly becoming an important figure of the American Revolution. However, he was conflicted by wanting to reconcile with his father, despite Achilles' warnings as to the futility of uniting the Assassin and Templar philosophies, and his dogged pursuit of Charles Lee, whom Haytham staunchly supported. Upon learning that it was Washington, not Lee, who had burned his village, Ratonhnhake:ton became disillusioned with the Revolutionaries but continued using them to aid in the eradication of the Templars. He reluctantly accepted Washington's request for help investigating Benedict Arnold and then in disposing of an Apple of Eden he had recovered. The latter incident saw Ratonhnhake:ton trapped in an alternate reality constructed by the Apple, one wherein Washington ruled as king through tyranny. Eventually, Ratonhnhake:ton escaped this reality and disposed of the Apple. Following Achilles' death, Ratonhnhake:ton went on to rebuild and lead the Colonial Assassins in the newly formed United States of America. In this capacity, he expanded the Assassin network in the New World and reconnected a number of previously detached Brotherhoods across the region.Becoming an Assassin "Once upon a time we had ceremonies on such occasions. But I don't think either of us are really the type for that. You've your tools and training. Your targets and goals. And now you have your title. Welcome to the Brotherhood, Connor." -Achilles inducting Connor into the Assassin Brotherhood. ACIII-RiverRescue 6 Godfrey thanking Connor for saving Terry Shortly after their return from Boston, Connor and Achilles were alerted by a man banging on the window of the manor and calling for help. Connor immediately followed him to the nearby river and saw a second man clinging to an adrift log, which was rapidly heading towards a waterfall. Connor chased him along the riverbank, before jumping into the water to save him from falling to his death ahead. After finding out that the two men, Godfrey and Terry, were loggers in search of a place to build a mill, Connor offered them a good location on the homestead. Not long afterward, Connor protected the carpenter Lance O'Donnell after his wagon was attacked by mercenaries. Grateful, these men alongside Terry and Godfrey's families built homes on the property and became trading partners with Connor, as well as crafting special weapons, pouches and consumables for the Assassin. Achilles instructed Connor to meet him by the homestead dock in order to look over something that he simply called "an asset". Upon arriving, Connor saw the remains of a ship in disrepair, as well as a small shack overlooking the bay. He and Achilles entered the shack and met with Robert Faulkner, the first mate of the ship in the harbor, the Aquila. Connor offered to pay for her repairs, and Robert gladly agreed to gather a crew for the vessel and restore her to sailing capability. Six months later, after the Aquila had been repaired, Robert invited Connor along to have the ship fitted with cannons. Connor joined him without hesitation, and the two were out at sea for weeks, where Robert taught Connor to both sail the ship and fire her cannons. Following this, they dealt with a few privateers, before making their way back. ACIII-HardWay 15 Connor receiving the Assassin robes On his return, he heard a drunken man shout about letters he possessed, written by the infamous William Kidd. Connor soon spoke to "Peg Leg", who explained the letters he obtained hinted at the location of a great treasure. He would give them to Connor in exchange for "trinkets" from treasure boxes hidden across the American frontier. When he finally returned to the manor, Connor was berated by Achilles, who accused him of leaving for so long without as much as a goodbye. Nevertheless, Achilles led Connor down to the manor basement, in order to bestow on him the Assassin robes there. Though Achilles admitted that the Order usually had a ceremony for such an occasion, neither he nor Connor seemed the type for such things. Instead, after Connor had donned the robes, Achilles simply verbally welcomed him into the Brotherhood of Assassins.The Revolution Boston Tea Party Later that year, Kanen'tó:kon came to visit Connor at the homestead, bringing news that William Johnson was attempting to lay claim on their nation's land without their consent. Outraged by the thought, Connor immediately decided to seek out Johnson. ACIII-JohnsonTrail 5 Connor declaring war on the Templars Though Achilles tried to keep him from acting hastily, Connor argued that he had made a promise to protect his people. Connor then took a hatchet from Kanen'tó:kon and buried its blade into one of the manor's columns, explaining that doing so signified the start of a war to his people, and that the hatchet would not be removed until the danger had passed, despite Achilles' bewilderment at the property damage. On his way, Connor came across a hunter named Myriam, who had been injured by poachers on the Homestead. While Achilles looked after her, Connor used the rope darts he had just been given by his mentor to deal with the poachers, while leaving one alive as a warning. Myriam moved into a cabin north of the manor. Connor later met up with Samuel Adams, who offered to help him in finding Johnson, but only after he had helped Adams cripple Johnson's tea extortion. During his assistance, Connor met Stephane Chapheau, a French taverner, and helped him ward off tax collectors that were harassing him. Soon afterward, Stephane went into a violent rage, and caused various riots around Boston against the Loyalists. After finding the main overseer of the tea's transportation, Connor had Stephane assassinate him, taking him on as an apprentice afterward. Later, Connor met with Adams again, who aimed to recruit the Assassin into dumping the newly arrived shipment of tea into the ocean, which Connor accepted. ACIII-Teaparty 7 Connor and Stephane Chapeau dumping the tea into Boston harbor During this, Connor protected the Sons of Liberty during the Boston Tea Party, and smugly dropped the last crate of tea into the water as a show of rebellion, in front of Johnson, who was watching from a distance. Following this, seeing the oppression of the people by the Templars, Connor began helping out people throughout Boston. As a result, he recruited Duncan Little and Clipper Wilkinson, taking them on as apprentices, just as he had done with Stephane. Connor also brought the miner Norris to live on the Homestead after he had been assaulted by drunken soldiers. The two became close friends, with Connor helping Norris court Myriam's hand in marriage. He later brought doctor Lyle White to live on the Homestead after Warren and Prudence learned they were going to have a child. The Homestead further expanded when an inn was established by Oliver and Corrine. In 1774, Kanen'tó:kon informed Connor that William Johnson was attempting to negotiate with the Iroquois Chiefs at Johnson Hall. Though Johnson promised them protection, the natives firmly told him that his words were hollow and that they would not sell their land to him. As Johnson decided to try convincing them with violence instead, Connor swiftly assassinated him from above. In his last words, Johnson told Connor that he had not wished to own the lands for profit, but to ensure peace and protection for all the nations. Sometime that year, Connor was given Kidd's letter to Abel Owens, who had been shipwrecked on Dead Chest Island, a large rock located in the Virgin Islands. Once at the island's ship graveyard, Connor encountered scavengers who had recovered Owens' portion of the map, to which he gave chase. After he dispatched them, Connor read out the next clue, "Near the wolf's abode." He also sailed to the jungles of Cerros, where he recovered William Kidd's personal sword from a Mayan pyramid. Igniting the Revolutionary War ACIII-Midnightride 12 Connor and Paul Revere fleeing Regulars during the Midnight Ride A year later, a messenger arrived at the homestead, bearing a request for Connor to aid a man named Paul Revere. Connor politely refused the offer, frowning on the fact that the Sons of Liberty mistook him as one of their own. However, when Achilles pointed out that the Templar John Pitcairn was mentioned within the letter, the Assassin relented. Though he met with Paul Revere, Connor was disappointed to find that Pitcairn was not present. Instead, Revere recruited his help in riding to warn the inhabitants of Lexington and Concord about the incoming British Army, with the promise of later locating Pitcairn. After the ride, Connor joined the Continental Army at Lexington, where a bloody battle ensued. Pitcairn was present at the fight, but Connor chose to help in the defense of the town, rather than pursue his true target. Later, Connor accompanied Samuel Adams to George Washington's induction as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. Midway through Washington's speech, Connor heard the voice of Charles Lee, who had been sitting behind him. He immediately stood to confront Lee, but Samuel quickly intervened, pulling him away and attempting to distract him by introducing him to Washington. Washington greeted him warmly, and Connor admitted that the man before him would be the one to lead the country into freedom. ACIII-Conflictlooms 9 Connor meeting with Putnam at Bunker Hill Connor was later directed to Bunker Hill, where the forces of Israel Putnam were engaging the British troops of Pitcairn. Connor offered Putnam his help in disabling the ships that were pinning down the Continental forces with cannon fire, as destroying the artillery would drive Pitcairn out of hiding. After Pitcairn and his troops retreated to a more secure position outside of the city, Connor infiltrated the camp and managed to assassinate him from the treetops above. Pitcairn gave the same justifications for his actions as Johnson, and as he died, Connor recovered a letter from his body that gave evidence of an assassination plot on George Washington's life, escaping before the Regulars could attack him. Connor started investigating the plan to kill Washington, although he did not make much progress. In the meantime, he learned of a secret that would jeopardize the funding of the revolution: to this end, he set sail to sink the HMS Dartmoor before it reached Boston. Protecting George Washington Mason: "That man is our Jupiter Conservator, destined to lead us not just to freedom, but greatness. Anyone who says otherwise is either a simpleton or a traitor." Connor: "Then you understand why I need to get out of here. If I don't help him, he is going to die." -Mason Locke Weems and Connor discussing George Washington. ACIII-Ontheside 13 Connor being arrested along with Hickey In 1776, Achilles contacted Benjamin Tallmadge, an ally of the Brotherhood, who led Connor to New York in search of Thomas Hickey. Tallmadge explained that Hickey was responsible for running a counterfeiting ring there, and was plotting to murder Washington. When Connor arrived at Hickey's operation, he drew his Hidden Blade, revealing himself to be an Assassin. Hickey commented that he had thought Connor's kind had been wiped out, before escaping out of the building. Although Connor chased Hickey through the streets and caught him, they were both apprehended by guards. Forthwith, Connor attempted to explain that he was not involved in the operation, but he was knocked unconscious, and he and Hickey were thrown into Bridewell Prison on charges of counterfeiting. Bridewell Prison 2 Connor being taunted by Hickey When Connor awoke in Bridewell Prison, he discovered that Hickey had been placed in the cell next to him, much to the latter's amusement. In response, Connor rebutted that at least Washington would be safe with Hickey imprisoned, but Hickey only pointed out the two Templars approaching his cell. Charles Lee and Haytham Kenway released Hickey, though they told him that he was only moving to a larger cell, due to the on-going investigations for his involvement in a plan to assassinate Washington. Just as the Templars were about to leave, Hickey asked them what was to be done with the Assassin and pointed out Connor in his cell. Haytham instructed Charles to deal with the problem, and the latter promised Connor that he had a plan for him, which would kill two birds with one stone. As the Templars departed, Connor eavesdropped on his fellow inmates and found that a prisoner, Mason Weems, had crafted a key. Connor confronted Mason and found him to be cooperative after he mentioned the planned attempt on Washington's life since Weems was a strong believer in Washington's role in the country's independence. Bridewell Prison 9 Connor speaking with Mason Weems Though Weems said that he intended to escape, the key he had been crafting over the past few months had just been stolen by another of the inmates. With this in mind, Connor stole the key back but found that it did not open his cell. The next day, he confronted Mason again, who told him that the key was not meant to work and that it was intended to be swapped with the warden's real key, so he would not notice the theft. However, the only way to get near the warden was to end up in "the Pit", a solitary confinement area of the prison. Begrudgingly, Connor started a fight with several prisoners, until the guards were forced to restrain him, and throw him into the Pit. There, Connor switched his and the warden's keys and sneaked into the higher portion of the prison, where he thanked Weems for helping him and promised to return the favor, before going to Hickey's cell. Upon reaching it, however, Connor only found the body of the warden and turned to find Lee and Hickey at the doorway. Bridewell Prison 14 Connor being choked by Lee Holding him at gunpoint, the Templars explained to Connor that he would be brought to trial for plotting to assassinate Washington and that they were considering pinning the murder of the warden on him as well. Connor attacked Lee but was easily knocked out due to exhaustion from previous skirmishes. Lee finally realized that Connor had been the young boy he had threatened years before and was gleeful that Connor had kept his promise to find him. Lee then knocked Connor unconscious, and he was dragged back to his cell. Connor awoke the following day and was transported to his execution site, where he was met by Hickey. Though Connor stated that he had thought he would be put on trial, Hickey cheerfully told him that trials were not permitted to those accused of treachery. ACIII-Publicexecution 7 Charles Lee addressing the public at Connor's hanging Connor was then led towards the gallows as dozens of spectators denounced him from all sides, and Washington, Lee, and Hickey looked on. However, as he neared the front of the crowd, he noticed several of his fellow Assassins killing the guards overlooking the event, and, after being punched to the ground by one of the spectators, Connor found himself being helped up by Achilles. The old man advised Connor to simply give a signal the moment he wanted to be freed. Though Lee spoke out Connor's supposed crimes to the crowd and placed the noose about his neck, the Assassin gave a whistled signal just as the trapdoor under him was opened. The noose was severed before it could strangle him, and Achilles pulled Connor to his feet under the gallows and handed him his tomahawk. Connor ran through the disordered crowd as his Assassin recruits faced off against Hickey's men, heading towards Washington, who was standing at the back with his bodyguards. Hickey rushed to Washington in a desperate attempt to assassinate him, but Connor caught up and struck Hickey down first. With his last breath, Hickey confessed that he did not care for the Templar cause, and had simply followed them since they held the money and power. ACIII-Publicexecution 14 Connor at the signing of the Declaration of Independence Connor then found himself surrounded by several raised muskets, but Putnam arrived in time and ordered the Continental soldiers to stand down, pointing out that Connor had just saved Washington's life. From there, Connor asked where Washington had gone but found he had already left for Philadelphia. Both he and Achilles traveled there, where Connor decided that he would tell Washington about the conflict between the Assassins and Templars, in order for the man to better understand about what he was up against. Achilles advised him not to, stating that it would only distract Washington. Once inside, Connor attended the signing of the Declaration of Independence, claiming the freedom of the colonies from British occupation, though Washington had already left for New York prior to his arrival. After the Continental Army retreated from New York, Connor recruited the locals Deborah Carter, Jacob Zenger and Jamie Colley as Assassin apprentices, after they aided him to stop Templars from exploiting the British occupation of the city. Connor also invited the British deserter David Walston, a blacksmith, and the seamstress Ellen and her daughter Maria to live on the Homestead. This prompted attacks from Quincent and his friends, as well as British soldiers seeking to arrest Dave for treason, but Connor led the Homestead in defending their friends. The Homestead also saw the addition of a church during the war, pastored by Father Timothy. Connor aided the Revolution by infiltrating forts, killing the captains stationed there and claiming them for the Patriots. He stood by Washington as the Patriots crossed the Delaware River that Christmas, during a surprise attack on the British in New Jersey. Connor pursued Lee to Monmouth and arrived to find a French contingent led by the Marquis de Lafayette. Lafayette told Connor that Lee had shown up moments before to take charge; screaming at everyone to advance before riding away. At that moment, a large number of British soldiers came to surround the area, and Connor volunteered to cover their retreat. ACIII-BattleofMonmouth 4 Connor with Washington and Lafayette Connor and a small group of Lafayette's elite held off the advance with cannon fire, before falling back as well. The Assassin then rescued several Continental soldiers being lined up for execution throughout Monmouth, before reaching the main force of the Continental Army led by Washington. There, Lafayette congratulated Connor for saving so many lives, but the Assassin only turned to address Washington. Connor told him that Lee had betrayed the Continental Army; a claim that Lafayette supported, due to Lee's unusual behavior before the battle. Washington said that he would look into the issue, but Connor irately responded that the time for doing such had passed. As Connor departed the battlefield, he warned Washington that if the latter spared Lee's life, he would take it himself. The death of Kanen'tó:kon solidified his desire to kill Lee, and Connor drew a dagger near Lee's portrait on his target wall. Investigating West Point Washington: "Whom can we trust now, if Patriot heroes are betraying us...?" Connor: "You reap what you sow." -Washington and Connor conversing after Benedict Arnold's escape. Two years later, Washington called upon Connor again to take out spies he suspected of planning to assassinate Benedict Arnold. Connor decided to take up the offer but ordered Washington to never call on him again. After dispatching the guards, Connor went to Arnold to inform him of the death of the spies. After aiding in distributing gunpowder to the troops, Connor spotted Arnold and his major, John Anderson, sneak off to discuss something. Pursuing them, Connor discovered that Arnold himself was a spy, and Anderson was actually Redcoat Major Andre. Arnold sent Andre to deliver a letter to General Henry Clinton, offering the surrender of Fort West Point for the sum of twenty thousand pounds. ACIII-BA-Westpoint 1 Connor confronting Arnold over his letter to the British Army Following Andre, Connor witnessed the spy redressing himself as a Redcoat and being stopped by two Patriots, however, Andre botched up his attempts to get past them and Connor ordered the Patriots to search him, whereupon they found the letter. Andre was captured and Connor confronted Arnold. The Continental General claimed that the letter was a farce, and was instigated to ruin his reputation as a loyal Patriot. However, at that moment, West Point was attacked by Regulars and in the conflict, Arnold escaped on the Vulture. After defending the fort, Washington arrived to congratulate Connor, though the latter was angered by Arnold's escape. Washington lamented the fact that he was betrayed by a Patriot war hero, to which Connor angrily replied: "you reap what you sow". Connor then left Washington to watch Arnold's ship leave. Last stand against the Templars Battle of the Chesapeake Connor: "But with Lee gone, my father might..." Achilles: "Listen to me. You have not come this far to throw it all away over misplaced sentiment. Both men must die." -Connor and Achilles on the latter's deathbed. ACIII-BattleofChesapeake 1 Connor speaking with dying Achilles In 1781, Connor went to Achilles, who was sickened and slowly withering in bed. Achilles requested news on the Revolution and Connor responded that the Colonists were winning and that the country might finally be free from British rule. Achilles then told Connor that it was vital that both Haytham and Lee die, despite Connor's continuing belief that Assassins and Templars could unite. Afterward, Connor met up with Lafayette in the mansion's basement, where Connor revealed his strategy of entering Fort George. To do so, he would need the French allies to disguise themselves as British so they could fire upon the fort, giving Connor the opportunity to kill Lee amidst the chaos. Lafayette agreed to the plan, and told Connor that he would be required to help the French naval ships at Chesapeake Bay in return. ACIII-BattleofChesapeake 18 Admiral de Grasse agreeing to help Connor At Chesapeake Bay, Connor captained the Aquila and aided the French in fighting the British, alongside the Marseillois and the Saint-Esprit. Soon, due to the overwhelming numbers the British possessed, both of the French ships were sunk, and a Man-of-War destroyed all of the cannons on board the Aquila. The reinforcements Lafayette promised were still far off, and the battle was still raging, so Connor was forced to ram the Aquila into the Man-of-War. Hearing his crew's apprehensive whispers, he boarded the enemy ship alone, leaving his crew behind. Connor then killed the captain of the ship, and shot its gunpowder cache, before quickly escaping onto the Aquila as the British ship exploded. Somewhat safe at this point, the French reinforcements arrived soon afterward. From there, Connor requested that the leading admiral have the ships raise British flags, in order to approach the area surrounding Fort George without any trouble. Connor returned to the Homestead so Dr. White could tend to the wounded sailors. At the manor, he found Achilles had peacefully passed away after writing a letter to Connor. The letter stated that all of Achilles' property would go to Connor and that his appearance in the old man's life had given him great hope for the future of the new nation that Connor had helped to create. After his funeral service, Connor and the homestead residents buried Achilles next to his wife and son, to be remembered as the "Old Man on the Hill". Subsequently, Connor hung up a painting that Achilles had stashed away because it had brought him painful memories - it turned out to be a portrait of his late familyConfrontation with Lee Lee: "Even those men you sought to save have turned their backs on you. Yet you fight, you resist. Why?" Connor: "Because no one else will!" -Charles Lee and Connor's final words to each other. Following the encounter, Connor shaved his head into a mohawk and smeared his face with war paint. Confronting Lee at Haytham's funeral, Connor was immediately captured due to his injuries. Lee, enraged by Haytham's death, declared that he would keep Connor alive so the latter could watch Lee destroy everything he had ever loved. Charles then left, ordering the guards to do with Connor as they wished, to which they began beating him. On his escape, Connor boarded a British prison ship stealthily and learned that Lee was in Boston before killing the leading officer on board. In Boston, Connor found Charles at the docks, who ran upon seeing him, ensuing in a chase that led to a ship under construction, which had caught on fire as a result of an accident. While Connor caught up to Lee in the vessel's interior, the ferry collapsed, causing more injury upon Connor. Charles, however, recovered and asked why Connor continued to fight despite being turned on at every point, even by the very men he sought to save. Connor replied, yelling "Because no one else will!", and shot Lee in the stomach. Wounded, Lee escaped the burning ferry. ACIII-Chasinglee 14 Connor taking the key from the dying Lee Limping to a harbormaster, Connor learned that Lee had fled to Monmouth. There, Connor found Lee at the Last Drink Inn, still bleeding but drinking silently. Upon spotting Connor, Lee offered Connor his drink, which Connor accepted. The two sat together for a while, observing the patrons. n the end, Lee looked over at Connor and nodded slightly. This signaled Connor to stab Lee in the heart, killing him once and for all. Soon after, Connor retrieved the key to the Grand Temple from Lee's body, before setting him down on the table like a patron who had simply had too much to drink, to which the Assassin promptly left. Name: Lannes Biography: Jean Lannes Position: Close friend to Napoleon and the first of Napoleon's marshals to die of wounds received in battle Allegiance: Kingdom of France, Kingdom of the French, French First Republic, First French Empire Branch/service: French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire Jean Lannes, 1st Duke of Montebello, Prince of Siewierz (10 April 1769 - 31 May 1809), was a French military commander and a Marshal of the Empire who served during both the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of Napoleon's most daring and talented generals, and is regarded by many as one of history's greatest military commanders. Napoleon once commented on Lannes: "I found him a pygmy and left him a giant". A personal friend of the emperor, he was allowed to address him with the familiar tu, as opposed to the formal vous. Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars Battle of Arcole 1796 Battle of Montebello (1800) Napoleonic Wars Battle of Austerlitz (1805) Battle of Saalfeld (1806) Battle of Friedland (1807) Battle of Tudela (1808) Second Siege of Zaragoza 1808-1809 Battle of Aspern-Essling (1809) ? Awards Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour Commander of the Order of the Iron Crown Duke of the Empire Early life Lannes was born in the small town of Lectoure, in the province of Gascony in Southern France. He was the son of a small landowner and merchant, Jeannet Lannes (1733-1812, son of Jean Lannes (d. 1746), a farmer, and wife Jeanne Pomiès (d. 1770) and paternal grandson of Pierre Lane and wife Bernarde Escossio, both died in 1721), and wife Cecile Fouraignan (1741-1799, daughter of Bernard Fouraignan and wife Jeanne Marguerite Laconstère). He was apprenticed in his teens to a dyer. Lannes received little education, but his great strength and proficiency in many sports caused him in 1792 to be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of volunteers of Gers, which he had joined upon the outbreak of war between France and Spain. He served under General Jean-Antoine Marbot during the campaigns in the Pyrenees in 1793 and 1794, and rose by distinguished conduct to the rank of chef de brigade. During his time in the Pyrenees, Lannes was given some important tasks by General Jacques Fran?ois Dugommier and recommended for promotion by future Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout. Campaigns of Italy and Egypt Lannes served under General Barthelemy Louis Joseph Scherer, taking part in the Battle of Loano. However, in 1795, as a result of the reforms of the army introduced by the Thermidorians, he was dismissed from his rank. He re-enlisted as a simple volunteer in the French Armee d'Italie. He served in the Italian campaign of 1796, and climbed his way up to high rank once again, being given command of a brigade in General Pierre Augereau’s division and later of 3 battalions of the permanent advance guard at different times. Lannes was distinguished in every battle and played an important role in the victory at Dego. At the Battle of Bassano, he captured two enemy flags with his own hands and received multiple wounds at the Battle of Arcole but kept leading his column in person. Lannes led troops under Claude Victor-Perrin in the invasion of the Papal States. When he and a small reconnaissance party ran into 300 Papal cavalry, he averted danger by astutely ordering the men to return to base, convincing them not to attack. He was chosen by Bonaparte to accompany him to Egypt as commander in one of General Jean-Baptiste Kleber's brigades, in which capacity he greatly distinguished himself, especially during the retreat from Syria. Lannes was wounded at the Battle of Abukir, before he returned to France with Bonaparte, and assisted him in the Coup of 18 Brumaire. After Bonaparte's takeover and appointment as Consul of France, Lannes was promoted to the ranks of general of division and commandant of the consular guard. Back with the Armee d'Italie, Lannes commanded the advanced guard in the crossing of the Alps in 1800, was instrumental in winning the Battle of Montebello, from which he afterwards took his title, and played a large part in the Battle of Marengo. Napoleonic Wars General Joachim Murat and Chef de brigade Jean-Baptiste Bessières schemed to have Lannes removed over a budget deficit, but Augereau bailed him out. As a result, Lannes was not totally disgraced. Instead, he was sent as ambassador to Portugal in 1801. Opinions differ as to his merits in this capacity; Napoleon never made such use of him again. Lannes purchased the seventeenth-century Chateau de Maisons, near Paris, in 1804 and had one of its state apartments redecorated for a visit from Napoleon. Upon the establishment of the First French Empire, he was made one of the original eighteen Marshals of the Empire. In 1805, he fully regained Napoleon's favour, which he lost during the consulate. At Austerlitz, he commanded the left wing of the Grande Armee. During the War of the Fourth Coalition, Lannes was at his best, commanding his corps with the greatest credit in the march through the Thuringian Forest, the Battle of Saalfeld (which is studied as a model today at the French Staff College), and the Battle of Jena. His leadership of the advance guard at Friedland was even more prominent. In 1807, Napoleon recreated the Duchy of Siewierz (Sievers), granting it to Lannes after Prussia was forced to cede all her acquisitions from the second and third partitions of Poland. After this, Lannes was to be tested as a commander-in-chief, for Napoleon sent him to Spain in 1808 and gave him a detached wing of the army to command, with which he won a crushing victory over General Francisco Casta?os at Tudela on 22 November. In January 1809, he was sent to capture Zaragoza, and by 21 February, after one of the most stubborn defences in history, Lannes was in possession of the place. He later said, "this damned Bonaparte is going to get us all killed" after his last campaign in Spain. In 1808, Napoleon made him Duke of Montebello, and in 1809, for the last time, gave him command of the advance guard. He took part in the engagements around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his corps, he led the French Army across the Danube River and bore the brunt, with Marshal Andre Massena, at the Battle of Aspern-Essling. Death On 22 May 1809, during a lull in the second day of the Battle of Aspern-Essling, Lannes went and sat down at the edge of a ditch, his hand over his eyes and his legs crossed. As he sat there, plunged in gloomy meditation on having seen his friend, General Pierre Charles Pouzet, decapitated mid-conversation by a cannonball, a second cannonball fired from a gun at Enzersdorf ricocheted and struck him just where his legs crossed. The knee-pan of one was smashed, and the back sinews of the other torn. The marshal said, "I am wounded; it's nothing much; give me your hand to help me up." He tried to rise, but could not. He was carried to the tête de pont, where the chief surgeons proceeded to dress his wound. One of Lannes' legs was amputated within two minutes by Dominique Jean Larrey. He bore the painful operation with courage; it was hardly over when Napoleon came up and, kneeling beside the stretcher, wept as he embraced the marshal. On 23 May, he was transported by boat to the finest house in Kaiserebersdorf , now a part of Simmering district of Vienna. Eight days later, Lannes succumbed to his painful wounds at daybreak on 31 May. He was initially buried in Les Invalides, Paris, but in 1810, he was exhumed and reinterred in the Pantheon national after a grandiose ceremony. Family Lannes married twice, in Perpignan on 19 March 1795 to Paulette Meric, whom he divorced because of infidelity in 1800, after she had given birth to an illegitimate son while he was serving in Egypt: Jean-Claude Lannes de Montebello (Montauban, 12 February 1799 - 1817), who died unmarried and without issue, His second marriage was at Dornes on 16 September 1800 to Louise Antoinette, Comtesse de Gueheneuc (Paris, 26 February 1782 - Paris, 3 July 1856), by whom he had five children: Louis Napoleon (30 July 1801 - 19 July 1874) Alfred-Jean (11 July 1802 - 20 June 1861) Jean-Ernest (20 July 1803 - 24 November 1882) Gustave-Olivier (4 December 1804 - 25 August 1875) Josephine-Louise (4 March 1806 - 8 November 1889) one who succeeded in his titles and three others who used the courtesy title of baron. One of his direct descendants, Philippe Lannes de Montebello, was the director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art until 2008. Assessment Lannes ranks with Louis-Nicolas Davout and Andre Massena as the ablest of all of Napoleon's marshals. He was continually employed in tasks requiring the utmost resolution and daring, and more especially when the emperor's combinations depended upon the vigour and self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction of the army. It was thus with Lannes at Friedland and at Aspern as it was with Davout at Austerlitz and Auerstedt, and Napoleon's estimate of his subordinates' capacities can almost exactly be judged by the frequency with which he used them to prepare the way for his own shattering blow. Dependable generals with the usual military virtue, or careful and exact troop leaders like Jean-de-Dieu Soult and Jacques MacDonald, were kept under Napoleon's own hand for the final assault which he himself launched; the long hours of preparatory fighting against odds of two to one, which alone made the final blow possible, he entrusted only to men of extraordinary courage and high capacity for command. Lannes' place in his affections was never filled. Beginnings Known as one of the few true friends to Napoleon, Jean Lannes began his military career by joining the National Guard in 1792. Elected as a sous-lieutenant in the 2nd Battalion of Volunteers of Gers, he first saw action in 1793 against Spain in the Pyrenees. His baptism of fire is notable in that it was the only time he ran away from the enemy, but he quickly made up for it. Ordered to reinforce an attack on a Spanish position, his battalion of volunteers was moving towards the front when they ran into their comrades, whom they were supposed to reinforce, fleeing from the battle. Soon the backwards momentum overran the volunteers, and Lannes alongside his battalion was running away with everyone else. Suddenly, he stopped, absolutely mortified that he was running away so easily. With quite a lot of swearing and shouting at his fellow soldiers that they were going the wrong way, Lannes successfully stopped the rout of many of the soldiers. Charging back to the attack, he led them in a counterattack and soon the Spanish were driven from their position. In September of 1793 Lannes fought at Peyrestortes and received a promotion to lieutenant. One month later, a ball passed through his arm during fighting at Banyuls, and he received a promotion to capitaine. That December, he commanded the advance guard of Laterrade's brigade at the action at the camp of Villelongue, and afterwards he received a promotion to chef de brigade. Continuing to fight, in 1794 he served at Montesquieu and Saint-Laurent de la Mouga. Army of Italy With the Spanish signing a peace treaty with France in 1795, Colonel Lannes married his sweetheart Polette Meric and then transferred to the Army of Italy, where he began to gain even more of a reputation for courage and determination. Late that year he fought at Loano , and then in March of 1796 the young General Bonaparte assumed command of the poorly equipped Army of Italy. Lannes fought at Voltri under Cervoni, and then he fought at Millesimo and Dego where Napoleon Bonaparte began to notice his talents. Before long the two were good friends. Fighting at Lodi , Lannes was one of the group of officers who led the soldiers in the daring assault across the bridge. Rising in prestige over the coming months, Lannes crushed rebellions in Italy, fought at Saint-Georges, received a promotion to general de brigade, took two enemy flags at Bassano , served at Due Castelli, and was wounded by a shot at Governolo. After recovering, he joined Augereau's division with which he fought at Arcola . During that battle, Lannes was wounded while leading an assault across the bridge and knocked unconscious. Dragged to safety by his soldiers, he was transported back to an aid station a few miles away from the battle. Waking to the sound of gunfire, Lannes brushed the doctors and their protests away, commandeered a horse, and rode back to Arcola to join in battle again, only to be wounded and knocked unconscious yet again. In 1797, after the Austrian threat in Italy had been defeated, Lannes was sent to campaign against the Papal States. During this campaign, Lannes and Marmont and a few other officers were taking a walk well away from their main force. A Papal contingent of cavalry on patrol , numbering about 300, saw the small group of officers and quickly approached, drawing their swords. Horribly outnumbered, Lannes commanded the Papal soldiers to put away their swords and surrender immediately, and they complied. Upon meeting the Pope later, the Pope held out his hand for Lannes to kneel and kiss his ring as tradition dictates, but Lannes shook the Pope's hand instead. Expedition to Egypt Selected to join the Army of the Orient in 1798, Lannes set sail with the army from Toulon in May. Immediately after the expedition took over Malta, the soldiers were ordered to stay on board the ships to let the situation calm down. Lannes disregarded this order, and with Subervie and a few others, he disembarked to explore Malta and escape boredom. Coming upon a convent, they found it being ransacked by other insubordinate French soldiers. Ordering them to stop, Lannes threatened to shoot them if they did not immediately comply. Surprised at being denied their spoils of war, they left but threatened to return. Lannes sent Subervie to retrieve a guard to protect the convent and then made small talk with the nuns while waiting. That evening, the unruly soldiers returned, this time with a few more soldiers, and Subervie had not yet returned. The ringleader of the unruly soldiers exclaimed that Lannes couldn't do anything to stop them, and Lannes was silent, simply drawing his sword and preparing to take them all on. A moment later Subervie arrived with a guard for the convent, and the unruly soldiers were arrested, with four being court-martialed and the leader being executed for disregard of a superior's orders. Once in Egypt, Lannes initially commanded the 2nd Brigade of Kleber's division and took part in the capture of Alexandria. A month later he had earned command of his own division, and later he helped put down the revolt of Cairo. Taking part in the expedition to Syria, he distinguished himself at El-Arisch and the assault on Jaffa. During the Siege of Acre, Lannes was hit in the neck and knocked unconscious well ahead of French lines, abandoned by his troops who had fallen back. An intrepid grenadier captain, knowing the enemy's fondness for decapitating prisoners of war, rushed out and dragged the unconscious Lannes back to the safety of French lines. Lannes was so grateful to this officer that years later when he became wealthy, he bought the officer an inn which became his livelihood and home. General Bonaparte rewarded Lannes with a promotion to general de division, and once recovered Lannes fought at the Battle of Abukir. During this time he also learned of his wife's infidelity back in France. Consulate When Napoleon decided to return to France in 1799, Lannes was one of the select few chosen to return with him. Assisting with Napoleon's coup d'etat, he commanded the troops of Paris during the time and maintained order. After Napoleon's rise to become a head of state, Lannes still addressed Napoleon with the familiar "tu" instead of the formal "vous", and treated him as he would any friend, regardless of rank. This often meant he would state his true opinion to Napoleon, more often than not saying things that most others would consider unwise to tell your commander and the head of state. In 1800 Lannes was placed in charge of the advance guard of the Army of the Reserve, leading the army across the Great Saint Bernard Pass and into Italy. After distinguishing himself at Aosta, he bypassed the defenses of Fort Bard as quickly as possible, and then went on to win the Battle of Montebello despite being badly outnumbered. Less than a week later, he held the right during the fierce fighting at Marengo, helping significantly to ensure the victory. With the campaign in Italy completed, he returned to Paris and remarried, this time to Louise Gueheneuc, the daughter of a senator. Despite not campaigning, Lannes continued to experience his share of excitement. He had never liked emigres, disliking how they had fled France during the Revolution for various reasons, usually just for being nobility, while other nobles had stayed and defended France. First Consul Bonaparte granted a general amnesty to those who had fled France, and soon enough emigres were around enough to annoy Lannes. Lannes told Caulaincourt, a noble officer that had not fled, that the "Ancien regime officers sure know how to look after their worthless friends." At another time, Lannes had a meeting with Napoleon, and he was told to wait while Napoleon finished a meeting with an emigre. Waiting for too long, Lannes gave up on ever having the meeting and left, but before walking out his temper got the better of him, and he picked up a footstool and threw it into a mirror, shattering the mirror and expressing his displeasure.1 Lannes was one of the officers accompanying First Consul Bonaparte to the opera on the failed Christmas Eve assassination attempt in 1800. As the procession of carriages traveled to the Opera, a wagon with a bomb exploded, and while many were hurt and killed, Bonaparte and his officers escaped unscathed. Napoleon had appointed Lannes as head of the Consular Guard and ordered him to upgrade the unit's equipment and quarters to be more prestigious since they were to become the premiere unit of the army. Lannes did an excellent job but did not pay much attention to the budget, and when Napoleon learned of the bill he was furious at the cost and ordered Lannes to pay it back. Even though he was a general, as Lannes did not partake in looting during the campaigns, he was unable to afford the costs. Luckily his friend General Augereau, who did have that much money, came to his rescue and loaned him the money, which Lannes paid back once he could. Next Napoleon appointed Lannes as ambassador to Portugal from 1802 to 1804, though Lannes initially protested this, instead wanting to stay in France. Employing unconventional diplomatic methods, he wore his battle sword to court instead of a ceremonial sword. He ignored much of court protocol, but nevertheless managed to charm many influential figures. An animosity developed between him and the English ambassador, and at one point while both were traveling in carriages alongside one another and vying for the lead position on the road, Lannes ordered his driver to sideswipe the English carriage, sending it careening off the side of the road. Campaign of 1805 After being created a Marshal of France in 1804, Lannes received further awards of the Grand Cross of Christ of Portugal and the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honor. Back in France he assumed command of the advance guard at Boulogne, which would later become V Corps. Taking part in the campaign that followed, he fought at Wertingen. As Marshal Ney was battling it out with the Austrians at Elchingen , Lannes and Napoleon were watching from a distance. Realizing that they were in an exposed position and in range of enemy fire, Lannes, with little care for protocol, grabbed Napoleon's horse's reins and pulled him back to a safer position. Later during the same campaign of 1805, Marshal Lannes and Marshal Murat bluffed their way into possession of a key Austrian bridge. Loaded with explosives, the Austrians intended to destroy the bridge the moment the French attempted to to take it. Lannes, Murat, Bertrand, Belliard, and a few other officers crossed the bridge, telling the Austrians that an armistice had been signed that gave the French the bridge. Sending Bertrand with the Austrians to meet the Austrian commander, Lannes and Murat talked to the Austrians in an attempt to distract them from Oudinot's grenadiers who were sneaking up. One Austrian noticed the approaching grenadiers and lit a match to fire the artillery, but Lannes immediately seized his arm and demanded how he could dare to break the armistice without higher authority. Bertrand returned with Austrian General Auersperg, whom Lannes and Murat explained the same story to, and he agreed to not fire upon them. Oudinot's grenadiers finished coming up, cut the fuses to blow the bridge, and with that the bridge was in French hands without a shot being fired. Shortly before Austerlitz, the two Russian armies united, a serious setback the French had been attempting to prevent. Arriving outside a senior staff meeting, Marshals Soult and Murat convinced Lannes that the only course left was to fall back, and that Lannes should explain this to Napoleon, since Napoleon listened to Lannes more than the others. Lannes agreed, and he told Napoleon that they felt the combined forces were too strong. "I can't imagine you advising retreat," Napoleon told Lannes, to which Soult and Murat immediately changed their tune from retreat to attack. Lannes exploded on Soult and Murat, swearing and challenging them, but Napoleon would not allow any duels.2 During the Battle of Austerlitz, Lannes commanded the left wing of the French army and contributed to the victory by keeping a large number of Russian soldiers occupied. After the victory, Napoleon insulted Lannes' V Corps in the official bulletin, implying that V Corps had done little in the battle despite the very important part they played. So enraged by this treatment, Lannes authorized his senior officers for leave and then himself went absent without leave. It took Napoleon a few days to realize this, and he sent Murat after Lannes in an attempt to stop him and calm him down, but it was too late, Lannes was long gone and speeding back to Paris to be with his family. Lannes never suffered punishment for this act of insubordination. Danube Campaign of 1809 Lannes had presentiment about his death, donating money to churches and being reverent at mass for the first time in years. Shortly before leaving Paris for the campaign against Austria in 1809, Empress Josephine noticed that he was not his usual self, but much more quiet and subdued. Initially resisting her questions, she finally got him to admit he had a bad feeling about the campaign.5 Once he had rejoined the emperor, Napoleon also noticed that he wasn't his usual self, and tried to cheer him up with talks of glory, to no avail. Taking command of II Corps in Germany, Marshal Lannes fought at Landshut and Eckmühl, and then distinguished himself at Ratisbon. When the French needed to take Ratisbon, he called upon volunteers to rush under fire with ladders and scale the walls. Many soldiers volunteered, and a group was selected to carry out the attack. Unfortunately, the fire from the walls was so intense that most were killed or wounded and the attack failed. Lannes called for another group of volunteers, and plenty volunteered, but they met with the same fate as the first. He called for more volunteers, and no one volunteered. Removing his legion of honor from his uniform, he held it up for all to see and offered it to the first men to scale the walls. Immediately more soldiers volunteered for a chance to win the prestigious medal, but their assault met with the same fate. At any time, Lannes could have ordered the soldiers to perform this attack, but he chose not to. Out of options for inspiring the troops, Lannes told them, "All right, gentlemen. I was a grenadier before I was a marshal, and I'm still one!" Grabbing a scaling ladder, he began to run towards the walls, chased by his aides and all the soldiers. His aides seized the ladder from him and then led the troops up and over the walls in a successful attack.6 Though the French successfully took Vienna, the Austrians had not surrendered and their army had escaped across the Danube. As Lannes and Napoleon were reconnoitering along the Danube, Lannes tripped and fell into the river. Napoleon waded in and helped drag him out, both getting absolutely covered in mud in the ordeal. Battle of Aspern-Essling As the French began to cross the Danube, Lannes was stopped by the bottleneck of troops crossing. While waiting, he saw Doctor Lanefranque, and told him, "I've got a bad feeling about this, but however it turns out, it's my last battle."7 Once across the river, Lannes took command of the right wing of the army with the village of Essling as his prime defensive point. When the Austrians attacked and began the Battle of Aspern-Essling , Marshal Bessières was placed under Lannes' orders. Lannes sent his aide Captain de Viry to order Bessières to charge and make it count. As the battle heated up and no charge occurred, when de Viry returned it was learned that he had changed the wording to a request to charge with all his cavalry. Furious, Lannes sent another aide, Captain La Bedoyère, and told him exactly what to say. Again no charge occurred and La Bedoyère had worded the order more politely. Finally, Lannes sent Marbot to rudely force Bessières to comply, with the words, "Tell Bessières I order him to charge at once." Marbot successfully delivered the order and Bessières finally charged.8 Later that night, Bessières was talking with Marshal Massena and they came upon Marbot with Lannes close behind. Not realizing Lannes was close behind Marbot, Bessières began insulting Marbot for his rude treatment of a superior and exclaiming that if Marbot's words were due to Lannes, then he would demand satisfaction from Lannes for his honor. Lannes exploded onto the scene, more than willing to give Bessières a chance at satisfaction, and drew his sword as angry words were exchanged. As the two marshals' superior, Massena intervened and ordered them to not fight a duel.9 During the next day of the battle, Lannes was talking with his old friend General Pouzet when Pouzet was instantaneously killed by a cannonball, the blood spattering all over Lannes. Significantly affected by this, Lannes walked away from the battle and sat down, his hands over his face as he tried to control his emotions. He never saw a spent ball bouncing towards him which then tore through both his legs. As he was transported back to safety, Napoleon saw him and rushed to him, concerned for the fate of his wounded friend. Lannes' friend Dr. Larrey quickly decided to amputate one leg and let the other heal, and immediately operated on him. Unfortunately, the wound became infected, and Lannes took an agonizing eight more days to die. Upon his death, Napoleon wept. At St. Helena, Napoleon pondered how events would have played out had Lannes lived longer, and he wrote about Lannes, "I cannot imagine that he would deviate from the path of duty and honor... If he had remained untouched, he was certainly a man capable of changing the whole course of events by his own presence and influence." Name: PrinceEdward Biography: Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC (Edward Augustus; 2 November 1767 - 23 January 1820) Position: His Royal Highness The Prince Edward,Grand master of The Ancient Grand Lodge of England, Father to Queen Victoria, "Father of the Canadian Crown" House:Hanover Father:George III of the United Kingdom Mother:Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Allegiance: Kingdom of Great Britain United Kingdom Branch/service: British Army(active service) Years of service:1786-1805(active service) Rank: Field Marshal(active service) Unit :7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers) Commands held:Commander-in-Chief, North America Governor of Gibraltar Battles/wars:French Revolutionary Wars Coalition Wars War of the First Coalition Battle of Martinique Battle of Guadaloupe In January 1813 Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, became Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, and in December of that year Prince Edward became Grand Master of the Antient Grand Lodge of England. On 27 December 1813 the United Grand Lodge of England was constituted at {Freemason}s' Hall, London with the Duke of Sussex as Grand Master. Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC (Edward Augustus; 2 November 1767 - 23 January 1820) was the fourth son and fifth child of King George III. His only child became Queen Victoria. Prince Edward was created Duke of Kent and Strathearn and Earl of Dublin on 23 April 1799 and, a few weeks later, appointed a General and commander-in-chief of British forces in the Maritime Provinces of North America. On 23 March 1802, he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar and nominally retained that post until his death. The Duke was appointed Field-Marshal of the Forces on 3 September 1805. Edward was the first member of the royal family to live in North America for more than a short visit (1791-1800) and, in 1794, the first prince to enter the United States (travelling to Boston on foot from Lower Canada) after independence. He is credited with the first use, on 27 June 1792, of the term "Canadian" to mean both French and English settlers in Upper and Lower Canada. The Prince used the term in an effort to quell a riot between the two groups at a polling station in Charlesbourg, Lower Canada. In the 21st century, he has been styled the "Father of the Canadian Crown" for his impact on the development of Canada. Early life Prince Edward was born on 2 November 1767. His parents were the reigning British monarch, George III, and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. As a son of the British monarch, he was styled His Royal Highness The Prince Edward from birth, and was fourth in the line of succession to the throne. He was named after his paternal uncle, the Duke of York and Albany, who had died several weeks earlier and was buried at Westminster Abbey the day before his birth. Prince Edward was baptised on 30 November 1767; his godparents were the Hereditary Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg (his paternal uncle by marriage, for whom the Earl of Hertford, Lord Chamberlain, stood proxy), Duke Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (his maternal uncle, for whom the Earl of Huntingdon, Groom of the Stole, stood proxy), the Hereditary Princess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (his paternal aunt, who was represented by a proxy) and the Landgravine of Hesse-Kassel (his paternal grandfather's sister, for whom the Duchess of Argyll, Lady of the Bedchamber to the Queen, stood proxy). Military career Army The Prince began his military training in Germany in 1785. King George III intended to send him to the University of G?ttingen, but decided against it upon the advice of the Duke of York. Instead, Edward went to Lüneburg and later Hanover, accompanied by his tutor, Baron Wangenheim. On 30 May 1786, he was appointed a brevet colonel in the British Army. From 1788 to 1789, he completed his education in Geneva. On 5 August 1789, aged 22, he became a mason in the L'Union, the most important Genevan masonic lodge in the 19th century. In 1789, he was appointed colonel of the 7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers). In 1790, he returned home without leave and, in disgrace, was sent off to Gibraltar as an ordinary officer. He was joined from Marseilles by Madame de Saint-Laurent. Quebec Due to the extreme Mediterranean heat, Edward requested to be transferred to present-day Canada, specifically Quebec, in 1791. Edward arrived in Canada in time to witness the proclamation of the Constitutional Act of 1791, become the first member of the Royal Family to tour Upper Canada and became a fixture of British North American society. Edward and his mistress, Julie St. Laurent, became close friends with the French Canadian family of Ignace-Michel-Louis-Antoine d'Irumberry de Salaberry; the Prince mentored all of the family's sons throughout their military careers. Edward guided Charles de Salaberry throughout his career, and made sure that the famous commander was duly honoured after his leadership during the Battle of Chateauguay. The prince was promoted to the rank of major-general in October 1793. He served successfully in the West Indies campaign the following year, and was commander of the British camp at La Coste during the Battle of Martinique, for which he was mentioned in dispatches by General Charles Grey for his "great Spirit and Activity." He subsequently received the thanks of Parliament. Nova Scotia After 1794, Prince Edward lived at the headquarters of the Royal Navy's North American Station located in Halifax, Nova Scotia. He was instrumental in shaping that settlement's military defences, protecting its important Royal Navy base, as well as influencing the city's and colony's socio-political and economic institutions. Edward was responsible for the construction of Halifax's iconic Garrison Clock, as well as numerous other civic projects such as St. George's Round Church. Lieutenant Governor Sir John Wentworth and Lady Francis Wentworth provided their country residence for the use of Prince Edward and Julie St. Laurent. Extensively renovated, the estate became known as "Prince's Lodge" as the couple hosted numerous dignitaries, including Louis-Phillippe of Orleans (the future King of the French). All that remains of the residence is a small rotunda built by Edward for his regimental band to play music. After suffering a fall from his horse in late 1798, he was allowed to return to England. On 24 April 1799, Prince Edward was created Duke of Kent and Strathearn and Earl of Dublin, received the thanks of parliament and an income of ￡12,000. In May that same year the Duke was promoted to the rank of general and appointed Commander-in-Chief of British forces in North America. He took leave of his parents 22 July 1799 and sailed to Halifax. Just over twelve months later he left Halifax and arrived in England on 31 August 1800 where it was confidently expected his next appointment would be Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Gibraltar Appointed Governor of Gibraltar by the War Office, gazetted 23 March 1802, the Duke took up his post on 24 May 1802 with express orders from the government to restore discipline among the drunken troops. The Duke's harsh discipline precipitated a mutiny by soldiers in his own and the 25th Regiment on Christmas Eve 1802. His brother Frederick, the Duke of York, then Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, recalled him in May 1803 after receiving reports of the mutiny, but despite this direct order he refused to return to England until his successor arrived. He was refused permission to return to Gibraltar for an inquiry and, although allowed to continue to hold the governorship of Gibraltar until his death, he was forbidden to return. As a consolation for the end of his active military career at age 35, he was promoted to the rank of field marshal and appointed Ranger of Hampton Court Park on 5 September 1805. This office provided him with a residence now known as The Pavilion. (His sailor brother William, with children to provide for, had been made Ranger of Bushy Park in 1797.) The Duke continued to serve as honorary colonel of the 1st Regiment of Foot (the Royal Scots) until his death. Though it was a tendency shared to some extent with his brothers, the Duke's excesses as a military disciplinarian may have been due less to natural disposition and more to what he had learned from his tutor Baron Wangenheim. Certainly Wangenheim, by keeping his allowance very small, accustomed Edward to borrowing at an early age. The Duke applied the same military discipline to his own duties that he demanded of others. Though it seems inconsistent with his unpopularity among the army's rank and file, his friendliness toward others and popularity with servants has been emphasized. He also introduced the first regimental school. The Duke of Wellington considered him a first-class speaker. He took a continuing interest in the social experiments of Robert Owen, voted for Catholic emancipation, and supported literary, Bible and abolitionist societies. His daughter, Victoria, after hearing Lord Melbourne's opinions, was able to add to her private journal of 1 August 1838 "from all what I heard, he was the best of all". Personal life and interests Marriage Role in the royal succession Following the death of Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales in November 1817, the only legitimate grandchild of George III at the time, the royal succession began to look uncertain. The Prince Regent (later King George IV) and his younger brother Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, though married, were estranged from their wives and had no surviving legitimate children. The king's surviving daughters were all childless and past likely childbearing age. The king's unmarried sons, William, Duke of Clarence (later King William IV), Edward the Duke of Kent, and Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, all rushed to contract lawful marriages and provide an heir to the throne. The king's fifth son, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, was already married but had no living children at that time, whilst the marriage of the sixth son, Augustus, Duke of Sussex, was void because he had married in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act 1772. Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld For his part the Duke of Kent, aged 50, was already considering marriage, and he became engaged to Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (17 August 1786 - 16 March 1861), who had been the sister-in-law of his now-deceased niece Princess Charlotte. They were married on 29 May 1818 at Schloss Ehrenburg, Coburg, in a Lutheran rite, and again on 11 July 1818 at Kew Palace, Kew, Surrey. Princess Victoria was the daughter of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and the sister of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, husband of the recently deceased Princess Charlotte. She was a widow: her first husband had been Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen, with whom she had had two children: a son Carl and a daughter Feodora. Issue They had one child, Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent (24 May 1819 - 22 January 1901), who became Queen Victoria on 20 June 1837. He was 51 years old at the time of her birth. The Duke took great pride in his daughter, telling his friends to look at her well, for she would be Queen of the United Kingdom. Mistresses Various sources report that the Duke of Kent had mistresses. In Geneva, he had two mistresses, Adelaide Dubus and Anne More. Dubus died at the birth of her daughter Adelaide Dubus (1789 - in or after 1832). Anne More was the mother of Edward Schenker Scheener (1789-1853). Scheener married but had no children and returned to Geneva, perhaps significantly in 1837, where he later died. In 1790, while still in Geneva, the Duke took up with "Madame de Saint-Laurent" (born Therèse-Bernardine Montgenet), the wife of a French colonel. She went with him to Canada in 1791, where she was known as "Julie de Saint-Laurent". She accompanied the Duke for the next 28 years, until his marriage in 1818. The portrait of the Duke by Beechey was hers. Mollie Gillen, who was granted access to the Royal Archive at Windsor Castle, established that no children were born of the 27-year relationship between Edward Augustus and Madame de Saint-Laurent; although many Canadian families and individuals (including the Nova Scotian soldier Sir William Fenwick Williams, 1st Baronet), have claimed descent from them. Such claims can now be discounted in light of this research. Canadian Confederation While Prince Edward lived in Quebec (1791-93) he met with Jonathan Sewell, an immigrant American Loyalist who played trumpet in the Prince's regimental band. Sewell would rise in Lower Canadian government to hold such offices as Attorney General, Chief Justice, and Speaker of the Legislative Assembly. In 1814, Sewell forwarded to the Duke a copy of his report "A plan for the federal union of British provinces in North America." The Duke supported Sewell's plan to unify the colonies, offering comments and critiques that would later be cited by Lord Durham (1839) and participants of the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences (1864). Edward's 1814 letter to Sewell: My dear Sewell, I have had this day the pleasure of receiving your note of yesterday with its interesting enclosure. Nothing can be better arranged than the whole thing is or more perfectly, and when I see an opening it is fully my intention to point the matter out to Lord Bathurst and put the paper in his hands, without however telling him from whom I have it, though I shall urge him to have some conversation with you relative to it. Permit me, however, just to ask you whether it was not an oversight in you to state that there are five Houses of Assembly in the British Colonies in North America. If I am not under an error there are six, viz., Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the islands of Prince Edward and Cape Breton. Allow me to beg of you to put down the proportions in which you think the thirty members of the Representatives Assembly ought to be furnished by each Province, and to suggest whether you would not think two Lieutenant-Governors with two Executive Councils sufficient for an executive government of the whole, namely one for the two Canadas, and one for New Brunswick and the two small dependencies of Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island, the former to reside in Montreal, and the latter at whichever of the two (following) situations may be considered most central for the two provinces whether Annapolis Royal or Windsor. But, at all events, should you consider in your Executive Councils requisite I presume there cannot be a question of the expediency of comprehending the two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence with Nova Scotia. Believe me ever to remain, With the most friendly regard, My dear Sewell, Yours faithfully, EDWARD United Grand Lodge of England Main article: History of {{Freemason}ry} In January 1813 Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, became Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, and in December of that year Prince Edward became Grand Master of the Antient Grand Lodge of England. On 27 December 1813 the United Grand Lodge of England was constituted at {Freemason}s' Hall, London with the Duke of Sussex as Grand Master. Later life The Duke of Kent purchased a house of his own from Maria Fitzherbert in 1801. Castle Hill Lodge on Castlebar Hill, Ealing (West London) was then placed in the hands of architect James Wyatt and more than ￡100,000 spent. Near neighbours from 1815 to 1817 at Little Boston House were US envoy and future US President John Quincy Adams and his English wife Louisa. "We all went to church and heard a charity sermon preached by a Dr Crane before the Duke of Kent", wrote Adams in a diary entry from August 1815. Following the birth of Princess Victoria in May 1819, the Duke and Duchess, concerned to manage the Duke's great debts, sought to find a place where they could live inexpensively. After the coast of Devon was recommended to them they leased from a General Baynes, intending to remain incognito, Woolbrook Cottage on the seaside by Sidmouth. Death The Duke of Kent died of pneumonia on 23 January 1820 at Woolbrook Cottage, Sidmouth, and was interred in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. He died six days before his father, George III, and less than a year after his daughter's birth. He predeceased his father and his three elder brothers but, as none of his elder brothers had any surviving legitimate children, his daughter Victoria succeeded to the throne on the death of her uncle King William IV in 1837. In 1829 the Duke's former aide-de-camp purchased the unoccupied Castle Hill Lodge from the Duchess in an attempt to reduce her debts; the debts were finally discharged after Victoria took the throne and paid them over time from her income. Legacy There is a bronze statue of the prince in Park Crescent, London. Sculpted by Sebastian Gahagan and installed in January 1824, the statue is seven feet two inches (2.18 m) tall and represents the Duke in his Field Marshal's uniform, over which he wears his ducal dress and the regalia of the Order of the Garter. He is the namesake of Prince Edward Island, Prince Edward Islands, Prince Edward County, and Duke Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 2 November 1767 - 24 April 1799: His Royal Highness The Prince Edward 24 April 1799 - 23 January 1820: His Royal Highness The Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Honours Knight Founder of St. Patrick, 11 March 1783 Royal Knight of the Garter, 2 June 1786 Privy Councilor of the United Kingdom, 5 September 1799 Knight Grand Cross of the Bath (military), 2 January 1815 Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order (military), 12 April 1815 Arms As a son of the sovereign, the Duke of Kent had use of the arms of the kingdom from 1801 to his death, differenced by a label argent of three points, the centre point bearing a cross gules, the outer points each bearing a fleur-de-lys azure. Celebrity anecdotes The Duke of Kent We have the pleasure to announce the safe arrival of the Duke of Kent in England. His Royal Highness landed at Plymouth on Sunday evening under a Royal Salute from the Forts, the ships on the Sound, Cawsand Bay and the Hamoaze and set off immediately for Weymouth to pay his respects to their Majesties. While we rejoice in his safe arrival we cannot but regret that ill health should again have been the cause of his Royal Highness's return to this country, especially when we reflect on the motives which induced him to quit England. Before his Royal Highness was created Duke of Kent with a suitable income, he had incurred some debts. On his returning to England on finding that he was unable to live in any degree suitable to his rank, and at the same time to discharge his debts, he generously resolved again to go to America, and to remain there, living solely on his pay as an Officer, till his debts were entirely liquidated, to which purpose he gave up the whole of his income allowed him by Government, and in this resolution he persisted, till repeated bilious attacks compelled him to quit that country. We are sensible that an idea once prevailed that his Royal Highness, in early life, had participated in several of the fashionable vices of the age; but nothing was ever more remote from the truth—for it may be truly said of the Duke of Kent (what can be said of very few men of Rank) that he never was known to be intoxicated, or ever won or lost a farthing at any kind of play in his life; that he never endeavored to seduce the wife of another, or even made a promise he did not do his utmost to perform—his rigid adherence to his word is so remarkable that no consideration has ever induced him to swerve from a promise he has once given. To these good qualities his Royal Highness united a most benevolent disposition; and amidst all his pecuniary embarrassments he has invariably set apart 500l. a year of his income for the relief of private indigence and distress—throughout all British America he was so universally beloved, that the loss of his presence is reckoned one of the greatest misfortunes that could have befallen the country. And we have no hesitation in expressing our conviction, that no measure will more strongly contribute to pacify and reconcile all ranks of people in Ireland, than the presence of his Royal Highness in that country, where we now understand it is the intention of the Government to employ him. —The Times, Wednesday, 3 Sep 1800; pg. 2; Issue 4890. Name: Sharpe Biography: Richard Sharpe Position: Commander of 95th Rifles Regiment,British Shapeshooters leader Allegiance: United Kingdom Branch/service: British Army Rank: Colonel Commands: 95th Rifles Regiment, South Essex Regiment He is excellent at rifle shooting. Richard Sharp (SeanBean) was a sergeant in the famous 95th Rifle Regiment in the British Army during the Peninsular War in 1809. He and his comrades used rifles to create an excellent record on the peninsula battlefield. Richard Sharpe is the series protagonist, a British soldier who fought in India, the Peninsular War and the Battle of Waterloo. His tale begins in Sharpe's Tiger as a private in the 33rd Regiment of Foot. He earns the rank of Sergeant by the end of the book. Throughout his career, he is gradually promoted through the ranks, finally becoming a lieutenant colonel in Sharpe's Waterloo. He is described as being six feet tall, having an angular, tanned face, black hair, and blue eyes. He has "a slash of a scar on his cheek that gave him a broodingly savage face." Personality Sharpe is an intelligent, driven, and fiercely ambitious man, rising through the ranks by courage, determination, and luck. He is most comfortable on the battlefield; and being a soldier is the life he excels at. His best friends and only real family are the soldiers he serves with. On the battlefield he is confident, highly skilled, instinctual, and ingenious. Off the battle field he is often insecure and somewhat naive, never really fitting into the world of the gentlemen of privilege, means, and education who are his fellow officers. Although he has a towering and somewhat brittle pride, a man too proud to ever fail, he has remarkably little ego. He never really understands the loyalty of his men was to him personally, more than to any unit. He marveled at their confidence in taking on numbers ten times their own, he did not understand, as Patrick Harper did, that it was because of him, that he could make his men feel that "the impossible was just a little troublesome and that victory was common place where he led." (Sharpe's Gold) He is a born leader, a natural soldier. Childhood Richard Sharpe was born in June or July of 1777 or 1778, to a prostitute residing in Cat Lane, London and an unknown father. Sharpe remembers only dark hair and a voice in the darkness of his mother. When Sharpe was about three, his mother was killed, leaving him an orphan. With no other known relatives to claim him, he was eventually deposited in a foundling home at Brewhouse Lane, Wapping. There, the children under six were assigned to pick apart old tar coated ships cables which left their fingers bloody and abused. Each child would work a seven foot length every day which was then sold to caulkers and upholsterers. He said it was better than working the bone room where bones were pounded to powder to make paste which was sold as imitation ivory. They liked Christmas because it was one day a year that there was no work, the one day the home was heated, and they were given minced tripe and hard boiled eggs to eat. (Sharpe's Enemy). At about the age of eight or nine, when he was sold to a chimney sweep, he ran away. He was found by Maggie Joyce in the Rookery of St Giles, London, who found work for a nimble child, he becomes a thief and house breaker. St Giles was grim and dark, a place of desperation where kill or be killed was an everyday occurrence. Maggie was the first woman he slept with, and the first he killed for, both before his thirteenth birthday. After killing one of the lords of St Giles for beating Maggie, she sent him away and he fled to Yorkshire. He worked at a coaching inn in Yorkshire for over two years where he assisted the innkeeper in snaffling luggage, and dealing in stolen goods. He called the man a right bastard, and he eventually killed him in a knife fight over a local girl. To avoid arrest, he accepted the King's shilling from Sgt. Hakeswell and joined the 33rd Regiment of Foot. India Sharpe sees his first action at the age of 16 in Flanders. He then serves in India and it was in India where his nemesis, Sergeant Obediah Hakeswill, had him flogged. In 1799, Sharpe is sentenced to 2,000 lashes for striking the sergeant, but is released after receiving 202. Using the flogging as a cover, he is assigned to accompany Lieutenant William Lawford on a secret mission to rescue Lawford's uncle, Hector McCandless, head of British East India Company intelligence. They join the Tippoo Sultan's army posing as British deserters, which is fortunate for his healing back, since the Indian doctor is far more skilled than the army surgeon. Sharpe is ordered to shoot McCandless and after surreptitiously asking if the man had a message for the General, does so without hesitation. The powder, however, is made without saltpeter, and couldn't fire, a fact a line soldier such as he picks up on immediately. McCandless was impressed by the soldier, Lawford stunned. They were later exposed by Hakeswill and imprisoned. Lawford and McCandless teach Sharpe to read and write while they are in the Tippoo's dungeon (Sharpe's Tiger). At the successful conclusion of their mission, he is promoted to sergeant. He serves four years as sergeant in the Armoury in Seringapatam. He then survived the massacre at Chasalgaon, perpetrated by renegade East India Company officer William Dodd, in 1803. Sharpe's servant boy, Davi Lal, and his six men died, however, and Sharpe wanted revenge. Sharpe proves himself an excellent soldier, when the dragoon orderly attached to Sir Arthur Wellesley is killed in the early stages at the Battle of Assaye, Sharpe takes his place, and so is at hand when Wellesley is unhorsed among the enemy. Sharpe defends Wellesley against Maratha horsemen and saves the general's life, receiving a battlefield commission for this act of bravery. He joins the 74th Regiment as an Ensign, and it is he who leads the force that breeches Dodd's fortress, and destroys the renegade while at the same time collecting a defining scar to his cheek (Sharpe's Fortress). Never quite fitting in with the clanish 74th, he applies for and is accepted to the newly formed 95th Rifles. He returns to England to join his new regiment as a second lieutenant (Sharpe's Trafalgar). Campaigns in Europe While sailing from India to England to take up his post in the 95th Rifles, in 1805, Sharpe is caught up in the Battle of Trafalgar, his first direct encounter with France and its European allies as an infantry officer. On the journey he also meets and falls in love with Lady Grace Hale, the wife of the ambitious politician Lord William Hale (Sharpe's Trafalgar). During the sea battle, Lord Hale confronts his wife, having discovered her infidelity. She is forced to kill him in self-defence. Sharpe has the body taken on deck so that it will appear he died in the fighting. Grace sets up home with Sharpe at Shorncliffe, but dies giving birth to their child, who survives her by only a few hours. Sharpe's fortune is assumed by the lawyers to be part of Grace's estate and seized. He falls into a deep depression, worsened by his bad relationship with his commanding officer, who relegates him to the role of quartermaster. He is left behind when the regiment is posted to the Baltic in 1807. Sharpe, unable to sell his commission, considers deserting. He returns to Wapping and robs and kills Jem Hocking, the abusive master of the foundling home where Sharpe was raised. Before Sharpe can disappear, he encounters General Baird, a former colleague from India, who recruits him to protect John Lavisser, a Foreign Office agent sent to negotiate with the Danish Crown Prince. Lavisser betrays Sharpe, and forces him into hiding in Copenhagen, where he witnesses the bombardment of the city and the British capture of the Danish fleet (Sharpe's Prey). Sharpe considers settling down there, having fallen in love with Astrid, the daughter of Ole Skovgaard, the chief British spy in Denmark. However, Skovgaard turns against the British because of their attacks, and Astrid obeys his order to break up with Sharpe. By early 1809, Sharpe is in Spain with the 95th Rifles, his men serving as the rearguard of the retreat to Corunna. Captain Murray is mortally wounded and leaves his heavy cavalry sword to Sharpe, giving him his signature weapon used in all the subsequent books. Cut off from the main body of the army, he is forced to take command of a handful of surviving but mutinous riflemen (including Patrick Harper), while protecting a small party of English missionaries. He encounters Spanish Major Blas Vivar and his partisans and unwillingly helps them temporarily seize control of the city of Santiago de Compostela so that Vivar can raise a sacred gonfalon to bolster the Spanish people's flagging morale (Sharpe's Rifles). Sharpe's surviving riflemen that begin the retreat to Corunna are: Sharpe's Career "Go to hell, Sergeant." "Follow you anywhere, Sir." — Richard Sharpe & Patrick Harper 1793 Joined the ranks of the King's 33rd Foot. Fought a brief engagement in Flanders the following year. 1795 Sailed for India with the 33rd. Made Corporal of the 33rd but was broken back to private. Becomes bored and contemplates desertion. 1799 Flogged for striking a superior. Accepted mission behind enemy lines. Met William Lawford and Hector McCandless who taught him how to read and write while they were prisoners of the Mysore Sultan. Promoted to Sergeant in the 33rd Foot for the services he provided during the siege of Seringapatam. 1803 Commissioned Ensign after saving the life of Sir Arthur Wellesley at the Battle of Assaye he was assigned to the 78th Highlanders. Stayed in India until late 1805 when he was accepted on exchange into the Experimental Corps of Riflemen as a Second Lieutenant of the 1st Battalion. 1806 Transferred into the 2nd Battalion of the 95th Rifles. 1808 Went with the army into Spain and was part of the Corunna Retreat, where he served in the rearguard action with the 95th on the Vigo route with Crauford's Light Brigade. 1809 Moved into Spain once more, served as escort to the Engineers until attached to a regular Army Regiment, the South Essex. Gazetted Captain of the Light Company by Wellington. 1812 After Salamanca and Garcia Hernandez, recovering from wounds, Sharpe was promoted to Major by the Prince Regent and given his first independent command. 1815 Promoted to Lieutenant Colonel 5th Belgian Light Dragoons and served on the staff of the Prince of Orange, participating in the Battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo. Sharpe spent a final month in service as the Commander of the South Essex Regiment, thereby confirming his regimental rank of Colonel. Sharpe's Battle Wounds "There's no future in being a gentleman in a fight." — Richard Sharpe Sharpe participated in and survived two of the most significant battles of 19th century Europe, Trafalgar and Waterloo, with no more than a bruise. Such was not always the case. Sharpe's Tiger: Sentenced to be flogged, he received 202 lashes to his back. Took an Indian lance in his side. Hand clawed by one of the Tipoo's tigers. Sharpe's Triumph: Grazing wound to the scalp from a musket ball during the Chasalgaon massacre. Sharpe's Fortress: A bone deep bayonet wound to the hip. A scorched cheek. Sabre slash to his face resulting in notable scar. Sharpe's Prey A grazing wound from a musket ball across the side of his head. Wounds to his back from shattered glass during a bombardment. Sharpe's Rifles: Sword bayonet cuts to his fingers during a fight with Rifleman Harper. Minor sabre wound to the arm from a French Dragoon. Sharpe's Eagle: Sabre wound to his leg from French Hussar. Bayonet wound to his leg during capture of the French Eagle. Shoulder trampled by Christian Gibbons' horse. Sharpe's Gold: A ricochet musket ball to his armpit which nearly killed him due to blood loss. Cauterized with a red hot iron. A thigh wound, when he forced el Catolico's blade through his leg in order to deprive his opponent of its use. Sharpe's Battle: Bullet wound to the shoulder from a French carbine, fired by Do?a Juanita. Sharpe's Escape: Ambushed and severely beaten by Luis Ferreira alias Ferregus, a Portuguese criminal and black marketeer. Sharpe's Fury: Fractured skull from a grazing musket ball wound. A fragment of his skull had to be pulled back into place by a Navy surgeon. Sharpe's Company: Bullet wound to the inner thigh from the seven barrel volley gun, fired by Hakeswill. A through and through bullet wound suffered in the same action fired by the French. A minor wound from a French officer's sword. Sharpe's Sword: Bullet wound to the abdomen that almost proved fatal, he was, in fact, placed in the death room by surgeons who thought him mortally wounded. He was almost two months in recovery. Sharpe's Honour Gouged right palm from wielding a broken telescope as a weapon. Knife wound to left hand. Severely beaten with a cobbler's mallet by Spanish civilians before they realized he was English and not French. Sharpe's Siege A carbine ball graze across his forehead resulting in concussion and blood loss. Bayonet wound to the hip. Sharpe's Revenge: Shot with a horse pistol loaded with three bullets which broke his shoulder, his thigh, and tore off the top of one ear. Savaged by a guard dog, taking a bite wound to his wrist. Sliced open his palm with his sword fighting off the guard dogs. Sharpe's Telescope Throughout the novels, it was made clear that Sharpe had only one object he valued; a telescope. He was neither rich nor privileged, and could not afford such things as most of his fellow officers could buy, but the telescope had been a gift and was prized. In Sharpe's Fortress, it was revealed that Wellesley thought he had perhaps made an error in promoting Sharpe, that a fiscal reward might have sufficed, and sought to find something to present as a fungible reward since being an officer was an expensive proposition. He decided upon a new telescope with a shallow eyepiece which had been a gift to him from the merchants of Madras. He had his aide replace the presentation plate and it was presented to Sharpe with his compliments. The telescope was an excellent instrument made of brass by Matthew Burge of London and set with a plaque reading In gratitude A.W. September 23rd 1803. It was stolen from him by Colonel James Christopher in Sharpe's Havoc, and the fact ate at Sharpe. He made sure he retrieved it before killing Christopher. Ducos took it from him in Sharpe's Honour when he was captured, knowing he prized it. Ducos hated Sharpe, and it rankled that he had deliberately destroyed Ducos' only comfortable pair of spectacles. In revenge for the insult to him, he destroyed Sharpe's telescope by beating it against a stone wall, then stamping on the pieces while Sharpe watched in anger and frustration. Sharpe, however, made one last use of his telescope, using the jagged remains to stab his guard/torturer in the groin and escape. Helene Leroux offered him a replacement telescope at the end of the novel in a highly polished rosewood box lined with red taffeta. The instrument had an ivory barrel trimmed with gold. It slid open with extraordinary smoothness and was set with a plaque: To Joseph, King of Spain and the Indies, from his brother Napoleon, Emperor of France. Sharpe called it beautiful. It was taken as evidence during the court of inquiry convened during Sharpe's Revenge, and apparently never returned. In Waterloo, Sharpe's telescope is "a battered sea captain's telescope" which was both awkward and heavy. Sharpe's Women "He'll fall in love with anything in a petticoat. Got the sense of a half-witted sheep when it comes to women" — Patrick Harper In 1799 while stationed in India, Sharpe asks for permission to marry Mary Bickerstaff, the 22 year old half caste widow of Sergeant Bickerstaff. She later leaves him (Sharpe's Tiger) for another man and he wishes her well. While serving in Seringapatam, he had an arrangement with Note: ali, a local prostitute. He later has brief affairs with Simone Joubert and Clare Wall (Sharpe's Triumph, Sharpe's Fortress). His first real love was Lady Grace Hale, with whom he entered into an affair in 1805, which results in the birth of his first child, and Grace's death. The child, a son, dies a few hours later, leaving Sharpe in profound mourning. Sharpe has a brief affair with Astrid Skovgaard in Copenhagen in 1807. She was the first woman who had let him think beyond Grace's death. She is later murdered on the orders of British spymaster, Lord Pumphrey, leaving Sharpe unaware of her fate for several years. (Sharpe's Trafalgar, Sharpe's Prey) During the early years of the Peninsula Campaign, Sharpe briefly becomes infatuated with Louisa Parker, who refuses his proposal. He then pays court to both a Portuguese courtesan, Josefina Lacosta, and then partisan leader Teresa Moreno (Sharpe's Eagle, Sharpe's Gold). Teresa bears Sharpe a daughter, Antonia (Sharpe's Company), in 1811, and marries Sharpe in 1812. She is killed a year later by the renegade Obadiah Hakeswill (Sharpe's Enemy). Sharpe leaves his daughter to be raised by Teresa's brother Ramon and his wife Lucia. Sharpe conducts brief affairs with an English governess, Sarah Fry (Sharpe's Escape), Caterina Veronica Blazquez, a high flying courtesan (Sharpe's Fury), and the French spy Helène Leroux (Sharpe's Sword, Sharpe's Honour). Note: an affair that takes place only in the television movies includes the runaway novitiate nun, whom he calls Lass (Sharpe's Sword). In 1813, he has a brief affair with dowager countess Anne Camoynes during Sharpe's Regiment. He is infatuated with and elopes with Jane Gibbons (Sharpe's Regiment), in love with what she represents perhaps, more than with her. He, however, remains faithful to his second wife, resisting such concerted efforts as Catherine de Maquerre (Sharpe's Siege), until Jane betrays him. She embarks on an adulterous affair with Sharpe's former friend, Lord John Rossendale and steals the fortune Sharpe had accumulated. Sharpe never meets with or speaks to her again. Lucille Lassan Castineau, the widow of a French officer killed in Russia, becomes his last and most stable relationship. (Sharpe's Revenge, Sharpe's Waterloo) Although unable to marry while Jane lives, Sharpe and Lucille settle on her family estate in Normandy and raise two children, married in all but name. Later Life He eventually retires to Normandy, France with his common-law wife, Lucille. They have two children; Patrick-Henri, who eventually becomes a French Cavalry officer, much to his father's chagrin, and Dominique, who ultimately marries an English aristocrat. The family lives comfortably on the contents of a sea chest full of plunder Sharpe acquired on his last adventure, Sharpe's Devil. Television In the television movies, Sharpe's upward trajectory began far later than in the novels - it wasn't until he rescued Wellington from a French patrol during the Peninsula Campaign in Sharpe's Rifles that he was promoted from Sergeant to Lieutenant. Trivia Sharpe likes to star watch. When he and Harper were slightly drunk, he admits that just as Harper likes birds, he likes the stars. (Sharpe's Company) While waiting through a shelling, he once admitted he had always wanted to learn to play the flute (Sharpe's Havoc), this was reiterated in Sharpe's Siege, and again after coming down from a battle rage, he made a non sequitur remark about wishing he could play the flute. (Sharpe's Company) Name: Dolgorukov Biography: Peter Petrovich Dolgorukov(19 December 1777 - 8 December 1806) Position: Russian officer and nobleman Allegiance: Russian Empire Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Prince Peter Petrovich Dolgorukov (Russian: Князь Пётр Петрович Долгоруков; 19 December 1777 - 8 December 1806) was a Russian officer and nobleman. Life He was the second son of the infantry general Prince Peter Petrovich Dolgorukov (1744-1815) and Princess Anastasia Simonovna (nee Lapteva). His mother was an intelligent woman who ensured that Peter and his brothers Vladimir and Mikhail got a good education. He is recorded as being in the Izmailovsky Life Guards Regiment in March 1778 and became a captain in the Moscow Grenadier Regiment in January 1792. In June the following year he was made adjutant to his relation Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgorukov. In November 1795 he transferred to the garrison regiment in Moscow and became a lieutenant colonel, followed by full colonel in May 1797. He was put in command of the city of Smolensk in September 1798 and promoted to major general. For three months he reformed its judicial system, which had fallen into neglect, and sent the tsar a report on the city's nobility and their devotion to the tsar - this attracted Paul I's attention and he appointed Dolgorukov an adjutant general aged only 21. When Alexander I of Russia came to the throne, he immediately promoted Dolgorukov during the first year of his reign. In 1802 he audited the provinces of Grodno and Vilnius, travelled to Berlin twice to consolidate Russia's friendly relations with the Kingdom of Prussia and managed to avoid a rupture with Sweden on a trip there to resolve disagreements over the Swedish-Russian borders in Finland. When war broke out with the First French Empire in 1805 he returned to Berlin to try to persuade the Prussian king to act in concert with Russia and the Austrian Empire. Before the battle of Austerlitz Napoleon sent general Anne Jean Marie Rene Savary to Alexander I to offer a personal meeting between Napoleon and the tsar. Alexander declined to go himself and in his place sent Dolgorukov, who was very much in favour of the war and confident the Russian troops could beat Napoleon. He was received graciously by Napoleon but responded proudly and arrogantly, rejecting all of Napoleon's proposals and presenting his own proposals brusquely. He reported back to Alexander that Napoleon was afraid of fighting the Russian army and insisted on giving battle, contrary to the opinion of Mikhail Kutuzov - Russian officers and noblemen thus later gave Dolgorukov most of the blame for the ensuing defeat. During the battle he was an infantry commander in Prince Pyotr Bagration's corps, showing great courage and repulsing the enemy attacks several times. He was sent back to Berlin on the day after the battle to induce Frederick William III of Prussia to declare war on Napoleon as soon as possible. In autumn 1806 Alexander instructed Dolgorukov to inspect the army gathered in southern Russia ready for the Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812), but before he had completed his inspection he received orders to come to St Petersburg immediately to discuss the Russian response to the Prussian defeat at Jena-Auerstedt. He galloped to St Petersburg so quickly that several times he overtook his own adjutants and he arrived tired and broken. Alexander received him immediately and had a long meeting with him, but that same evening Dolgorukov fell ill and was put up in a room in the Winter Palace. The doctors diagnosed typhoid fever but could do nothing for him and he died a week later. Name: Bourbon Biography: Louis Joseph (9 August 1736 - 13 May 1818) Position: Prince of Conde, Leader of Conde army of emigres House:Bourbon-Conde Allegiance: Kingdom of France Religion:Roman Catholicism During the French Revolution, Louis Joseph was a dedicated supporter of the monarchy and one of the principal leaders of the counter-revolutionary movement. After the storming of the Bastille in 1789, he fled France with his son and grandson, before the Reign of Terror which arrested, tried and guillotined most of the Bourbons still living in France: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the Duke of Orleans (Philippe egalite) were executed in 1793, and the king's sister, Madame elisabeth, was beheaded in 1794. Louis Joseph established himself at Coblenz in 1791, where he helped to organize and lead a large counter-revolutionary army of emigres. In addition to containing the prince's grandson, Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Conde, duc d'Enghien, and the two sons of his cousin, the late king's brother, the comte d'Artois, the corps included many young aristocrats who eventually became leaders during the Bourbon Restoration years later. This group also included Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu, Pierre Louis Jean Casimir de Blacas and Fran?ois-Rene de Chateaubriand. The Army of Conde initially fought in conjunction with the Austrians. Later, due to differences with the Austrian plan of attack, however, the Prince de Conde entered with his corps into English pay in 1795. In 1796, the army fought in Swabia. In 1797, Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio with the First French Republic, formally ending its hostilities against the French. With the loss of its closest allies, the army transferred into the service of the Russian tsar, Paul I and was stationed in Poland, returning in 1799 to the Rhine under Alexander Suvorov. In 1800 when Russia left the Allied coalition, the army re-entered English service and fought in Bavaria. The army was disbanded in 1801 without having achieved its principal ambition, restoring Bourbon rule in France. After the dissolution of the corps, the prince spent his exile in England, where he lived with his second wife, Maria Caterina Brignole, the divorced wife of Honore III, Prince of Monaco, whom he had married in 1798. She died in 1813. Louis Joseph de Bourbon (9 August 1736 - 13 May 1818) was Prince of Conde from 1740 to his death. A member of the House of Bourbon, he held the prestigious rank of Prince du Sang. Youth Born on 9 August 1736 at Chantilly, Louis Joseph was the only son of Louis Henri I, Prince of Conde (1692-1740) and Landgravine Caroline of Hesse-Rotenburg (1714-41). As a cadet of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a prince du sang. His father Louis Henri, was the eldest son of Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Conde (known as Monsieur le Duc) and his wife Louise Fran?oise de Bourbon, legitimated daughter of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan. During his father's lifetime, the infant Louis Joseph was known as the Duke of Enghien, (duc d'Enghien). At the age of four, following his father's death in 1740, and his mother's death in 1741, he was placed under the care of his paternal uncle, Louis, Count of Clermont, his father's youngest brother. Family Louis Joseph had an older half sister, Henriette de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Verneuil (1725-1780). Through his mother, he was a first cousin of King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and of Marie Therèse of Savoy, Princess de Lamballe. His paternal cousins included Louise Henriette de Bourbon, Duchess of Orleans (mother of Philippe egalite), the sister of Louis Fran?ois de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, head of another cadet branch of the royal dynasty. Viktoria of Hesse-Rotenburg, the Princess of Soubise, was another first cousin. Louis Joseph married Charlotte de Rohan in 1753, the daughter of the French king Louis XV's friend, Charles de Rohan, Prince of Soubise. Charlotte's mother, Anne Marie Louise de La Tour d'Auvergne, was a daughter of Emmanuel Theodose de La Tour d'Auvergne, the reigning Duke of Bouillon. The couple were married at Versailles on 3 May 1753. Together, they had three children: a daughter, Marie de Bourbon, who died young; an only son, Louis Henri de Bourbon, who would later become the last Prince of Conde; and a daughter, Louise Adela?de de Bourbon. In 1770, his son married Bathilde d'Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orleans, and sister of Philippe egalite. The marriage was supposed to heal relations between the Conde and Orleans branches of the royal family. Louis Joseph's wife Charlotte died in 1760, and as time passed, his relationship with Maria Caterina Brignole, Princess of Monaco, became serious. Maria was the daughter of Giuseppe Brignole, Marquis of Groppoli and Maria Anna Balbi. By 1769, Maria had begun to set up a home in the H?tel de Lassay, an annex of the Prince of Conde's primary residence, the Palais Bourbon. In 1770, her jealous husband, Honore III, Prince of Monaco, ordered the borders of Monaco closed in an attempt to prevent her from escaping. She managed, nonetheless, to cross into France and found her way to Le Mans, southwest of Paris, where she took refuge in a convent. Eventually, she was able to return to Paris. Due to Maria Caterina's illicit position as the Prince of Conde's mistress, the new French queen, 18-year-old Marie Antoinette (wife of King Louis XVI of France), treated her poorly at court, which consequently offended Louis Joseph. In about 1774, Louis Joseph and his mistress Maria began the construction of the H?tel de Monaco, which was to be her permanent home in Paris. It was in the rue Saint-Dominique, near the Palais Bourbon, and was completed in 1777. Subsequently, Prince Honore of Monaco finally realized his relationship with Maria Caterina was completely finished and thereupon turned his attention to his own love affairs. Maria Caterina later wrote to her husband that their marriage could be summarised in three words: greed, bravery, and jealousy. Later life During both the reigns of King Louis XV and his grandson, King Louis XVI, Louis Joseph held the position of Grand Ma?tre de France in the King's royal household, the Maison du Roi. Obtaining the rank of general, he fought in the Seven Years' War with some distinction, serving alongside his father-in-law, the Prince of Soubise. He was also Governor of Burgundy. Furthermore, the Prince was the leader of the Conde army of emigres. He used her great fortune to help finance the exiled French community's resistance movement. In 1765, named the heir of his paternal aunt, elisabeth Alexandrine de Bourbon, Louis Joseph received generous pensions which elisabeth Alexandrine had in turn acquired from her cousin, Louise-Fran?oise de Bourbon. In that same year, Louis Joseph repurchased the Palais Bourbon, previously owned by his family, from King Louis XV, and decided to rebuild it from a country house into a monumental palace, in the new Classical Revival style. With this in mind, he purchased the neighboring H?tel de Lassay in 1768, planning to make the two buildings into one. However, the palace was only finished at the end of the 1780s, when the French Revolution later swept away the old regime. He then moved from the H?tel de Conde, where he was born, to the Palais Bourbon. The former residence was later sold to King Louis XV in 1770, becoming the subsequent site of the Odeon Theatre. Among other estates, Louis Joseph also inherited the famous Chateau de Chantilly, the main seat of the Conde line. At Chantilly, the prince conducted a number of improvements and embellishments in the years before the French Revolution. He had the Chateau d'Enghien built on the grounds of the estate to house guests when the prince entertained at Chantilly. It was constructed in 1769 by the architect, Jean Fran?ois Leroy, and was later renamed the Chateau d'Enghien in honour of his grandson, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Enghien, who was born at Chantilly in 1772. He also commissioned a large garden in the English style as well as an hameau, much like the contemporary one that Queen Marie Antoinette had created at Versailles and at the Petit Trianon chateau. Louis Joseph lived with his mistress Maria in France until the French revolution, when the couple left for Germany and then Great Britain. In 1795, Prince Honore of Monaco died, and on 24 October 1798, the Prince of Conde and Maria were married in London. The marriage was kept secret for a decade, the couple reportedly becoming openly known as husband and wife only after 26 December 1808. Exile During the French Revolution, Louis Joseph was a dedicated supporter of the monarchy and one of the principal leaders of the counter-revolutionary movement. After the storming of the Bastille in 1789, he fled France with his son and grandson, before the Reign of Terror which arrested, tried and guillotined most of the Bourbons still living in France: Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and the Duke of Orleans (Philippe egalite) were executed in 1793, and the king's sister, Madame elisabeth, was beheaded in 1794. Louis Joseph established himself at Coblenz in 1791, where he helped to organize and lead a large counter-revolutionary army of emigres. In addition to containing the prince's grandson, Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Conde, duc d'Enghien, and the two sons of his cousin, the late king's brother, the comte d'Artois, the corps included many young aristocrats who eventually became leaders during the Bourbon Restoration years later. This group also included Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis, Duc de Richelieu, Pierre Louis Jean Casimir de Blacas and Fran?ois-Rene de Chateaubriand. The Army of Conde initially fought in conjunction with the Austrians. Later, due to differences with the Austrian plan of attack, however, the Prince de Conde entered with his corps into English pay in 1795. In 1796, the army fought in Swabia. In 1797, Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio with the First French Republic, formally ending its hostilities against the French. With the loss of its closest allies, the army transferred into the service of the Russian tsar, Paul I and was stationed in Poland, returning in 1799 to the Rhine under Alexander Suvorov. In 1800 when Russia left the Allied coalition, the army re-entered English service and fought in Bavaria. The army was disbanded in 1801 without having achieved its principal ambition, restoring Bourbon rule in France. After the dissolution of the corps, the prince spent his exile in England, where he lived with his second wife, Maria Caterina Brignole, the divorced wife of Honore III, Prince of Monaco, whom he had married in 1798. She died in 1813. With the defeat of Napoleon, Louis Joseph returned to Paris, where he resumed his courtly duties as grand ma?tre in the royal household of Louis XVIII. He died in 1818 and was succeeded by his son, Louis Henri. His daughter, Louise Adela?de de Bourbon, who was a nun and had become the abbess of Remiremont Abbey, survived until 1824. He was buried at the Basilica of St Denis. Issue Marie de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Bourbon (16 February 1755 - 22 June 1759) died in infancy. Louis Henri Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Conde, Duke of Bourbon (13 April 1756 - 30 August 1830) married Bathilde d'Orleans and had issue. Louise Adela?de de Bourbon (5 October 1757 - 10 March 1824) died unmarried. Name: 郑一嫂 Biography: Zheng Yi Sao(1775-1844),“Mrs Dragon” Position: Chinese pirate leader Nationality:Chinese Allegiance: Guangdong Pirate Confederation (1805-1810) Commands: Guangdong Pirate Confederation (400 ships, 40,000-60,000 pirates in 1805) Personal command of 24 ships and 1,433 pirates in 1810 Zheng Yi Sao (born Shi Yang, a.k.a. Shi Xianggu), also known as Ching Shih, was a Chinese pirate leader who was active in the South China Sea from 1801 to 1810. Born as Shi Yang in 1775 to humble origins, she married a pirate named Zheng Yi at age 26 in 1801. Zheng Yi Sao was a honorific bestowed upon her by the people of Guangdong, meaning wife of Zheng Yi. After the death of her husband in 1807, she took control of his pirate confederation with the support of his adopted son Zhang Bao, who she entered into a relationship with and later married. As the unofficial commander of the Guangdong Pirate Confederation, her fleet was composed of 400 junks and between 40,000 to 60,000 pirates in 1805. Her ships entered into conflict with several major powers, such as the East India Company, the Portuguese Empire, and Qing China. In 1810, Zheng Yi Sao negotiated a surrender to the Qing authorities which allowed her and Zhang Bao to retain a substantial fleet and avoid prosecution. At the time of her surrender, she personally commanded 24 ships and over 1400 pirates. She died in 1844 at the approximate age of 68, having lived a relatively peaceful and prosperous life since the end of her career in piracy. Zheng Yi Sao has been described as history's most successful female pirate, and one of the most successful pirates of any gender. Early life Zheng Yi Sao was born in 1775 in around Xinhui, Guangdong. She was possibly a Tanka, who worked as a prostitute or madame on a floating Tanka brothel (花船) in Guangdong. In 1801, she married Zheng Yi, a well-known pirate. Marriage to Zheng Yi Zheng Yi was a pirate who fought as a privateer for the Vietnamese Tay S?n dynasty in the Tay S?n wars against Qing China and later Nguy?n ánh. Under Tay S?n patronage, he fought in his cousin Zheng Qi's fleet. Zheng Yi hailed from a family of well-known pirates whose roots traced back to the Ming dynasty. He had an adopted son, Zhang Bao, who was abducted by Zheng Yi in 1798 at the age of 15, and subsequently pressed into piracy. A year after their marriage in February 1802, Zheng Yi's cousin Zheng Qi was captured and executed by Nguy?n forces in the town of Jiangping (江平) on the border of Vietnam and China, near present day Dongxing (东兴). On July 20, 1802, Nguy?n ánh entered the city of Th?ng Long, which marked the end of the Tay S?n dynasty. Zheng Yi quickly took over Zheng Qi's fleet after his death, and sailed back to the Chinese coast together with the rest of the Chinese pirates formerly under Tay S?n patronage. What followed was a period of infighting among the pirates near the Guangdong coast, but with the help of Zheng Yi Sao, who was a capable consolidator and organizer, Zheng Yi was able to unite the pirates into a confederation through the signing of an agreement on July 1805 in which each pirate leader agreed to sacrifice some of his autonomy for the greater good. The confederation consisted of six fleets known by the color of their flags - red, black, blue, white, yellow, and purple. Zheng Yi commanded the biggest fleet in the confederation, the Red Flag Fleet. Zheng Yi Sao had two sons with Zheng Yi. Zheng Yingshi (鄭英石) was born in 1803, and Zheng Xiongshi (鄭雄石) was born in 1807. Ascension to leadership On 16 November 1807, Zheng Yi fell overboard in a gale and died at the age of 42. Zheng Yi Sao quickly took over her deceased husband's operations, through the support of Zheng Yi's nephew Zheng Baoyang (鄭保養) and the son of Zheng Qi, Zheng Anbang (鄭安邦). Zheng Yi Sao also balanced the various factions in the confederation, and was familiar with Guo Podai (郭婆帶), leader of the second biggest fleet in the confederation, the Black Flag Fleet, who was abducted by Zheng Yi and pressed into piracy at a young age. Most importantly, Zheng Yi Sao had the support of Zhang Bao, who was in effect commanding the Red Flag Fleet at the time. Zheng Yi Sao effectively inherited her deceased husband's informal command over the entire Pirate Confederation, while Zhang Bao became the official commander of the Red Flag Fleet. According to a report by Wen Cheng Zhi (溫承誌), a government official who led the negotiations with Zheng Yi Sao and Zhang Bao with the Viceroy of Liangguang Bai Ling (百齡) later in 1810, "Zhang Bao obeyed Zheng Yi Sao's orders, and consulted her on all things before acting (張保...仍聽命於鄭一之妻石氏，事必請而後行)." After taking control of the confederation, Zheng Yi Sao and Zhang Bao quickly entered a sexual relationship. It is speculated that they were already intimate before the death of Zheng Yi. Leader of the confederation In 1808, a year after Zheng Yi Sao took power, the Pirate Confederation became significantly more active. In September, Zhang Bao first lured then ambushed Lin Guoliang (林國良), brigade-general (統兵) of Humen, and destroyed his fleet of 35 ships near Mazhou Island, located east of present day Bao'an District, Shenzhen. A month later in October, Zhang Bao defeated lieutenant-colonel (參將) Lin Fa (林發) near present day Weiyuan Island east of Humen Town. These two engagements reduced the Chinese provincial fleet by half, and cleared the way for the pirates to enter the Pearl River. 1809 was an eventful year for the Pirate Confederation under the command of Zheng Yi Sao. In March, Provincial Commander (提督) Sun Quanmou (孫全謀), with around 100 ships under his command, engaged a small group of pirates near Dawanshan Island, and the pirates called Zheng Yi Sao for aid. Before the battle, Zheng Yi Sao took command of the Red Flag Fleet and the White Flag Fleet, ordered Zhang Bao to engage from the front with around 10 ships, Zhang Bao's lieutenants, Xiang Shan'er (香山二) and Xiao Bu'ao (蕭步鰲) to flank Sun from the sides, and Liang Bao (梁保), leader of the White Flag Fleet, to cut Sun off from the rear. During the heat of the battle, Zheng Yi Sao charged in with the bulk of the Red Flag Fleet and the White Flag Fleet, which routed Sun. On July 21, the Qing navy dealt a major blow to the Pirate Confederation by killing Liang Bao and destroying Liang's White Flag Fleet at an engagement near present day Jinwan District, Zhuhai, at the cost of losing brigade-general Xu Tinggui (許廷桂) and 25 ships to Zhang Bao. Liang's death and the destruction of the White Flag Fleet did not deter Zheng Yi Sao. In August 1809, Zheng Yi Sao ordered a massive raid: Zhang Bao would raid around Dongguan with the Red Flag Fleet, Guo Podai would raid around Shunde with the Black Flag Fleet, and Zheng Yi Sao would lead the raid around Xinhui with her personal fleet. Guo Podai worked his way through the numerous waterways along the Pearl River for six weeks on a bloody raiding campaign which ultimately resulted in the deaths of approximately 10,000 people. In early September, Zhang Bao completely destroyed a large town not far from Humen and killed 2,000 inhabitants. Numerous villages, settlements, and towns fell victim to the rampaging pirates. On September 27, Zheng Yi Sao personally took command of 500 ships and anchored near Tanzhou (潭洲). On the 29th, Zheng Yi Sao ordered Zhang Bao to raid the town of Shating (沙亭) further upriver, where he captured around 400 civilians; on October 2, Zheng Yi Sao order Guo Podai to anchor around Jigongshi (雞公石), presumably near Sanxiongqi (三雄奇, modern day Sanhongqi 三洪奇), where he raided two days later. By late October, the provincial fleet was back to strength and ready for action under the command of Sun Quanmou, but was defeated again by Zhang Bao on the evening of October 21 near the town of Shawan (沙灣). Blockade of Tung Chung Bay In desperation, Chinese officials looked with renewed interest at the "foreign barbarians", hoping to obtain aid against Zheng Yi Sao and the Pirate Confederation. The Portuguese Empire, which controlled Macau at the time, agreed to help - on September 5, 1809, Zheng Yi Sao captured the brig of Antonio Botelho Homen (the Portuguese governor of Timor), and the Portuguese were eager for payback. In early November, 1809, Zheng Yi Sao suddenly left the Pearl River with only a few ships, and anchored at Tung Chung Bay, north of Lantau Island, for repairs. On November 4, the Portuguese sent three ships and a brig to harass Zheng Yi Sao at Lantau, who immediately called the Red Flag Fleet under Zhang Bao for aid. On the 5th, Zhang Bao arrived at Tung Chung Bay, and seeing that the Portuguese were no longer around, decided to anchor his ships for repair and maintenance. However, on the 8th, six Portuguese ships, the Inconquistável (frigate), the Indiana (brig), the Belisário (brig), the Concei??o (brig), the S?o Miguel (brig), and the Princesa Carlota (brig), under the command of artillery captain Jose Pinto Alcoforado de Azevedo e Sousa, blockaded Zheng Yi Sao and Zhang Bao within Tung Chung Bay. On the 20th, 93 ships from the provincial fleet joined the Portuguese in their blockade, commanded by Sun Quanmou. The pirates made various attempts to counterattack and break the blockade, but were unsuccessful due to unfavorable wind conditions. On the 23rd, the pirates managed to capture one ship from the provincial fleet, and killed the 74 men aboard. The situation turned into a stalemate between the pirates and the joint Sino-Portuguese fleet. Frustrated with the lack of progress, Sun Quanmou converted 43 of his ships into fireships and set them adrift towards the pirates in Tung Chung Bay on the 28th. The pirates diverted the fireships, towed them on shore, extinguished the fire, and broke them up for firewood. It was at this point that the wind changed, and two of the fireships were blown back to the provincial fleet and ignited two of Sun's own ships. On the 29th, Zhang Bao and Zheng Yi Sao took full advantage of the wind, broke through the blockade, and escaped into the South China Sea. The provincial fleet lost 3 ships and at least 74 men, while the pirates lost no ships and only 40 men. Surrendering to the Qing authorities By the end of 1809, the tides were turning against Zheng Yi Sao and the Pirate Confederation. Guo Podai, leader of the Black Flag Fleet, refused to reinforce Zheng Yi Sao and Zhang Bao during the Battle of Tung Chung Bay, and later openly battled with Zhang Bao near Humen. On January 13, 1810, Guo Podai officially surrendered to the Viceroy of Liangguang, Bai Ling, and was rewarded with the rank of sublieutenant (把總). The Portuguese and the British also officially joined in the fray. On September 15, 1809, the British country ship Mercury agreed to join 60 provincial warships in patrolling the inner passage of the Pearl River. On November 23, the Portuguese officially signed an agreement with Bai Ling that called for six Portuguese ships to join the Chinese provincial fleet on patrol between Humen and Macau for six months. Bai Ling's policy of militia training and embargoes also enjoyed reasonable success in cutting off the pirates' supply lines. But it was all these reasons combined, plus the organizational limit of the Pirate Confederation, which was held together by a few charismatic leaders such as Zheng Yi Sao, Zhang Bao, and Guo Podai, that led Zheng Yi Sao to consider surrendering to the authorities in early 1810. With Macau's Ouvidor (magistrate) Miguel Jose de Arriaga as mediator, Zheng Yi Sao, Zhang Bao, and Bai Ling officially met on Zhang Bao's flagship on February 21, 1810. The negotiations quickly broke down when Bai Ling refused Zheng Yi Sao and Zhang Bao's demand of retaining 5,000 subordinates and 80 ships for entering the salt trade and joining the anti-pirate campaign in western Guangdong. At the end of the day, ten British Indiamen sailed past the pirate fleet and alarmed Zhang Bao, who suspected some sort of Sino-European trap and quickly retreated. On April 17, Zheng Yi Sao, wanting to break the deadlock, personally led a delegation of 17 women and children to the Yamen at Guangzhou and negotiated with Bai Ling, where he yielded to her demands. On April 20, 1810, Zheng Yi Sao and Zhang Bao officially surrendered to Bai Ling near Furongsha (芙蓉沙, near present day Guzaiwan 古仔湾) with 17,318 pirates, 226 ships, 1,315 cannons, and 2,798 assorted weapons. Zheng Yi Sao surrendered with 24 ships and 1,433 pirates under her personal command. Zhang Bao was awarded the rank of lieutenant (千總), and was allowed to retain a private fleet of 20-30 ships. Zheng Yi Sao was also given permission to officially marry Zhang Bao. Life after piracy and death After surrendering, Zhang Bao would further distinguish himself by defeating the Blue Flag Fleet under Wu Shi'er (烏石二) near the Leizhou Peninsula. Zhang Bao, with Zheng Yi Sao accompanying him, would later be transferred to Min'an, Fujian, where Zheng Yi Sao would give birth to a son, Zhang Yulin, in 1813 (張玉麟). In 1822, Zhang Bao, aged 36, died near Penghu while serving as a colonel (副將) in charge of the Penghu garrison. In 1824, Zheng Yi Sao returned to Guangdong with Zhang Yulin. In 1840, while living at Nanhai, Zheng Yi Sao filled charges against a government official, Wu Yaonan (伍耀南), for having embezzled 28,000 taels of silver that Zhang Bao had handed over to him in 1810 for the purchase of an estate. The Viceroy of Liangguang at the time, Lin Zexu, petitioned the emperor to dismiss the case, which he did. In 1844, Zheng Yi Sao died at the age of 68-69, having led a relatively peaceful life after the death of her second husband, as the proprietor of an infamous gambling house somewhere around Guangdong. Legacy Zhang Bao's three codes for the pirates of the Red Flag Fleet are often misattributed to Zheng Yi Sao. The codes are: If any pirate goes privately on shore, he shall be taken, his ears mutilated, he will be paraded around the fleet and executed. Not the least thing shall be taken privately from the stolen and plundered goods, all shall be registered. The pirate receives for himself, out of ten parts, only two; eight parts belong to the storehouse, called the general fund; those who steal anything out of this general fund, shall be executed. Women captured from villages shall not be harmed or harassed. All women captives shall be registered, their place of origin recorded, and be given separate quarters. Those who raped or committed adultery with the women captives shall be executed. The three codes and the fact that Zhang Bao was the author of the codes were recorded in Jing hai fen ji (靖海氛記), an account of the Pirate Confederation by Qing official Yuan Yonglun (袁永綸) based on first-hand testimonies. The misattribution of the codes to Zheng Yi Sao most likely originated from Philip Gosse's The History of Piracy, first published in 1932, in which he claimed Zheng Yi Sao to have drawn up "a code of rules for her crews which somewhat resembled those subscribed to by earlier European pirates." Gosse claimed to have based the story of Zheng Yi Sao on a translation of Jing hai fen ji by Charles F. Neumann in History of the Pirates Who Infested the China Sea from 1807 to 1810 published in 1831, which in itself contains numerous translation errors. Regardless, it seems like Gosse was primarily interested in a sensationalized account of Zheng Yi Sao, as he claimed in The History of Piracy that "the original (Jing hai fen ji), published in Canton in 1830, is chiefly devoted to the exploits of one pirate, and that a woman," while Jin hai fen ji contains significantly more mentions of Zhang Bao (88) than Zheng Yi Sao (25). A semi-fictionalized account of Zheng Yi Sao, based on Philip Gosse's The History of Piracy, appeared in Jorge Luis Borges' short story The Widow Ching, Lady Pirate (part of A Universal History of Infamy (1935)), where she is described as "a lady pirate who operated in Asian waters, all the way from the Yellow Sea to the rivers of the Annam coast", and who, after surrendering to the imperial forces, is pardoned and allowed to live the rest of her life as an opium smuggler. In the story, Borges repeated the false claim that the pirate codes were issued by Zheng Yi Sao. In 2020, Angela Eiter finished the first ascent of the mountain climbing route Madame Ching (which she named after Zheng Yi Sao) in Imst, Austria. Arts, entertainment, and media Film Singing Behind Screens (2003), directed by Ermanno Olmi, is loosely based on Jorge Luis Borges' short story The Widow Ching, Lady Pirate. Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (2007), directed by Gore Verbinski, which featured a character played by Takayo Fischer named Misstress Ching that is loosely based on Zheng Yi Sao. Literature The short story The Widow Ching, Lady Pirate in A Universal History of Infamy (1935) by Jorge Luis Borges is loosely based on Zheng Yi Sao's life. In The Wake of the Lorelei Lee (2012), book 8 of L.A. Meyer's Bloody Jack series, the character Cheng Shih is based on Zheng Yi Sao. The Flower Boat Girl (2021) by Larry Feign is a biographical novel based closely on the life of Zheng Yi Sao. Manga / Graphic Novels In chapter 15 of Codename: Sailor V (November 1997), a manga created by Naoko Takeuchi, Sailor V transforms temporarily into Zheng Yi Sao. Afterlife (2006) is a OEL graphic novel that depicts Zheng Yi Sao as a guardian who fights demons to protect the denizens of the underworld. Television In Captain of Destiny (2015), a Hong Kong television drama, Maggie Shiu plays Shek Kiu (石嬌), who is based on Zheng Yi Sao. Name: Massena Biography: Andre Massena (16 May 1758 - 4 April 1817) Nickname(s) l'Enfant cheri de la Victoire Allegiance: Kingdom of France, Kingdom of the French, First French Republic, First French Empire Branch/service: French Army Rank: Marshal of the Empire In addition to his battlefield successes, Massena's leadership aided the careers of many. A majority of the French marshals of the time served under his command at some point. Andre Massena, 1st Duke of Rivoli, 1st Prince of Essling (born Andrea Massena; 16 May 1758 - 4 April 1817) was a French military commander during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. He was one of the original 18 Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon I, with the nickname l'Enfant cheri de la Victoire (the Dear Child of Victory). Many of Napoleon's generals were trained at the finest French and European military academies, however Massena was among those who achieved greatness without the benefit of formal education. While those of noble rank acquired their education and promotions as a matter of privilege, Massena rose from humble origins to such prominence that Napoleon referred to him as "the greatest name of my military empire." His military career is equaled by few commanders in European history. Battles/wars French Revolutionary Wars, Invasion of Naples (1806), Peninsular War, Napoleonic Wars Awards Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour Grand Dignitary of Order of the Iron Crown Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert Grand Cordon of the House Order of Fidelity Commander of the Order of Saint Louis Early life Massena was born in Nice, which was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the time, on 16 May 1758. He was the son of shopkeeper Jules Massena (Giulio Massena), who became a wine merchant, and his wife Marguerite Fabre. His father died in 1764, and after his mother remarried, he was sent to live with his father's relatives. At the age of thirteen, Massena became a cabin boy aboard a merchant ship. While aboard, he sailed in the Mediterranean Sea and on two extended voyages to French Guiana. In 1775, after four years at sea, he returned to Nice and enlisted in the French Army as a private in the Royal Italian Regiment. By the time he left in 1789, Massena had risen to the rank of warrant officer, the highest rank achievable by non-noblemen. On 10 August that year, he married Anne Marie Rosalie Lamare, daughter of a surgeon in Antibes, and lived with her in her hometown. After a brief stint as a smuggler in Northern Italy, he rejoined the army in 1791 and was made an officer, rising to the rank of colonel by 1792. Revolutionary Wars When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in April 1792, Massena and his battalion were deployed along the border to Piedmont. Massena prepared his battalion for battle in the hope that it would be incorporated into the regular army. That October, a month after the occupation of Nice, the battalion was one of four volunteer battalions that became part of the French Armee d'Italie. Massena distinguished himself in battle and was quickly promoted, attaining the rank of general de brigade in August 1793 and general de division that December. He was prominent in every campaign on the Italian Riviera over the next two years, including the attack on Saorgio in 1794 and the Battle of Loano in 1795. When Napoleon Bonaparte took command in March 1796, Massena was commanding the two divisions of the army's advance guard. During the campaign in Italy from 1796-1797, Massena became one of Bonaparte's most important subordinates. He played a significant role in the battles of Montenotte and Dego in the spring, and took a leading role at the battles of Lonato, Castiglione, Bassano, Caldiero and Arcola in the summer and fall, as well as the Battle of Rivoli and the fall of Mantua that winter. When an Austrian relief army was sent to aid Mantua in January 1797, the French forces were overrun near Rivoli, while other enemy columns advanced on Verona and Mantua. At 5:00 P.M. on 13 January, Massena was ordered to march from Verona to Rivoli, fifteen miles away. Following a forced night march across the snow-covered roads, the first of his troops reached the battlefield at 6:00 A.M. Bonaparte deployed them on the left flank when the battle began. They were shifted to strengthen the sagging center and then deployed to crush an Austrian flanking maneuver. Massena's troops played a decisive role in the victory. The next day, with very little rest, Massena and his troops marched 39 miles in 24 hours to intercept a second Austrian army advancing to relieve Mantua. At La Favorita, he closed the pincer on the Austrian army, forcing their surrender. In the space of five days, Massena's division played a major role in an operation that left over 35,000 Austrian soldiers either dead or captured. Two weeks later, the 30,000-man garrison at Mantua surrendered. With his final victory complete, Napoleon praised Massena with the name l'enfant cheri de la victoire. The president of the Directory in Paris, Jean Rewbell, was also congratulatory: "The Executive Directory congratulates you, citizen general, for the new success that you have obtained against the enemies of the Republic. The brave division that you command has covered itself with glory in the three consecutive days that forced Mantua to capitulate, and the Directory is obliged to regard you among the most capable and useful generals of the Republic." In 1799, Massena was granted an important command in Switzerland, replacing General Charles Edward Jennings. As Russian reinforcements marched to support the Austrian armies in Italy and Switzerland, the Directory consolidated the remnants of the French armies under Massena's command. With a force totaling approximately 90,000 men, Massena was ordered to defend the entire frontier. He repulsed Archduke Charles's advance on Zurich in June, but retired from the city and took up positions in the surrounding mountains. He triumphed over the Russians under General Alexander Korsakov at the Second Battle of Zurich in September, then, aware of the advance of Russian general Alexander Suvorov toward St. Gotthard, quickly shifted his troops southward. General Claude Jacques Lecourbe's division delayed the Russians' entrance into Switzerland at Gotthard Pass, and when Suvorov finally forced his way through, he was met by units of General Jean-de-Dieu Soult's French division blocking the route at Altdorf. Unable to break through the French lines and aware of Korsakov's disastrous defeat, the Russian general turned east through the high and difficult Pragel Pass to Glarus where he was dismayed to find other French troops awaiting him on 4 October. In waist-deep snow, his troops attempted six times to break through the French lines along the Linth river, but each attack was beaten back. Suvorov had no alternative but to make his escape across the treacherous Panix Pass, abandoning his baggage and artillery and losing as many as 5,000 men. This, among other events, led to Russia's withdrawal from the Second Coalition. In 1800, Massena was besieged at Genoa in Italy by the Austrians, while Bonaparte marched with the Army of the Reserve to Milan. By the end of May, plague had spread throughout Genoa and the civilian population was in revolt. Negotiations were begun for the exchange of prisoners early in June, but the citizens and some of the garrison clamored for capitulation. Unknown to Massena, the Austrian general Peter Ott had been ordered to raise the siege because Bonaparte had crossed Great St Bernard Pass and was now threatening the main Austrian army. Describing the situation at Genoa, Ott requested and received permission to continue the siege. On 4 June, with one day's rations remaining, Massena's negotiator finally agreed to evacuate the French Army from Genoa. However, "if the word capitulation was mentioned or written," Massena threatened to end all negotiations. Two days later, a few of the French left the city by sea, but the bulk of Massena's starving and exhausted troops marched out of the city with all their equipment and followed the road along the coast toward France, ending the siege of almost 60 days. The siege was an astonishing demonstration of tenacity, ingenuity, courage, and daring that garnered additional laurels for Massena and placed him in a category previously reserved for Bonaparte alone. By forcing the Austrians to deploy vast forces against him at Genoa, Massena made it possible for Bonaparte to cross Great St Bernard Pass, surprise the Austrians, and ultimately defeat General Michael von Melas's Austrian army at Marengo before sufficient reinforcements could be transferred from the siege site. Less than three weeks after the evacuation, Bonaparte wrote to Massena, "I am not able to give you a greater mark of the confidence I have in you than by giving you command of the first army of the Republic ." Even the Austrians recognized the significance of Massena's defense; the Austrian chief of staff declared firmly, "You won the battle, not in front of Alessandria but in front of Genoa." Massena was made commander of French forces in Italy, though he was later dismissed by Napoleon. Despite the praise, Napoleon also criticized Massena for capitulating too early in his memoirs, contrasting his actions with those of the Gauls under Vercingetorix when besieged by Julius Caesar in the Battle of Alesia. Napoleonic Wars Not until 1804 did Massena regain Napoleon's trust. That year, he was made a Marshal of the Empire in May. He led an independent army that captured Verona and fought the Austrians at Verona and later, on 30 October 1805, Caldiero. Massena was given control of operations against the Kingdom of Naples, and commanded the right wing of the Grand Army in Poland in 1807. He was granted his first ducal victory title as chief of Rivoli on 24 August 1808. In 1804, he participated in the reorganization of French {{Freemason}ry} and became, in November, "grand representative of the grand master of the Supreme Council"; in this capacity, he is one of the negotiators of the concordat established between the Grand Orient de France and the Supreme Council. Under the Empire, he was a member of the Sainte Caroline lodge in Paris. He is also "worshipful of honor" in various Masonic lodges, such as "Les Frères Reunis" in Paris, "La Parfaite Amitie" in Toulon, "L'etroite Union" in Thouars or "Les Vrais Amis Reunis" in Nice. In 1808, Massena was accidentally shot during a hunting expedition with the imperial suite. It is unclear as to whether he was shot by Napoleon himself or by Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier, but he lost the use of one eye as a result. It wasn't until 1809 that he was in active service, this time against the forces of the Fifth Coalition. At the beginning of the campaign, Massena led the IV Corps at the battles of Eckmühl and Ebersberg. Later in the war, when Napoleon tried to cross to the north bank of the Danube at the Battle of Aspern-Essling, Massena's troops hung onto the village of Aspern through two days of savage fighting. He was rewarded on 31 January 1810 with a second, now princely, victory title, Prince of Essling, for his efforts there and in the Battle of Wagram. During the Peninsular War, Napoleon appointed Massena as Commander of the Army of Portugal in 1810. Massena captured Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida after successful sieges, but suffered a setback at the hands of the Duke of Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army at Bu?aco on 27 September. Pressing on, he forced the allies to retreat into the Lines of Torres Vedras, where a stalemate ensued for several months. Finally forced to retreat due to lack of food and supplies, Massena withdrew to the Spanish frontier, allegedly prompting Napoleon to comment, "So, Prince of Essling, you are no longer Massena." After suffering defeats at the battles of Sabugal and Fuentes de O?oro, he was replaced by Marshal Auguste de Marmont and did not serve again, becoming a local commander at Marseille. Retirement Massena retained briefly his command after the restoration of King Louis XVIII until he was removed for his background. When Napoleon returned from exile the following year, Massena rallied to commit to Napoleon side once again, and was awarded as a Peer of France but remained as a local commander. The day after Napoleon's second abdication on 22 June 1815, he was named head of the National Guard in Paris by the Provisional Government, but was soon replaced upon the return of the Bourbons. He was disinclined to prove his royalist loyalties after the defeat of Napoleon, and was also a member of the court-martial that refused to try Marshal Michel Ney. Massena died in Paris in 1817 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, in a tomb he shares with his son-in-law Honore Charles Reille. Family Massena's wife stayed at their home in Antibes during his campaigns. Their first child, Marie Anne Elisabeth, was born on 8 July 1790, but died only four years later. Their first son Jacques Prosper, born 25 June 1793, inherited his father's title as 2nd Prince of Essling on 3 July 1818. Victoire Thècle was born on 28 September 1794 and married Honore Charles Reille on 12 September 1814. Fran?ois Victor, born on 2 April 1799, became 2nd Duke of Rivoli, 3rd Prince of Essling, and married Anne Debelle on 19 April 1823. Legacy Massena is the namesake of one of the Boulevards of the Marshals that circle Paris, having also a bridge named after him. The village of Massena in New York was settled by French lumbermen in the early 19th century and named in Massena's honor. Massena, Iowa, also in the United States and in turn named for the community in New York, honors Massena with a portrait of him in Centennial Park. His birthplace, Nice, is the location of Place Massena, also named after him. In literature Massena is mentioned and/or appears in several of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard stories, including How the Brigadier Saved the Army (1902). Massena appears as a minor character in Bernard Cornwell's novels Sharpe's Escape, detailing France's failed attempt to re-invade Portugal in 1810, including the Battle of Bussaco, and Sharpe's Battle, detailing the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro. Name: Clausewitz Biography: Carl von Clausewitz(1 June 1780 - 16 November 1831) Position: Prussian general and military theorist Allegiance: Prussia，Russia (1812-1813) Branch/service: Prussian Cavalry Officer Army，Russian Army Rank: Major-general Unit: Russian-German Legion (III Corps) Commands held :Kriegsakademie Carl Philipp Gottfried (or Gottlieb) von Clausewitz (/?kla?z?v?ts/; 1 June 1780 - 16 November 1831) was a Prussian general and military theorist who stressed the "moral" (meaning, in modern terms, psychological) and political aspects of war. His most notable work, Vom Kriege (On War), was unfinished at his death. Clausewitz was a realist in many different senses and, while in some respects a romantic, also drew heavily on the rationalist ideas of the European Enlightenment. Clausewitz's thinking is often described as Hegelian because of his dialectical method; but, although he was probably personally acquainted with Hegel, there remains debate as to whether or not Clausewitz was in fact influenced by him.(pp183-232) He stressed the dialectical interaction of diverse factors, noting how unexpected developments unfolding under the "fog of war" (i.e., in the face of incomplete, dubious, and often completely erroneous information and high levels of fear, doubt, and excitement) call for rapid decisions by alert commanders. He saw history as a vital check on erudite abstractions that did not accord with experience. In contrast to the early work of Antoine-Henri Jomini, he argued that war could not be quantified or reduced to mapwork, geometry, and graphs. Clausewitz had many aphorisms, of which the most famous is "War is the continuation of politics by other means." Name Clausewitz's Christian names are sometimes given in non-German sources as "Karl," "Carl Philipp Gottlieb," or "Carl Maria." He spelled his own given name with a "C" in order to identify with the classical Western tradition; writers who use "Karl" are often seeking to emphasize their German (rather than European) identity. "Carl Philipp Gottfried" appears on Clausewitz's tombstone. Nonetheless, sources such as military historian Peter Paret and Encyclop?dia Britannica continue to use Gottlieb instead of Gottfried. Life and military career Clausewitz was born on 1 June 1780 in Burg bei Magdeburg in the Prussian Duchy of Magdeburg as the fourth and youngest son of a family that made claims to a noble status which Carl accepted. Clausewitz's family claimed descent from the Barons of Clausewitz in Upper Silesia, though scholars question the connection. His grandfather, the son of a Lutheran pastor, had been a professor of theology. Clausewitz's father, once a lieutenant in the army of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, held a minor post in the Prussian internal-revenue service. Clausewitz entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve as a lance-corporal, eventually attaining the rank of major general. Clausewitz served in the Rhine Campaigns (1793-1794) including the Siege of Mainz, when the Prussian army invaded France during the French Revolution, and fought in the Napoleonic Wars from 1806 to 1815. He entered the Kriegsakademie (also cited as "The German War School", the "Military Academy in Berlin", and the "Prussian Military Academy," later the "War College") in Berlin in 1801 (aged 21), probably studied the writings of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and/or Fichte and Schleiermacher and won the regard of General Gerhard von Scharnhorst, the future first chief-of-staff of the newly reformed Prussian Army (appointed 1809). Clausewitz, Hermann von Boyen (1771-1848) and Karl von Grolman (1777-1843) were among Scharnhorst's primary allies in his efforts to reform the Prussian army between 1807 and 1814. Clausewitz served during the Jena Campaign as aide-de-camp to Prince August. At the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on 14 October 1806—when Napoleon invaded Prussia and defeated the massed Prussian-Saxon army commanded by Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick—he was captured, one of the 25,000 prisoners taken that day as the Prussian army disintegrated. He was 26. Clausewitz was held prisoner with his prince in France from 1807 to 1808. Returning to Prussia, he assisted in the reform of the Prussian army and state. On 10 December 1810 he married the socially prominent Countess Marie von Brühl, whom he had first met in 1803. She was a member of the noble German von Brühl family originating in Thuringia. The couple moved in the highest circles, socialising with Berlin's political, literary, and intellectual elite. Marie was well-educated and politically well-connected—she played an important role in her husband's career progress and intellectual evolution. She also edited, published, and introduced his collected works. Opposed to Prussia's enforced alliance with Napoleon I, Clausewitz left the Prussian army and served in the Imperial Russian Army from 1812 to 1813 during the Russian Campaign, taking part in the Battle of Borodino (1812). Like many Prussian officers serving in Russia, he joined the Russian-German Legion in 1813. In the service of the Russian Empire, Clausewitz helped negotiate the Convention of Tauroggen (1812), which prepared the way for the coalition of Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom that ultimately defeated Napoleon and his allies. In 1815 the Russian-German Legion became integrated into the Prussian Army and Clausewitz re-entered Prussian service as a colonel. He was soon appointed chief-of-staff of Johann von Thielmann's III Corps. In that capacity he served at the Battle of Ligny and the Battle of Wavre during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. An army led personally by Napoleon defeated the Prussians at Ligny (south of Mont-Saint-Jean and the village of Waterloo) on 16 June 1815, but they withdrew in good order. Napoleon's failure to destroy the Prussian forces led to his defeat a few days later at the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), when the Prussian forces arrived on his right flank late in the afternoon to support the Anglo-Dutch-Belgian forces pressing his front. Napoleon had convinced his troops that the field grey uniforms were those of Marshal Grouchy's grenadiers. Clausewitz's unit fought heavily outnumbered at Wavre (18-19 June 1815), preventing large reinforcements from reaching Napoleon at Waterloo. After the war, Clausewitz served as the director of the Kriegsakademie, where he served until 1830. In that year he returned to active duty with the army. Soon afterward, the outbreak of several revolutions around Europe and a crisis in Poland appeared to presage another major European war. Clausewitz was appointed chief of staff of the only army Prussia was able to mobilise in this emergency, which was sent to the Polish border. Its commander, Gneisenau, died of cholera (August 1831), and Clausewitz took command of the Prussian army's efforts to construct a cordon sanitaire to contain the great cholera outbreak (the first time cholera had appeared in modern heartland Europe, causing a continent-wide panic). Clausewitz himself died of the same disease shortly afterwards, on 17 November 1831. His widow edited, published, and wrote the introduction to his magnum opus on the philosophy of war in 1832. (He had started working on the text in 1816, but had not completed it.) She wrote the preface for On War and by 1835 had published most of his collected works. She died in January 1836. Theory of war Clausewitz was a professional combat soldier who was involved in numerous military campaigns, but he is famous primarily as a military theorist interested in the examination of war, utilising the campaigns of Frederick the Great and Napoleon as frames of reference for his work. He wrote a careful, systematic, philosophical examination of war in all its aspects. The result was his principal book, On War, a major work on the philosophy of war. It was unfinished when Clausewitz died and contains material written at different stages in his intellectual evolution, producing some significant contradictions between different sections. The sequence and precise character of that evolution is a source of much debate as to the exact meaning behind some seemingly contradictory observations in discussions pertinent to the tactical, operational and strategic levels of war, for example (though many of these apparent contradictions are simply the result of his dialectical method). Clausewitz constantly sought to revise the text, particularly between 1827 and his departure on his last field assignments, to include more material on "people's war" and forms of war other than high-intensity warfare between states, but relatively little of this material was included in the book. Soldiers before this time had written treatises on various military subjects, but none had undertaken a great philosophical examination of war on the scale of those written by Clausewitz and Leo Tolstoy, both of whom were inspired by the events of the Napoleonic Era. Clausewitz's work is still studied today, demonstrating its continued relevance. More than sixteen major English-language books that focused specifically on his work were published between 2005 and 2014, whereas his 19th-century rival Jomini has faded from influence. The historian Lynn Montross said that this outcome "may be explained by the fact that Jomini produced a system of war, Clausewitz a philosophy. The one has been outdated by new weapons, the other still influences the strategy behind those weapons." Jomini did not attempt to define war but Clausewitz did, providing (and dialectically comparing) a number of definitions. The first is his dialectical thesis: "War is thus an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will." The second, often treated as Clausewitz's 'bottom line,' is in fact merely his dialectical antithesis: "War is merely the continuation of politics with other means." The synthesis of his dialectical examination of the nature of war is his famous "trinity," saying that war is "a fascinating trinity—composed of primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are to be regarded as a blind natural force; the play of chance and probability, within which the creative spirit is free to roam; and its element of subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it subject to pure reason." Christopher Bassford says the best shorthand for Clausewitz's trinity should be something like "violent emotion/chance/rational calculation." However, it is frequently presented as "people/army/government," a misunderstanding based on a later paragraph in the same section. This misrepresentation was popularised by U.S. Army Colonel Harry Summers' Vietnam-era interpretation, facilitated by weaknesses in the 1976 Howard/Paret translation. The degree to which Clausewitz managed to revise his manuscript to reflect that synthesis is the subject of much debate. His final reference to war and Politik, however, goes beyond his widely quoted antithesis: "War is simply the continuation of political intercourse with the addition of other means. We deliberately use the phrase 'with the addition of other means' because we also want to make it clear that war in itself does not suspend political intercourse or change it into something entirely different. In essentials that intercourse continues, irrespective of the means it employs. The main lines along which military events progress, and to which they are restricted, are political lines that continue throughout the war into the subsequent peace." A prince or general who knows exactly how to organise his war according to his object and means, who does neither too little nor too much, gives by that the greatest proof of his genius. But the effects of this talent are exhibited not so much by the invention of new modes of action, which might strike the eye immediately, as in the successful final result of the whole. It is the exact fulfilment of silent suppositions, it is the noiseless harmony of the whole action which we should admire, and which only makes itself known in the total result. —?Clausewitz, On War, Book III, Chapter 1:Vol. I pgs. 85-86 Clausewitz introduced systematic philosophical contemplation into Western military thinking, with powerful implications not only for historical and analytical writing but also for practical policy, military instruction, and operational planning. He relied on his own experiences, contemporary writings about Napoleon, and on deep historical research. His historiographical approach is evident in his first extended study, written when he was 25, of the Thirty Years War. He rejects the Enlightenment's view of the war as a chaotic muddle and instead explains its drawn-out operations by the economy and technology of the age, the social characteristics of the troops, and the commanders' politics and psychology. In On War, Clausewitz sees all wars as the sum of decisions, actions, and reactions in an uncertain and dangerous context, and also as a socio-political phenomenon. He also stressed the complex nature of war, which encompasses both the socio-political and the operational and stresses the primacy of state policy. (One should be careful not to limit his observations on war to war between states, however, as he certainly discusses other kinds of protagonists).:viii The word "strategy" had only recently come into usage in modern Europe, and Clausewitz's definition is quite narrow: "the use of engagements for the object of war" (which many today would call "the operational level" of war). Clausewitz conceived of war as a political, social, and military phenomenon which might——depending on circumstances——involve the entire population of a political entity at war. In any case, Clausewitz saw military force as an instrument that states and other political actors use to pursue the ends of their policy, in a dialectic between opposing wills, each with the aim of imposing his policies and will upon his enemy. Clausewitz's emphasis on the inherent superiority of the defense suggests that habitual aggressors are likely to end up as failures. The inherent superiority of the defense obviously does not mean that the defender will always win, however: there are other asymmetries to be considered. He was interested in co-operation between the regular army and militia or partisan forces, or citizen soldiers, as one possible——sometimes the only——method of defense. In the circumstances of the Wars of the French Revolution and those with Napoleon, which were energised by a rising spirit of nationalism, he emphasised the need for states to involve their entire populations in the conduct of war. This point is especially important, as these wars demonstrated that such energies could be of decisive importance and for a time led to a democratisation of the armed forces much as universal suffrage democratised politics. While Clausewitz was intensely aware of the value of intelligence at all levels, he was also very skeptical of the accuracy of much military intelligence: "Many intelligence reports in war are contradictory; even more are false, and most are uncertain.... In short, most intelligence is false.":Vol. I pg. 38 This circumstance is generally described as part of the fog of war. Such skeptical comments apply only to intelligence at the tactical and operational levels; at the strategic and political levels he constantly stressed the requirement for the best possible understanding of what today would be called strategic and political intelligence. His conclusions were influenced by his experiences in the Prussian Army, which was often in an intelligence fog due partly to the superior abilities of Napoleon's system but even more simply to the nature of war. Clausewitz acknowledges that friction creates enormous difficulties for the realization of any plan, and the fog of war hinders commanders from knowing what is happening. It is precisely in the context of this challenge that he develops the concept of military genius, whose capabilities are seen above all in the execution of operations. 'Military genius' is not simply a matter of intellect, but a combination of qualities of intellect, experience, personality, and temperament (and there are many possible such combinations) that create a very highly developed mental aptitude for the waging of war. Principal ideas Key ideas discussed in On War include: the dialectical approach to military analysis the methods of "critical analysis" the economic profit-seeking logic of commercial enterprise is equally applicable to the waging of war and negotiating for peace the nature of the balance-of-power mechanism the relationship between political objectives and military objectives in war the asymmetrical relationship between attack and defense the nature of "military genius" (involving matters of personality and character, beyond intellect) the "fascinating trinity" (wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit) of war philosophical distinctions between "absolute war," "ideal war," and "real war" in "real war," the distinctive poles of a) limited objectives (political and/or military) and b) war to "render the enemy helpless" the idea that war and its conduct belong fundamentally to the social realm rather than to the realms of art or science "strategy" belongs primarily to the realm of art, but is constrained by quantitative analyses of political benefits versus military costs & losses "tactics" belongs primarily to the realm of science (most obvious in the development of siege warfare) the importance of "moral forces" (more than simply "morale") as opposed to quantifiable physical elements the "military virtues" of professional armies (which do not necessarily trump the rather different virtues of other kinds of fighting forces) conversely, the very real effects of a superiority in numbers and "mass" the essential unpredictability of war the "fog" of war "friction" —- the disparity between the ideal performance of units, organisations or systems and their actual performance in real-world scenarios (Book I, Chapter VII) strategic and operational "centers of gravity" the "culminating point of the offensive" the "culminating point of victory" Influence Clausewitz died without completing Vom Kriege, but despite this his ideas have been widely influential in military theory and have had a strong influence on German military thought specifically. Later Prussian and German generals, such as Helmuth Graf von Moltke, were clearly influenced by Clausewitz: Moltke's widely quoted statement that "No campaign plan survives first contact with the enemy" is a classic reflection of Clausewitz's insistence on the roles of chance, friction, "fog," uncertainty, and interactivity in war.:20-21 Clausewitz's influence spread to British thinking as well, though at first more as a historian and analyst than as a theorist. See for example Wellington's extended essay discussing Clausewitz's study of the Campaign of 1815——Wellington's only serious written discussion of the battle, which was widely discussed in 19th-century Britain. Clausewitz's broader thinking came to the fore following Britain's military embarrassments in the Boer War (1899-1902). One example of a heavy Clausewitzian influence in that era is Spenser Wilkinson, journalist, the first Chichele Professor of Military History at Oxford University, and perhaps the most prominent military analyst in Britain from c. 1885 until well into the interwar period. Another is naval historian Julian Corbett (1854-1922), whose work reflected a deep if idiosyncratic adherence to Clausewitz's concepts and frequently an emphasis on Clausewitz's ideas about 'limited objectives' and the inherent strengths of the defensive form of war. Corbett's practical strategic views were often in prominent public conflict with Wilkinson's—-see, for example, Wilkinson's article "Strategy at Sea," The Morning Post, 12 February 1912. Following the First World War, however, the influential British military commentator B. H. Liddell Hart in the 1920s erroneously attributed to him the doctrine of "total war" that during the First World War had been embraced by many European general staffs and emulated by the British. More recent scholars typically see that war as so confused in terms of political rationale that it in fact contradicts much of On War. That view assumes, however, a set of values as to what constitutes "rational" political objectives—-in this case, values not shaped by the fervid Social Darwinism that was rife in 1914 Europe. One of the most influential British Clausewitzians today is Colin S. Gray; historian Hew Strachan (like Wilkinson also the Chichele Professor of Military History at Oxford University, since 2001) has been an energetic proponent of the study of Clausewitz, but his own views on Clausewitz's ideas are somewhat ambivalent. With some interesting exceptions (e.g., John McAuley Palmer, Robert M. Johnston, Hoffman Nickerson), Clausewitz had little influence on American military thought before 1945 other than via British writers, though Generals Eisenhower and Patton were avid readers of English translations. He did influence Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky :233-60 and Mao Zedong, and thus the Communist Soviet and Chinese traditions, as Lenin emphasized the inevitability of wars among capitalist states in the age of imperialism and presented the armed struggle of the working class as the only path toward the eventual elimination of war. Because Lenin was an admirer of Clausewitz and called him "one of the great military writers," his influence on the Red Army was immense. The Russian historian A.N. Mertsalov commented that "It was an irony of fate that the view in the USSR was that it was Lenin who shaped the attitude towards Clausewitz, and that Lenin's dictum that war is a continuation of politics is taken from the work of this anti-humanist anti-revolutionary." The American mathematician Anatol Rapoport wrote in 1968 that Clausewitz as interpreted by Lenin formed the basis of all Soviet military thinking since 1917, and quoted the remarks by Marshal V.D. Sokolovsky: In describing the essence of war, Marxism-Leninism takes as its point of departure the premise that war is not an aim in itself, but rather a tool of politics. In his remarks on Clausewitz's On War, Lenin stressed that "Politics is the reason, and war is only the tool, not the other way around. Consequently, it remains only to subordinate the military point of view to the political.":37 Late 20th and early 21st century The deterrence strategy of the United States in the 1950s was closely inspired by President Dwight Eisenhower’s reading of Clausewitz as a young officer in the 1920s. Eisenhower was greatly impressed by Clausewitz’s example of a theoretical, idealized “absolute war” in Vom Kriege as a way of demonstrating how absurd it would be to attempt such a strategy in practice. For Eisenhower, the age of nuclear weapons had made what was for Clausewitz in the early 19th century only a theoretical vision an all too real possibility in the mid-20th century. From Eisenhower's viewpoint, the best deterrent to war was to show the world just how appalling and horrific a nuclear “absolute war” would be if it should ever occur, hence a series of much publicized nuclear tests in the Pacific, giving first priority in the defense budget to nuclear weapons and delivery systems over conventional weapons, and making repeated statements in public that the United States was able and willing at all times to use nuclear weapons. In this way, through the massive retaliation doctrine and the closely related foreign policy concept of brinkmanship, Eisenhower hoped to hold out a credible vision of Clausewitzian nuclear “absolute war” in order to deter the Soviet Union and/or China from ever risking a war or even conditions that might lead to a war with the United States. ...Philanthropists may easily imagine there is a skillful method of disarming and overcoming an enemy without causing great bloodshed, and that this is the proper tendency of the art of War. However plausible this may appear, still it is an error which must be extirpated; for in such dangerous things as war, the errors which proceed from a spirit of benevolence are just the worst. As the use of physical power to the utmost extent by no means excludes the co-operation of the intelligence, it follows that he who uses force unsparingly, without reference to the quantity of bloodshed, must obtain a superiority if his adversary does not act likewise. By such means the former dictates the law to the latter, and both proceed to extremities, to which the only limitations are those imposed by the amount of counteracting force on each side. —?Clausewitz, On War, Book I, Chapter 1:Vol. I pgs. 1-2 After 1970, some theorists claimed that nuclear proliferation made Clausewitzian concepts obsolete after the 20th-century period in which they dominated the world. John E. Sheppard, Jr., argues that by developing nuclear weapons, state-based conventional armies simultaneously both perfected their original purpose, to destroy a mirror image of themselves, and made themselves obsolete. No two powers have used nuclear weapons against each other, instead using conventional means, or proxy wars to settle disputes. If such a conflict did occur, presumably both combatants would be annihilated. Heavily influenced by the war in Vietnam and by antipathy to American strategist Henry Kissinger, the American biologist, musician, and game-theorist Anatol Rapoport argued in 1968 that a Clausewitzian view of war was not only obsolete in the age of nuclear weapons, but also highly dangerous as it promoted a "zero-sum paradigm" to international relations and a "dissolution of rationality" amongst decision-makers.:73-77 The end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century have seen many instances of state armies attempting to suppress insurgencies, terrorism, and other forms of asymmetrical warfare. Clausewitz did not focus solely on wars between countries with well-defined armies. The era of the French Revolution and Napoleon was full of revolutions, rebellions, and violence by "non-state actors," such as the wars in the French Vendee and in Spain. Clausewitz wrote a series of “Lectures on Small War” and studied the rebellion in the Vendee (1793-1796) and the Tyrolean uprising of 1809. In his famous “Bekenntnisdenkschrift” of 1812, he called for a “Spanish war in Germany” and laid out a comprehensive guerrilla strategy to be waged against Napoleon. In On War he included a famous chapter on “The People in Arms.” One prominent critic of Clausewitz is the Israeli military historian Martin van Creveld. In his book The Transformation of War, Creveld argued that Clausewitz's famous "Trinity" of people, army, and government was an obsolete socio-political construct based on the state, which was rapidly passing from the scene as the key player in war, and that he (Creveld) had constructed a new "non-trinitarian" model for modern warfare. Creveld's work has had great influence. Daniel Moran replied, 'The most egregious misrepresentation of Clausewitz's famous metaphor must be that of Martin van Creveld, who has declared Clausewitz to be an apostle of Trinitarian War, by which he means, incomprehensibly, a war of 'state against state and army against army,' from which the influence of the people is entirely excluded." Christopher Bassford went further, noting that one need only read the paragraph in which Clausewitz defined his Trinity to see "that the words 'people,' 'army,' and 'government' appear nowhere at all in the list of the Trinity’s components.... Creveld's and Keegan's assault on Clausewitz's Trinity is not only a classic 'blow into the air,' i.e., an assault on a position Clausewitz doesn't occupy. It is also a pointless attack on a concept that is quite useful in its own right. In any case, their failure to read the actual wording of the theory they so vociferously attack, and to grasp its deep relevance to the phenomena they describe, is hard to credit." Some have gone further and suggested that Clausewitz's best-known aphorism, that war is a continuation of politics with other means, is not only irrelevant today but also inapplicable historically. For an opposing view see the sixteen essays presented in Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century edited by Hew Strachan and Andreas Herberg-Rothe. In military academies, schools, and universities worldwide, Clausewitz's Vom Kriege is often (usually in translation) mandatory reading. Battles/wars :French Revolutionary Wars Siege of Mainz Napoleonic Wars Battle of Jena-Auerstedt Battle of Borodino Battle of Ligny Battle of Wavre Name: Alexander I Biography: Alexander I of Russia(23 December 1777 - 1 December 1825) Position: Emperor of Russia Names:Alexander Pavlovich Romanov House:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov Religion:Russian Orthodox Branch/service: Imperial Russian Army Battles/wars War of the Third Coalition Battle of Austerlitz War of the Sixth Coalition Battle of Leipzig Battle of Paris Alexander I (Russian: Алекса?ндр I Па?влович, tr. Aleksándr I Pávlovich, IPA: ; 23 December 1777 - 1 December 1825) was the Emperor of Russia (Tsar) from 1801, the first King of Congress Poland from 1815, and the Grand Duke of Finland from 1809 to his death. He was the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg. The son of Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Paul I, Alexander succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered. He ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. As prince and during the early years of his reign, Alexander often used liberal rhetoric, but continued Russia's absolutist policies in practice. In the first years of his reign, he initiated some minor social reforms and (in 1803-04) major liberal educational reforms, such as building more universities. Alexander appointed Mikhail Speransky, the son of a village priest, as one of his closest advisors. The Collegia was abolished and replaced by the State Council, which was created to improve legislation. Plans were also made to set up a parliament and sign a constitution. In foreign policy, he changed Russia's position relative to France four times between 1804 and 1812 among neutrality, opposition, and alliance. In 1805 he joined Britain in the War of the Third Coalition against Napoleon, but after suffering massive defeats at the battles of Austerlitz and Friedland, he switched sides and formed an alliance with Napoleon by the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and joined Napoleon's Continental System. He fought a small-scale naval war against Britain between 1807 and 1812 as well as a short war against Sweden (1808-09) after Sweden's refusal to join the Continental System. Alexander and Napoleon hardly agreed, especially regarding Poland, and the alliance collapsed by 1810. Alexander's greatest triumph came in 1812 when Napoleon's invasion of Russia proved to be a catastrophic disaster for the French. As part of the winning coalition against Napoleon, he gained territory in Finland and Poland. He formed the Holy Alliance to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe which he saw as immoral threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. He also helped Austria's Klemens von Metternich in suppressing all national and liberal movements. During the second half of his reign, Alexander became increasingly arbitrary, reactionary, and fearful of plots against him; as a result he ended many of the reforms he made earlier. He purged schools of foreign teachers, as education became more religiously driven as well as politically conservative. Speransky was replaced as advisor with the strict artillery inspector Aleksey Arakcheyev, who oversaw the creation of military settlements. Alexander died of typhus in December 1825 while on a trip to southern Russia. He left no legitimate children, as his two daughters died in childhood. Neither of his brothers wanted to become emperor. After a period of great confusion (that presaged the failed Decembrist revolt of liberal army officers in the weeks after his death), he was succeeded by his younger brother, Nicholas I. Alexander was born at 10:45, on 23 December 1777 in Saint Petersburg, and he and his younger brother Constantine were raised by their grandmother, Catherine. He was baptized on 31 December in Grand Church of the Winter Palace by mitred archpriest Ioann Ioannovich Panfilov (confessor of Empress Catherine II), his godmother was Catherine the Great and his godfathers were Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor and Frederick the Great. He was named after Saint Petersburg patron saint - Alexander Nevsky. Some sources allege that she planned to remove her son (Alexander's father) Paul I from the succession altogether. From the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine and his Swiss tutor, Frederic-Cesar de La Harpe, he imbibed the principles of Rousseau's gospel of humanity. But from his military governor, Nikolay Saltykov, he imbibed the traditions of Russian autocracy. Andrey Afanasyevich Samborsky, whom his grandmother chose for his religious instruction, was an atypical, unbearded Orthodox priest. Samborsky had long lived in England and taught Alexander (and Constantine) excellent English, very uncommon for potential Russian autocrats at the time. On 9 October 1793, when Alexander was still 15 years old, he married 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, who took the name Elizabeth Alexeievna. His grandmother was the one who presided over his marriage to the young princess. Until his grandmother's death, he was constantly walking the line of allegiance between his grandmother and his father. His steward Nikolai Saltykov helped him navigate the political landscape, engendering dislike for his grandmother and dread in dealing with his father. Catherine had the Alexander Palace built for the couple. This did nothing to help his relationship with her, as Catherine would go out of her way to amuse them with dancing and parties, which annoyed his wife. Living at the palace also put pressure on him to perform as a husband, though he felt only a brother's love for the Grand Duchess. He began to sympathize more with his father, as he saw visiting his father's fiefdom at Gatchina as a relief from the ostentatious court of the empress. There, they wore simple Prussian military uniforms, instead of the gaudy clothing popular at the French court they had to wear when visiting Catherine. Even so, visiting the tsarevich did not come without a bit of travail. Paul liked to have his guests perform military drills, which he also pushed upon his sons Alexander and Constantine. He was also prone to fits of temper, and he often went into fits of rage when events did not go his way. Tsarevich Catherine's death in November 1796, before she could appoint Alexander as her successor, brought his father, Paul, to the throne. Alexander disliked him as emperor even more than he did his grandmother. He wrote that Russia had become a "plaything for the insane" and that "absolute power disrupts everything". It is likely that seeing two previous rulers abuse their autocratic powers in such a way pushed him to be one of the more progressive Romanov tsars of the 19th and 20th centuries. Among the rest of the country, Paul was widely unpopular. He accused his wife of conspiring to become another Catherine and seize power from him as his mother did from his father. He also suspected Alexander of conspiring against him, despite his son's earlier refusal to seize power from Paul. Emperor Ascension Alexander became Emperor of Russia when his father was assassinated 23 March 1801. Alexander, then 23 years old, was in the palace at the moment of the assassination and his accession to the throne was announced by General Nicholas Zubov, one of the assassins. Historians still debate Alexander's role in his father's murder. The most common theory is that he was let into the conspirators' secret and was willing to take the throne but insisted that his father should not be killed. Becoming emperor through a crime that cost his father's life would give Alexander a strong sense of remorse and shame. Alexander I succeeded to the throne on 23 March 1801 and was crowned in the Kremlin on 15 September of that year. Domestic policy See also: Abolition of serfdom in Livonia Alexander wanted to resolve another crucial issue in Russia, the status of the serfs, although this was not achieved until 1861 (during the reign of his nephew Alexander II). His advisors quietly discussed the options at length. Cautiously, he extended the right to own land to most classes of subjects, including state-owned peasants, in 1801 and created a new social category of "free agriculturalist," for peasants voluntarily emancipated by their masters, in 1803. The great majority of serfs were not affected. When Alexander's reign began, there were three universities in Russia, at Moscow, Vilna (Vilnius), and Dorpat (Tartu). These were strengthened, and three others were founded at St. Petersburg, Kharkov, and Kazan. Literary and scientific bodies were established or encouraged, and his reign became noted for the aid lent to the sciences and arts by the Emperor and the wealthy nobility. Alexander later expelled foreign scholars. After 1815 the military settlements (farms worked by soldiers and their families under military control) were introduced, with the idea of making the army, or part of it, self-supporting economically and for providing it with recruits. Views held by his contemporaries Called an autocrat and "Jacobin", a man of the world and a mystic, Alexander appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his own temperament. Napoleon Bonaparte thought him a "shifty Byzantine", and called him the Talma of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To Metternich he was a madman to be humoured. Castlereagh, writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gave him credit for "grand qualities", but added that he is "suspicious and undecided"; and to Jefferson he was a man of estimable character, disposed to do good, and expected to diffuse through the mass of the Russian people "a sense of their natural rights". Napoleonic Wars Alliances with other powers Upon his accession, Alexander reversed many of the unpopular policies of his father, Paul, denounced the League of Armed Neutrality, and made peace with Britain (April 1801). At the same time he opened negotiations with Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire. Soon afterwards at Memel he entered into a close alliance with Prussia, not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true chivalry, out of friendship for the young King Frederick William III and his beautiful wife Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October 1801, and for a while it seemed as though France and Russia might come to an understanding. Carried away by the enthusiasm of Frederic-Cesar de La Harpe, who had returned to Russia from Paris, Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions and for the person of Napoleon Bonaparte. Soon, however, came a change. La Harpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to Alexander his Reflections on the True Nature of the Consul for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes and revealed Bonaparte "as not a true patriot", but only as "the most famous tyrant the world has produced". Later on, La Harpe and his friend Henri Monod lobbied Alexander, who persuaded the other Allied powers opposing Napoleon to recognise Vaudois and Argovian independence, in spite of Bern's attempts to reclaim them as subject lands. Alexander's disillusionment was completed by the execution of the duc d'Enghien on trumped up charges. The Russian court went into mourning for the last member of the House of Conde, and diplomatic relations with France were broken off. Alexander was especially alarmed and decided he had to somehow curb Napoleon's power. Opposition to Napoleon In opposing Napoleon I, "the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace," Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instructions to Niklolay Novosiltsov, his special envoy in London, the emperor elaborated the motives of his policy in language that appealed little to the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger. Yet the document is of great interest, as it formulates for the first time in an official dispatch the ideals of international policy that were to play a conspicuous part in world affairs at the close of the revolutionary epoch. Alexander argued that the outcome of the war was not only to be the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of "the sacred rights of humanity". To attain this it would be necessary "after having attached the nations to their government by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect". A general treaty was to become the main basis of the relations of the states forming "the European Confederation". While he believed the effort would not attain universal peace, it would be worthwhile if it established clear principles for the prescriptions of the rights of nations. The body would assure "the positive rights of nations" and "the privilege of neutrality," while asserting the obligation to exhaust all resources of mediation to retain peace, and would form "a new code of the law of nations". 1807 loss to French forces Meanwhile, Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition. He had no sooner entered Vienna in triumph than he opened negotiations with Alexander; he resumed them after the Battle of Austerlitz (2 December). Russia and France, he urged, were "geographical allies"; there was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still determined "to persist in the system of disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed", and he again allied himself with the Kingdom of Prussia. The campaign of Jena and the battle of Eylau followed; and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up Poles, Turks and Persians to break the obstinacy of the Tsar. A party too in Russia itself, headed by the Tsar's brother Constantine Pavlovich, was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the Orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of Friedland (13/14 June 1807). Napoleon saw his chance and seized it. Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. The two Emperors met at Tilsit on 25 June 1807. Napoleon knew well how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend. He would divide with Alexander the Empire of the world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the Danubian principalities and give him a free hand to deal with Finland; and, afterwards, the Emperors of the East and West, when the time should be ripe, would drive the Turks from Europe and march across Asia to the conquest of India, a realization of which was finally achieved by the British a few years later, and would change the course of modern history. Nevertheless, a thought awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger. The interests of Europe as a whole were utterly forgotten. Prussia The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship, and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. "We have made loyal war", he said, "we must make a loyal peace". It was not long before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit began to wane. The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube, and each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character, and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took place at Erfurt in October 1808 and resulted in a treaty that defined the common policy of the two Emperors. But Alexander's relations with Napoleon nonetheless suffered a change. He realised that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed "grand enterprise" seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in Central Europe. From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it initially to remove "the geographical enemy" from the gates of Saint Petersburg by wresting Finland from Sweden (1809), and he hoped further to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia. Franco-Russian alliance Events were rapidly heading towards the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. While Alexander assisted Napoleon in the war of 1809, he declared plainly that he would not allow the Austrian Empire to be crushed out of existence. Napoleon subsequently complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign. The tsar in turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles. In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. "I don't want anything for myself", he said to the French ambassador, "therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs of Poland, if it is a question of its restoration". Alexander complained that the Treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the Duchy of Warsaw, had "ill requited him for his loyalty", and he was only mollified for the time being by Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on 4 January 1810, but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of chivalry. But if Alexander suspected Napoleon's intentions, Napoleon was no less suspicious of Alexander. Partly to test his sincerity, Napoleon sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the grand-duchess Anna Pavlovna, the tsar's youngest sister. After some little delay Alexander returned a polite refusal, pleading the princess's tender age and the objection of the dowager empress to the marriage. Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the 4 January convention, and to announce his engagement to the archduchess Marie Louise in such a way as to lead Alexander to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated simultaneously. From this time on, the relationship between the two emperors gradually became more and more strained. Another personal grievance for Alexander towards Napoleon was the annexation of Oldenburg by France in December 1810, as the Duke of Oldenburg (3 January 1754 - 2 July 1823) was the uncle of the tsar. Furthermore, the disastrous impact of the Continental System on Russian trade made it impossible for the emperor to maintain a policy that was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance. Alexander kept Russia as neutral as possible in the ongoing French war with Britain. He did however allow trade to continue secretly with Britain and did not enforce the blockade required by the Continental System. In 1810 he withdrew Russia from the Continental System and trade between Britain and Russia grew. Relations between France and Russia became progressively worse after 1810. By 1811, it became clear that Napoleon was not keeping to his side of the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit. He had promised assistance to Russia in its war against the Ottoman Empire, but as the campaign went on, France offered no support at all. With war imminent between France and Russia, Alexander started to prepare the ground diplomatically. In April 1812 Russia and Sweden signed an agreement for mutual defence. A month later Alexander secured his southern flank through the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), which formally ended the war against the ottomans. His diplomats managed to extract promises from Prussia and Austria that should Napoleon invade Russia, the former would help Napoleon as little as possible and that the latter would give no aid at all. The minister of war, Barclay de tolly had managed the reform and improvement of the Russian land forces before the start of the 1812 campaign. Primarily on the advice of his sister and Count Aleksey Arakcheyev, Alexander did not take operational control as he had done during the 1805 campaign, instead delegating control to his generals, Michael Barclay de Tolly, Prince Pyotr Bagration and Mikhail Kutuzov. War against Persia Main articles: Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) and Treaty of Gulistan French invasion Main article: French invasion of Russia War of the Sixth Coalition With the Russian army following up victory over Napoleon in 1812, the Sixth Coalition was formed with Russia, Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Sweden, Spain, and other nations. Although the French were victorious in the initial battles during the campaign in Germany, they were eventually defeated at the Battle of Leipzig in the autumn of 1813, which proved to be a decisive victory. Following the battle, the Pro-French Confederation of the Rhine collapsed, thereby losing Napoleon's hold on territory east of the Rhine. Alexander, being the supreme commander of the Coalition forces in the theatre and the paramount monarch among the three main Coalition monarchs, ordered all Coalition forces in Germany to cross the Rhine and invade France. The Coalition forces, divided into three groups, entered northeastern France in January 1814. Facing them in the theatre were the French forces numbering only about 70,000 men. In spite of being heavily outnumbered, Napoleon defeated the divided Coalition forces in the battles at Brienne and La Rothière, but could not stop the Coalition's advance. Austrian emperor Francis I and King Frederick William III of Prussia felt demoralized upon hearing about Napoleon's victories since the start of the campaign. They even considered ordering a general retreat. But Alexander was far more determined than ever to victoriously enter Paris whatever the cost, imposing his will upon Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, and the wavering monarchs. On 28 March, Coalition forces advanced towards Paris, and the city surrendered on 31 March. Until this battle it had been nearly 400 years since a foreign army had entered Paris, during the Hundred Years' War. Camping outside the city on 29 March, the Coalition armies were to assault the city from its northern and eastern sides the next morning on 30 March. The battle started that same morning with intense artillery bombardment from the Coalition positions. Early in the morning the Coalition attack began when the Russians attacked and drove back the French skirmishers near Belleville before being driven back themselves by French cavalry from the city's eastern suburbs. By 7:00 a.m. the Russians attacked the Young Guard near Romainville in the centre of the French lines and after some time and hard fighting, pushed them back. A few hours later the Prussians, under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, attacked north of the city and carried the French position around Aubervilliers, but did not press their attack. The Württemberg troops seized the positions at Saint-Maur to the southwest, with Austrian troops in support. The Russian forces then assailed the heights of Montmartre in the city's northeast. Control of the heights was severely contested, until the French forces surrendered. Alexander sent an envoy to meet with the French to hasten the surrender. He offered generous terms to the French and although having intended to avenge Moscow, he declared himself to be bringing peace to France rather than its destruction. On 31 March Talleyrand gave the key of the city to the tsar. Later that day the Coalition armies triumphantly entered the city with Alexander at the head of the army followed by the King of Prussia and Prince Schwarzenberg. On 2 April, the Senate passed the Acte de decheance de l'Empereur, which declared Napoleon deposed. Napoleon was in Fontainebleau when he heard that Paris had surrendered. Outraged, he wanted to march on the capital, but his marshals refused to fight for him and repeatedly urged him to surrender. He abdicated in favour of his son on 4 April, but the Allies rejected this out of hand, forcing Napoleon to abdicate unconditionally on 6 April. The terms of his abdication, which included his exile to the Isle of Elba, were settled in the Treaty of Fontainebleau on 11 April. A reluctant Napoleon ratified it two days later, marking the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition. Postbellum Peace of Paris and the Congress of Vienna Alexander tried to calm the unrest of his conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the evangelical revival on the continent, and sought for omens and supernatural guidance in texts and passages of scripture. It was not, however, according to his own account, till he met the Baroness de Krüdener—a religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her special mission—at Basel, in the autumn of 1813, that his soul found peace. From this time a mystic pietism became the avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame de Krüdener, and her colleague, the evangelist Henri-Louis Empaytaz, became the confidants of the emperor's most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of Paris the imperial prayer-meetings were the oracle on whose revelations hung the fate of the world. Such was Alexander's mood when the downfall of Napoleon left him one of the most powerful sovereigns in Europe. With the memory of the treaty of Tilsit still fresh in men's minds, it was not unnatural that to cynical men of the world like Klemens Wenzel von Metternich he merely seemed to be disguising "under the language of evangelical abnegation" vast and perilous schemes of ambition. The puzzled powers were, in fact, the more inclined to be suspicious in view of other, and seemingly inconsistent, tendencies of the emperor, which yet seemed all to point to a like disquieting conclusion. For Madame de Krüdener was not the only influence behind the throne; and, though Alexander had declared war against the Revolution, La Harpe (his erstwhile tutor) was once more at his elbow, and the catchwords of the gospel of humanity were still on his lips. The very proclamations which denounced Napoleon as "the genius of evil", denounced him in the name of "liberty," and of "enlightenment". Conservatives suspected Alexander of a monstrous intrigue by which the eastern autocrat would ally with the Jacobinism of all Europe, aiming at an all-powerful Russia in place of an all-powerful France. At the Congress of Vienna Alexander's attitude accentuated this distrust. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, whose single-minded aim was the restoration of "a just equilibrium" in Europe, reproached the Tsar to his face for a "conscience" which led him to imperil the concert of the powers by keeping his hold on Poland in violation of his treaty obligation. Revolt of the Greeks At the Congress of Laibach, which had been adjourned in the spring of 1821, Alexander received news of the Greek revolt against the Ottoman Empire. From this time until his death, Alexander's mind was conflicted between his dreams of a stable confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the Ottomans. At first, under the careful advice of Metternich, Alexander chose the former. Siding against the Greek revolt for the sake of stability in the region, Alexander expelled its leader Alexander Ypsilantis from the Russian Imperial Cavalry, and directed his foreign minister, Ioannis Kapodistrias (known as Giovanni, Count Capo d'Istria), himself a Greek, to disavow any Russian sympathy with Ypsilantis; and in 1822, he issued orders to turn back a deputation from the Greek Morea province to the Congress of Verona on the road. He made some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind. The Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II had been excluded from the Holy Alliance under the principle that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns of Russia" rather than of the concert of Europe; but Alexander now offered to surrender this claim and act "as the mandatory of Europe," as Austria had acted in Naples, but still to march as a Christian liberator into the Ottoman Empire. Metternich's opposition to this assertion of Russian power, putting the Austrian-led balance of power above the interests of Christendom, first opened Alexander's eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, he was once again moved by the aspirations of his people. Death With his mental health deteriorating, Alexander grew increasingly suspicious of those around him, more withdrawn, more religious, and more passive. Some historians conclude his profile "coincides precisely with the schizophrenic prototype: a withdrawn, seclusive, rather shy, introvertive, unaggressive, and somewhat apathetic individual". In the autumn of 1825 the Emperor undertook a voyage to the south of Russia due to the increasing illness of his wife. During his trip he himself caught typhus, from which he died in the southern city of Taganrog on 19 November (O.S.)/1 December 1825. His two brothers disputed who would become tsar—each wanted the other to do so. His wife died a few months later as the emperor's body was transported to Saint Petersburg for the funeral. He was interred at the St. Peter and Paul Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg on 13 March 1826. There are many rumours and legends, of which the most often told claimed that he did not die but rather became a Siberian hermit named Feodor Kuzmich. Historians reject the legends, but popular writers resurrect them often. Name: Arno Biography: Arno Dorian(born 1768) "The Creed of the Assassin Brotherhood teaches us that nothing is forbidden to us. Once, I thought that meant we were free to do as we would. To pursue our ideals, no matter the cost. I understand now. Not a grant of permission. The Creed is a warning." -Arno Dorian, reflecting on his perception of the Creed. Arno Victor Dorian (born 1768) was a member of the French Brotherhood of Assassins and a Master Assassin during the French Revolution. The only known son of Charles Dorian, an Assassin who was murdered by the Irish-American Templar Shay Cormac, Arno was then made a ward of Fran?ois de la Serre, Grand Master of the French Rite of the Templar Order, and raised alongside his closest friend, Elise. In May of 1789, Fran?ois de la Serre was murdered at the Palace of Versailles as part of a coup within the French Templar Rite, and Arno was framed for the murder. While imprisoned at the Bastille, he met Master Assassin Pierre Bellec, who told Arno of his Assassin heritage. Wracked with guilt over his past failures, Arno joined the Assassin Brotherhood in the hopes of avenging his biological and adoptive fathers, while also working to uncover the true instigators of the revolution.Throughout his journey, Arno gained various allies, including Antoine Lavoisier, Marquis de Sade, Georges Danton, Napoleon Bonaparte, and Elise, who had recently been inducted to the Templar Order and sought revenge against her father's murderers. Arno and Elise soon discovered that Fran?ois-Thomas Germain had orchestrated de la Serre's death in the hopes of reforming the Templar Order, and instigated the Revolution to this end. When the Assassin Mentor HonorE Mirabeau accepted an alliance with her on behalf of the Brotherhood, Bellec poisoned Mirabeau and tried to kill Elise as well, forcing Arno to assassinate his former teacher. After killing most of Germain's subordinates, Arno was exiled from the Assassin Brotherhood and shunned by Elise, causing him to retreat back to the now abandoned and dilapidated de la Serre estate in Versailles. Six months later, Elise found Arno in a drunken, depressed state at the Palace and apologized to him before they both returned to Paris. After eliminating the remainder of Germain's allies, they tracked him down at the Temple in July of 1794, where a final confrontation ensued. Germain killed Elise using the Sword of Eden, and Arno killed him in return. Heartbroken over Elise's death, Arno sank into alcoholism and depression once more and ultimately resolved to leave Paris altogether. To this end, he accepted a mission from the Marquis de Sade in Franciade, where he met a young boy named LEon. Together, they discovered that Napoleon was planning to use an artifact buried beneath the town to take control of France. Initially hesitant to take action, Arno regained his sense of duty and put an end to Napoleon's plans, recovering the artifact-an Apple of Eden-in the process. Arno decided to remain in France and rejoin the Assassin Brotherhood, eventually rising to the rank of Master Assassin. He would sire a child at some point in the future and is an ancestor of Callum Lynch. By the year 2014, Arno's genetic memories had been studied by both Abstergo Entertainment and an unidentified member of the Initiates hacker group. Arno was born into a noble household in Versailles, France, on 26 August 1768, as the only child of Charles and Marie Dorian. Because of his upbringing, Arno was well-educated and had access to a wide selection of tutors and books from a young age. Some years later, Marie abandoned her family after a dispute with her husband, leaving Charles to raise their son alone. Since then, Arno frequently traveled with his father, visiting places around Europe and North Africa. On 27 December 1776, Arno accompanied his father to the Palace of Versailles, where he was scheduled for a meeting. Once inside the palace, Charles instructed Arno to sit in a chair while he went to meet with his fellow associates. Arno wished to go with his father, who assured him that he would return shortly - even giving Arno his pocket watch to keep track of the time - and see fireworks with him. Before leaving, Charles asked Arno to stay put and not run off, to which Arno reluctantly agreed. However, a mysterious young noble girl appeared and enticed Arno into chasing her. As soon as he caught up to the young girl, she encouraged him to steal an apple from a nearby bowl, prompting several guards to chase him away. Arno then introduced himself to the girl, who then proceeded to introduce herself as Elise de la Serre. She claimed that her father was meeting with King Louis XVI. Arno and Elise overheard the nearby commotion and, thinking the guards were still after them, confessed to stealing an apple; when the guards ignored him and continued onwards, Arno and Elise followed them at her urging to see what was going on. The children discovered that Charles Dorian was assassinated by an uncaught man. Seeing his father's deceased body, Arno dropped his father's watch on the floor, breaking it. Taking it back, he could only stare in silent, horrified shock. He was brought out of his stupor by Fran?ois de la Serre, Elise's father, who then became Arno's warden. From that point forward, Arno was raised at de la Serre household alongside Elise, with whom he bonded over the years. However, Arno remained distraught over the loss of his father and often wrote letters to him on his adopted father's suggestion, to cope with his grief. De la Serre murder On 5 May 1789, Arno lost his father's watch in a card game with two blacksmith brothers, Hugo and Victor. Although Arno endeavored to steal the memento back, Victor caught him in the act. Enraged, the brothers chased him back to the de la Serre household, where Fran?ois attempted to mediate the situation. When Fran?ois returned, he briefly sermonized Arno and informed that Elise would be in town for the night but that she will return to Paris the next day. To see Elise, Arno tried to convince Fran?ois that she needed an escort but he assigned Arno to assist Olivier with chores.Olivier assigned Arno to brush the horses before Mister de la Serre leaving. As Fran?ois left the household on his carriage, the messenger Perrault attempted to deliver a letter that Arno volunteered to deliver in his stead as Perrault was already exhausted. Initially, he lost sight of de la Serre's carriage and mistook another carriage for his. Facing an angered man, Arno apologized to him and dashed off, climbing the spire of a nearby church in the hopes of locating de la Serre's carriage. Arno used Eagle Vision to spot the carriage, which had been parked in the courtyard of the H?tel des Menus-Plaisirs. Infiltrating the vast complex, Arno witnessed King Louis XVI's ill-fated address to the Estates-General. Locating Fran?ois, Arno followed him and saw his warden discussing with the deputy Mirabeau, planning a truce. Before Arno could catch up to Fran?ois, he saw that Hugo and Victor tailed him. Cornered in a room, Arno bested the two brothers in combat only to be chased away by the guards.Returning to the de la Serre household, Olivier informed Arno that Fran?ois will not return until late. Arno decided then to pass the night with Elise but the butler informed him that she will be at a private party in her honor at the Palace of Versailles. Frustrated that he wasn't invited, Arno waited for the return of Mister de la Serre. Impatient to see Elise at the party, Arno decided to slip the letter under the door to Fran?ois' study, confident that he would find it upon his return. Before leaving, he took one of Fran?ois' suits for the party. Later that evening, Arno arrived at the gate of the palace but wasn't allowed to enter as he hadn't an invitation. Arno then climbed the fence and infiltrated the Palace. As he was on a balcony, the gate guard called Arno to get down but he refused. In the Hall of Mirrors, Arno saw Elise and followed her in a private room. They shared a kiss before Elise remarked that Arnoo wore one of her suits. While she explained that she wanted to invite him but her father refused, guards arrived in the corridor to find Arno. She told Arno to exit through the window while she kept them occupied.Reaching the palace's courtyard, Arno came upon Mister de la Serre. Seeing him staggering, Arno thought that he was in for public drunkenness. When he collapsed onto the ground, Arno rushed over to help him, only to see he was dead. Unaware of what was going on, Arno heard a man calling out another Sivert, who called out to the guards in an attempt to frame Arno for de la Serre's murder. As Arno saw Sivert escaped, the guards subdued Arno, who fell unconscious. Imprisonment Awakening, Arno found out he was in a prison. Passing before a cell, Arno saw a naked Marquis de Sade messing with the guards as he shot through his window that the prisoners were killed. Arno was thrown in a cell and passed out. Waking up, Arno discussed with his cellmates. Bernard Laroche informed him he was at the Bastille. Seeing a wall with strange drawings, Arno tried to speak with the prisoner next to them but the soured cellmate only responded by calling Arno pisspot. Arno tried to call the guards to explain what happened to Mister de la Serre but they didn't listen. Before sleeping, Arno saw that he had only his father's watch on him.The next morning, Arno woke up to discover that the prisoner who called him pisspot had stolen his father's watch. Infuriated, Arno demanded that he give it back, but was challenged to a duel with wooden training swords instead. After besting him, Arno once again demanded his watch back before telling him to return to his "crazy drawings". As the prisoner asked what drawings he spoke about, Arno showed him the wall but discovered that the drawings weren't there. The prisoner grabbed Arno by the arm, dragging him over to the wall and telling him to concentrate. By using his Eagle vision, Arno saw once again the symbols. The prisoner told him that they were messages from the past and that he had himself thrown into half the prisons in Paris in search of them. As the prisoner asked what was his name, Arno introduced himself. Not surprised, the prisoner introduced himself as Pierre Bellec and that he knew Arno's father. Bellec then returned the watch to Arno and told him that his father was a member of the Assassins, a group dedicated to protecting liberty of humankind. Bellec offering to train him and join the Brotherhood but Arno quickly refused as he only wanted to join Elise. Bellec told him that he couldn't do this if he remained here, so Arno accepted to be trained.During two months, Arno trained in sword-fighting with Bellec in their cell. During this time, Bellec revealed that Fran?ois de la Serre was the Grand Master of the Parisian Rite of the Templar Order, the sworn enemy of the Brotherhood who wanted to control humanity. On 14 July, the Bastille came under attack from a civil uprising, allowing Arno and Bellec to make their escape when guards tried to secure their cell. Making their way to the roof of the prison, Bellec ordered to Arno to jump. As Arno refused, Bellec gave him a medallion saying he could join the Assassins if he escape from this. Bellec bid him farewell before performing a Leap of Faith from the fortress's battlements. As Arno was cornered by guards, he jumped despite his initial reluctance and landed in a haystack. Escaping from the Bastille, Arno immediately made his way to Elise's residence but was greeted with accusations of involvement in her father's murder. Arno pleaded that he had nothing to do with it and told her of her father's Templar affiliations, only to learn that she was fully aware of it as she was a Templar herself. She then showed him the letter he was supposed to deliver the night Fran?ois was murdered, which would have warned him of the impending assassination. Realizing that his negligence inadvertently caused Fran?ois' death, Arno left the mansion. Joining the Assassins Induction in the Brotherhood "...The Assassins... They gave me a purpose. Something to believe in. To see that betrayed... I need to make it right myself. I need to know why." -Arno Dorian, reflecting his thoughts to Elise, 1791. Wracked with guilt and blaming himself for de la Serre's death, Arno drown his sorrow in alcohol. Looking the medallion Bellec gave him, Arno saw with the Eagle vision the symbol of a rose window. Wanting to erase his past mistakes, Arno decided to join the Assassin. Matching the medallion's symbol with the window of the Sainte-Chapelle, Arno entered in the chapel. Finding a mechanish, he put the medallion in it. As he rearranged the chandeliers, Arno opened a secret hole on the floor. Arno jumped in it. Arriving in tunnels, Arno met Bellec who brought him before the Assassin Council of the Parisian Brotherhood composed of Mirabeau, Sophie Trenet, Guillaume Beylier, HervE Quemar and Bellec himself. Before them, Arno expressed his desire to join the Brotherhood to redeem his mistakes. As some like Trenet weren't inclined to let Arno joined the Brotherhood due to his guilt, Bellec vouched for him. Mirabeau authorized Arno to pass the a ceremony known as the Eagle path. During the induction ceremony, Arno drank in a chalice containing a hallucinogenic brewage. Seeing visions of his life, Arno experienced once again the deaths of his father and Fran?ois, who were killed by the same hooded figure. Arno tracked the killer and end his life. Seeing himself as the killer, Arno paid the last rites before waking from the hallucinations. Opening his eyes, Arno was surrounded by the Council who recited the tenets of The Creed. Bellec gave to Arno the Hidden Blade, the signature weapon of the Brotherhood. Mirabeau stated that Arno was dead with his sins and failures and that he was reborn as a novice of the Assassin Brotherhood. Arno activated his Hidden Blade, officializing his induction. Even if Arno ended his relation with Elise, he continued to receive letters from her, especially warning him about joining the Brotherhood. Exploring the basement, Master QuEmar explained to Arno that the Assassins formed clubs to accomplish difficult missions. Arno also discovered the armor of Thomas de Carneillon which had been locked in a vault for two centuries as the seal that opened the door had been broken, and then lost. QuEmar explained that it used to be tradition for Assassins who had performed a great service to France and the Brotherhood to be awarded the armor. QuEmar continued that to unlock the vault surrounding the armor, Arno would need to recover the parts of the seal by solving a series of enigmas made by Nostradamus. Arno would eventually solve the eighteen Nostradamus Enigmas and complete the seal to be awarded the armor. Rescuing GermainWhile infiltrating Germain's shop Arno discovered that the place was heavily guarded by the Templars. As he reached Germain, the silversmith claimed that a man named ChrEtien Lafrenière commissioned him to create the pin, and confirmed Arno's statement of Lafrenière being a Templar. He also informed the Assassin that Lafrenière stocked weapons in the Halle aux BlEs, preparing something.Infiltrating the Halles aux BlEs, Arno found a ledger indicating that Lafrenière organized a meeting in the Holy Innocents' Cemetery. Fearing that Lafrenière prepared an attack against the Assassins, Arno burnt down the gunpowder stock, leaving in extremis as the building burnt in flames.Later, Arno went in the Holy Innocents' Cemetery before the reunion to plan his assassination. As Lafrenière discussed with other Templars coming from Europe, Arno killed the Templar only to learn that Lafrenière had penned the letter to Fran?ois de la Serre, warning the former Grand Master of an eventual betrayal within the Templar Order. Arno also discovered that Lafrenière was planning an attack on the H?tel de Beauvais. Reconnecting with Elise Arno reported his findings to the Assassin Council, who were outraged that he had assassinated Lafrenière without their consent. However, when Arno mentioned that Lafrenière was planning on attacking the H?tel de Beauvais, and not an Assassin base, the Council begrudgingly agreed to send him to investigate the meeting. After successfully infiltrating the hotel where the Jacobin Club organized a meeting, Arno eavesdropped on a secret meeting of a group of Templars, led by an unknown figure plotting to eliminate Elise. After hearing this, Arno escaped the hotel and managed to save Elise from the Templar ambush at the H?tel Voysin. Following this, Arno then rendezvoused with her at the CafE ThEatre, where he offered to help Elise avenge her father. To this end, he proceeded to bring a blindfolded Elise before the Assassin Council where despite the hostility from the Assassins—particularly Bellec—Mirabeau was more inclined to parlay with her. While the Council debated over Elise's offer of alliance, Arno informed her of Germain and his last known location, prompting her to run off. By the time she came to a stop, Elise informed Arno that Germain was exiled from the Templar Order for his radical views and heretical notions about Jacques de Molay. Investigating Germain's residence, they found its empty, as the man had anticipated that his deception would not hold up. Upon evading a Templar ambush, Elise found a ledger confirming that Germain had murdered her father. As they were shot at by snipers, Arno instructed Elise to go to Mirabeau's estate while he dealt with their attackers. Mirabeau murder When Arno arrived at Mirabeau's estate, he found the Mentor dead with Elise next to the body. Suspecting someone was attempting to pin the blame on Elise, the two investigated the murder and discovered that Mirabeau was poisoned with aconite. Informing Master QuEmar on the death of the Mentor, the Master accorded him one day to investigate on the matter before informing the Council. QuEmar also gave him the address of an apothecary who sold aconite in great quantity. Arno and Elise tracked down the apothecary and had discovered that Mirabeau's murderer was an Assassin. The apothecary also revealed that he dropped off the second dose in a cache for the killer. Near the Sainte Chapelle, Arno used his Eagle Vision to follow the trace of aconite. Climbing on the chapel, Arno discovered that the traitor was Bellec. His master had done this because he strongly believed that no peace could be achieved between the two factions and that purging the Brotherhood to remake it into a stronger organization was a good thing. This approach had been similar to what Alta?r Ibn-La'Ahad, Ezio Auditore da Firenze, and Connor had done, but in Bellec's case, it backfired. Even though he tried to persuade Arno to join his cause, he refused and was forced to fight his former teacher. Arno managed to gain the upper hand in the fight, having no choice but to kill Bellec when he tried to kill Elise. Before dying, Bellec commended Arno for defeating him, and urged Arno to finish him off, otherwise, he would never stop. While delivering the killing blow, Arno saw the memories of his master, how Bellec saved his father Charles from an attack of a Templar, the day he took Arno's pocket watch and understood he was Charles' son before their fight. He also experienced the memory of Mirabeau's murder, how Bellec tried to dissuade his Mentor to help Elise before poisoning him. Arno paid him his final rites and left the Sainte-Chapelle with Elise. As a lesser punishment for allowing two Master Assassins to die, the Council assigned Arno to "fetch and carry work" and he was seized from Germain's case. The Council also refused the alliance with Elise. Working with Elise On 31 October, Arno met Elise who informed that the woman he saw in Rouille's memories was Marie LEvesque, one of the first Templar who joined Germain. Arno investigated on the docks of the H?tel de Ville while Elise investigated on LEvesque's whereabouts. On the docks, Arno saw that the barge containing the grain hijacked by LEvesque's men. Following the barge, Arno arrived in Templar docks where LEvesque ordered that some of the grain bags needed to leak. Arno pickpocketed from the captain orders indicating that LEvesque sent the grain to Luxembourg Palace. Later, Arno met Elise at Luxembourg Palace. Reuniting their information, they understood that LEvesque's plot was hoarding grain in order to turn the middle and lower classes against the King. While Elise tried to get the grain out of the palace, Arno infiltrated the building as LEvesque hold a party and assassinate her. In her memories, he saw that during the H?tel de Beauvais ' meeting, the member of the Convention Louis-Michel le Peletier schemed to make the King executed. After he fled the palace, Arno arrived at the meeting place and saw that Elise was tracked by Templar extremists. The two withdrew in the Sorbonne and Elise managed to escape from their enemies using a hot air balloon while Arno followed her on the rooftops before catching the balloon in mid-air. As Arno and Elise reflected on the future of France and their relation, they shared a romantic moment. The morning after, Arno woke up in the crashed balloon where he found a note of his lover indicating that she needed to go. On 20 January 1793, Arno and Elise went to the Louvre to meet the Marquis de Sade to know le Peletier's whereabouts as he was also a member of the Convention. The Marquis informed Arno that le Pelletier was at the Palais-Royal for celebrating the upcoming King's execution. Arno snuck into the cafe le Peletier was dining in and substituted the Templar's wine with a poisoned bottle. Upon its consumption le Peletier was rendered paralyzed, allowing Arno to assassinate him, to which the Assassin learned that le Peletier had cast the tie-breaking vote for the execution of King, and that Fran?ois-Thomas Germain would be present for the execution. Excommunication On 21 January 1793, Arno confronted Germain as the execution was underway, with the latter proclaiming the rebirth of the Templar Order. Germain posited to Arno that the reason for de la Serre's murder was to rid the Templar Order of corruption and bigotry, while also stating that it served only the first phase of the Order's reformation, and that it would be truly reborn with the death of the King. Germain revealed his plans as Louis XVI was placed at the guillotine. By ridding France's upper class and aristocracy of power, it would be much easier for the Templars to gain control over France, by granting power to the people instead. Once the King was beheaded, Fran?ois proclaimed that Jacques de Molay had been avenged, then made his escape, leaving Arno to deal with his subordinates. With Elise caught in the fighting, Arno focused more on defending her than pursuing Germain. This displeased Elise, who desired revenge and rejected any further aid from Arno. Arno met with the Assassin Council to discuss his lead on the Templar Grand Master, however he was directed to the ceremony chamber. Arno attempted to update the Council, but they silenced him and cast judgment on him instead. The Council did not approve of what they believed was a personal vendetta for revenge, brashly killing targets without permission from themselves. They declared that Arno was banished from the Brotherhood and he was no longer welcome, but that he was fortunate they would not punish him further. Arno left the Sanctuary and Paris to live at the de la Serre estate in Versailles, where he gained a reputation for being a drunkard. On 4 June 1793, in his stupor, he got into a bar fight, ending in his humiliating defeat and the loss of his father's watch to the gang leader. He tracked the gang to the Palais de Versailles, was forced to face the terrible memories of his past, and killed the entire gang, only for Elise to turn up with his watch in hand. Deducing that she wanted something from him, Arno furiously reopened old wounds from their last fight, stating that he cared more about her than killing Germain and that he wanted to assuage the guilt he felt for causing her father's death. When he allowed Elise to speak, she informed him that Paris had become more chaotic because of Germain's Reign of Terror. She encouraged him to be the man she loved and return with her to Paris. Arno agreed to come, but only after he assassinated Aloys la Touche, who had sown dissent and fear amongst the populace of Versailles. During this, he reconciled with and saved his former enemies Victor and Hugo, who were supposed to be sentenced to execution. Arno stole the key of their cage to enter in it and took their place at the execution. Approaching his target, Arno killed la Touche. In his memories, Arno discovered that la Touche had a grudge against the monarchy after he was fired as a tax collector for discovering that an individual stole in the King's treasure. His recruitment in the Order was an opportunity to take his revenge. During the de Beauvais meeting's memory, Arno saw that Germain had place la Touche under the order of Maximilien de Robespierre, the leader of Committee of Public Safety and a Templar. Following this, Arno and Elise arrived at the Temple. Arno reluctantly accepted to split up with Elise to cover more areas. Even if he didn't find any weak spots, Arno infiltrated the Temple and located Germain on the top of the tower. Before Arno could assassinate him, however, Germain used the power of a Sword of Eden against him, forcing Arno to take cover. Discreetly approaching his target, Arno was thrown away by the power of the Sword before Germain disappeared.Locating him in the Temple undergrounds, Arno subsequently managed to find Elise again, and together they entered the Templar crypt in the catacombs, where they once again confronted Germain. While Elise was distracting Germain, Arno attempted to assassinate the Grand Master once more but failed due to a shield projected by the sword. After three more attempts, Arno managed to breakthrough, but the shock wave trapped him under rubble. Elise came to Arno's aid but noticed Germain attempting to escape. Despite Arno's protests, Elise left him behind to pursue Germain but failed to kill the Grand Master. Elise's sword was broken during the fight, while the Sword of Eden's power was rendered unstable. Arno managed to free himself and rushed to help Elise, but was too late as the Sword of Eden exploded, killing Elise and mortally wounding Germain in the process. In an act of grief, Arno slowly assassinated Germain by stabbing him in the throat with his Hidden Blade. In a vision following his death, Germain discussed directly to Arno, explaining his struggle of being a Sage, and his beliefs he was connecting to Jacques de Molay after discovering his Codex Pater Intellectus. After his expulsion by Fran?ois de la Serre, Germain saw the revolution as the only way to reform the Templar Order which was decadent for him. The installation of the Terror will afraid population of untrammeled liberty, facilitating the control of the Templars. Before leaving, Germain explained to Arno that his death will change nothing, as someone else will take his place to lead the mass and to remember that when Arno remembered Elise.As Germain finally succumbed to his wounds, Arno mournfully carried Elise's body out from the Temple, leaving behind Germain's lifeless body inside. Arno also recovered the depowered Sword of Eden, using it in combat. Depressed following Elise's death, he took a sabbatical in Franciade, the former city of Saint-Denis, drinking away his sorrows in a local tavern. On 24 December 1800, after Bonaparte became Consul of France, Arno prevented a Royalist assassination attempt on Napoleon involving snipers, as well as an explosive device known as the Machine Infernale. Arno managed to assassinate the snipers before they could fire at Napoleon's carriage, and the Machine Infernale was detonated too early, away from Napoleon's carriage. Arno then tracked down the Royalist leader behind the assassination attempt and eliminated him and his henchmen. Arno, seeing the turmoil in France first-hand, desired to bring justice. Initially, Arno did not take his role as an Assassin seriously, seeing it as little more than an opportunity for revenge against De La Serre's murderers. But over time, Arno realized the true purpose of the Creed, and its flaws. He concluded that the Creed merely served as a guide and a warning, rather than a principle meant for one to follow, having witnessed first-hand how ideals led to dangerous fanaticism, as seen with Bellec and Germain. Or how Elise became obsessed with getting revenge, which cost her life in the end. Following Elise's death, Arno suffered from depression and sorrow, causing him to become more cynical in nature. This ultimately led to his abandonment of France, and unwillingness to involve himself in saving it from Napoleon's schemes, while also discouraging LEon from doing so. However, after witnessing the "dark magic" the Head of Saint-Denis possesses, he eventually came to terms with his past, and regained his resolve to be an Assassin again. By the time he became a Master Assassin, Arno had become extremely wise and analytical. He was able to understand that an idea, if pushed too far, would be detrimental to the person and those around him.Arno was fiercely independent, as he questioned the Assassins' Creed and the ways of Alta?r, preferring to do things his own way. He also declined Napoleon's offer to join the French Army saying that he "wasn't much of one to take orders." Napoleon respected Arno for this, remarking at how they both had similar views that defined them differently to most other people. Arno also somewhat respected Napoleon's views to an extent as well. ===== Objects ===== (50, 209, 0) ***Castle*** Name: Marseille Timed events: Name: e17980905 Message: After the day of September 5,1798: The French legislature requires all French men between twenty and twenty-five to perform military service. Name: e18131009 Message: Marie-Louise (conscript):Empress Marie-Louise, who issued decrees dated 9 October 1813 ordering the conscription of 280,000 men. Name: AI主城满建 Message: (113, 73, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Frankische Saale (107, 152, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brenner Pass (201, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Daugava River (79, 38, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Meuse river (57, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Somme river (27, 50, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mayenne river (32, 52, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sarthe river (58, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oise river (106, 52, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Schwalm river (116, 55, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Werra river (160, 53, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Warta River (180, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vistula river (208, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neris River (233, 78, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dnieper (185, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vistula river (153, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oder river (88, 74, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saar river (73, 73, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Marne river (40, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Loir river (30, 96, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vienne river (122, 82, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Main river (207, 89, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bug River (243, 81, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Desna River (224, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pripyat river (248, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Seym River (233, 98, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pripyat river (247, 104, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Psel River (245, 114, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dnieper (225, 113, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sluch River (182, 100, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Warta River (188, 117, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vistula river (85, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhine (39, 100, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cher river (20, 115, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Charente river (133, 122, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (126, 129, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Inn river (173, 136, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Váh river (200, 122, 0) ***Sign*** Message: San river (212, 135, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dniester river (231, 134, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Southern Bug river (227, 149, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dniester river (246, 147, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Southern Bug river (226, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Prut river (141, 141, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Enns river (160, 146, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (128, 148, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Slazach river (60, 145, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhone river (51, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhone river (17, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Garonne river (29, 172, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tarn river (110, 166, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Adige river (118, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Piave river (130, 165, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dráva river (149, 164, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mura river (188, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tisza river (208, 160, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tisza river (243, 163, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dniester river (230, 168, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Beszterce river (226, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Olt river (241, 180, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Prut river (200, 193, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mures river (178, 181, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Duna (164, 190, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dráva river (151, 196, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Száva river (107, 188, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Adige river (106, 194, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Po river (46, 186, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhone river (56, 189, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Durance river (25, 194, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aude river (168, 208, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Száva river (191, 201, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tisza river (234, 234, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tundzha river (199, 223, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Velika Morava (183, 227, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Drina river (226, 241, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Maritsa river (213, 247, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Struma River (92, 135, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhine Glacier (84, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhone Glacier (85, 18, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Meuse river (92, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neder Rijn (106, 6, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ems river (134, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eble river (250, 79, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Don river (152, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Una river (180, 213, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Száva river (65, 156, 0) ***Event*** Message: You come to the highest mountain in the Alps-Mont Blanc, and you are determined to climb and conquer its height, but at this moment, the dragons of the Alps that have been entrenched in this peak for a long time attack you aggressively. This is destined to be the ultimate battle between humans and dragons. If the fate of slaying the dragon is unstoppable, the brave chivalry spirit is destined to get a generous reward! (197, 231, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zapadna Morava (195, 238, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ibar river (164, 217, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vrbas river (188, 248, 0) ***Event*** Message: Genesis 6:4, "There were giants in the earth in those days; and also after that, when the sons of God came unto the daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men which were of old men of renown." The giant offspring of this union between the sons of God and the daughters of men were called the Nephilim, who were known for their gigantic height. They spread from the Biblical Lands to Dinaric Alps ,the British Isles and the Ohio Valley.This giant race was called the Dinaric linked with the ancient Amorite Babylonian symbols and advanced mathematics discovered by the Amorites . Stonehenge and the many henges around the world may created by them. This is a must explory for anyone who wants an affirmation of one of the most mysterious chapters in the Bible. Now you arrive the highest area of Dinaric Alps ,having the chance to takes the leap from mythology to science--to discover that the Nephilim were the last vestiges of primitive species But here once again,we may have some troubles. (185, 128, 0) ***Event*** Message: Without having the fame of the Alps or the spectacular altitude of the Himalayas, the Carpathian Mountains mesmerize with their sometimes terrifying wilderness, their ridges covered with tall fir-trees which seem to defy gravity or the beauty of their meadows where gorgeous green blends with lively yellow and blue. It is wild and sometimes unwelcoming, with a mysterious air that inspires dreams. The mysterious atmosphere and dream-like scenery, alongside Transylvanian legends and traditions, mark the Carpathian Mountains as a cradle of European mysticism.In the Carpathian Mountains, you'll find naturally-sculpted statues with strange shapes reminding you of the Sphinx or pagan temples, old cave paintings, and thousands caves in which were discovered big carnivorous animals fossils of the Mesozoic, Cretacic, Jurassic, and Triassic era that disappeared during the last ice age. Suddenly, there dull loud noise come from the gap of those gaint rocks , and you feel that something is coming (233, 64, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dnieper (223, 57, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Berezina River (239, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Valdal hills (105, 99, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neckar river (93, 113, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (96, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Swabian Jura (116, 126, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Isar river (106, 124, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bavarian Alps (250, 105, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Siverskyi Donets River (143, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vltava river (142, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Berounka river (136, 111, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Grosser Arber(1,456m) (120, 139, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Inn river (103, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Enz river (136, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Schneeberg(1,051m) (91, 64, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hunsrück (94, 54, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhine (85, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Moselle river (108, 62, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vogelsberg Mountains (100, 58, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lahn river (114, 65, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhon Mountains (115, 63, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wasserkuppe(950m) (99, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sieg river (106, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Edersee (98, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Essen--a centre of the weapons industry (104, 26, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Münster (103, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhenish massif (87, 38, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ardennes (89, 35, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Signal de Botrange(694 m) (86, 59, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sure river (77, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sambre river (90, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Waal river (90, 50, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eifel (113, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Diemel river (114, 24, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Werre river (112, 16, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dümmer (116, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Weser river (115, 7, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hunte river (120, 3, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oste river (127, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brocken(1,141m) (118, 20, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Steinhuder meer (120, 23, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hanover--enemy to France and ally to Britian (121, 36, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hildesheim (129, 34, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wolfsburg Castle (112, 13, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vechta water mill (109, 14, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hase river (107, 11, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Meppen--formerly a fortified town (123, 18, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aller river (121, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lippold's cave, where a legendary robber-knight is said to have lived. (124, 30, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Peine (135, 43, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ohre river (134, 51, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bode river (144, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eger river (140, 107, 0) ***Sign*** Message: úhlava river (139, 78, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chemnitz Roter Turm (red tower) (125, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oker river (120, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Leine river (129, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kiel-- probably the last settlement of Vikings who wanted to settled in German villages (129, 7, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Trave river (130, 4, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Grober Ploner See (125, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eble river (126, 6, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Norderstedt (131, 20, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Elde river (152, 37, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oder river (151, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Stettiner Haff (155, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dabie Lake (145, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neubrandenburg (150, 114, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sázava river (152, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lusatian Neisse river (153, 122, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bohemian-Moravian Highlands (161, 102, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Orlice river (155, 104, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Doubrava river (161, 121, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Olomouc fortress (153, 115, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Havlíckuv Brod (141, 116, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Písek-- a grave of Celtic king is nearby (144, 119, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Luznice river (139, 102, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Plzeň (169, 120, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ostrava (142, 48, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Havel river (141, 52, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Potsdam--residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser,barrack of Prussia (149, 63, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cottbus (145, 38, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Havel river (149, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eberswalde--with huge metallurgy capacities,The boilers of the first German steam engines were made here (149, 39, 0) ***Gold*** Message: Eberswalde Hoard (93, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhine (96, 134, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vaduz castle,Principality of Liechtenstein (165, 155, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rába river (157, 150, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ferto lake (157, 151, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "We are Theodoric the Great's guardians!" (134, 140, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hohensalzburg Fortress (103, 140, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Inn river (110, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: "Tyrolean Militia will fight agiast French and Bavarian troops!" (145, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mariazell--an image of the Virgin Mary carved in lime-tree wood is here. (145, 141, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Steyr--a centre of ironworking (136, 135, 0) ***Sandals of the Saint*** Message: Ried--Legend has it that in 1191, Dietmar der Anhanger - a miller's son - obtained the market town of Ried as a fiefdom from Frederick I. (Barbarossa). Allegedly, Dietmar boosted the morale of the troops during the crusade: When the enemy had overthrown the flag of the army in Iconium, Dietmar took off his boot and put it onto a lance; under that sign, the crusaders took new courage and managed to conquer the city. The peasants' boot of this legend is now part of the city's coat of arms. (162, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The Sudetes (168, 177, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Balaton (167, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Balaton (168, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Built on an unnamed hill, the Castle of Szigliget rises more than 242 meters. (134, 131, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Scharding--a major port on the Inn River. (164, 177, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zala river (173, 178, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sió river (193, 157, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Kekes(1,014m) (190, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zagyva river (192, 148, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sajó river (205, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Szeles lake (125, 38, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Braunschweig--political and cultural centre. "Here our Black Brunswickers will fight against the French!" (127, 37, 0) ***Dread Knight*** Message: "I will raise my hussars and uhlans to fight Napoleon."Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel,"Raise our flag of skull 'totenkopf',charge!" (178, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Garam river (173, 152, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nyitra river (170, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Trencsen Castle (176, 129, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zsolna (167, 139, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Trnava--Always support the Counter-Reformation. (200, 141, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hernád river (198, 136, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Presov--a city particularly suffered during the religious conflicts of the seventeenth century. (159, 156, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Szombathely--Queen of the West,the birthplace of Saint Martin of Tours (175, 172, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sárvíz river (170, 171, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Veszprem--City of Queens (178, 168, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Velence (173, 168, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Szekesfehervár--City of Kings (185, 176, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kecskemet--nearly 30,000 cattle grazed on an almost 2,000-square-kilometre (770 sq mi) field here (200, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eger (199, 155, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eger Castle (197, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eger minaret (128, 176, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Triglav(2,863m) (132, 174, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jesenice--Town of steel and daffodils (155, 202, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kupa river (189, 213, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (193, 230, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Detinja river (215, 231, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Balkan mountains (228, 234, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Botev Peak(2,376m) (188, 217, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kolubara river (200, 217, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mlava river (209, 224, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Timok river (221, 227, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Iskur river (208, 238, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nisava river (205, 241, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Toplica river (205, 237, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Great Morava river (189, 198, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cik river (243, 237, 0) ***Inferno*** Name: Constantinople Timed events: Name: 1819_Ottoman_plague_epidemic Message: The 1812-1819 Ottoman plague epidemic was one of the last major epidemics of plague in the Ottoman Empire.The disease broke out in the capital Constantinople in July 1812. It was initially mild, but by late August the situation had become critical. By September, around 2000 people were dying each day. (188, 205, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Novi Sad--Serbian Athens (209, 237, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Skull Tower of Nis (211, 218, 0) ***Event*** Message: Iron gate (208, 216, 0) ***Sign*** Message: DECEBALUS REX—DRAGAN FECIT (208, 216, 0) ***Sign*** Message: (209, 216, 0) ***Sign*** Message: DECEBALUS REX—DRAGAN FECIT is watching at you! (196, 244, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pristina--known for its trade fairs and items, such as goatskin and goat hair as well as gunpowder (199, 234, 0) ***Event*** Message: "To the fallen heroes for the honorable cross, freedom, and rights of their people - 1389 1912 - [by] thankful descendants, citizens and soldiers of the city of Pristina".--Gazimestan (190, 229, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cacak (196, 207, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nagybecskerek (194, 213, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pancsova--After the Treaty of Pozarevac, the city became a Garrison place of temporarily stationed Regiments of Imperial Army of Habsburg's Banat (190, 245, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Patriarchate of Pec Monastery (161, 204, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lonja river (180, 205, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vuka river (158, 230, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Krka river (163, 237, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cetina river (147, 177, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Maribor Castle (139, 198, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fiume (132, 206, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pula Arena (166, 202, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pozega--the heart of the valley (179, 205, 0) ***Ladybird of Luck*** Message: The Vucedol dove -- the oldest dove figure found in Europe (187, 222, 0) ***Event*** Message: "They two are wanted by our lords!" (186, 222, 0) ***Champion*** Message: "Me--Ilija Bircanin,and my friend Aleksa Nenadovic are fighting against the Ottoman Turks,they are chasing us,would you help us?" (176, 202, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Osijek (153, 234, 0) ***Blackshard of the Dead Knight*** Message: This sabre once belonging to Vuk Mandusic, one of the best-loved heroes of Serbian epic poetry, is also housed at Visovac-- Mother of God Island. See that? the Visovac Monastery is in the middle of the lake. (183, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tara river (183, 231, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lim river (157, 209, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sana river (176, 230, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sarajevo -- Jerusalem of the Balkans (172, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bosna river (178, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tuzla (169, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Stari Most of Mostar (146, 222, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The coast of giants (157, 239, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Diocletian's Palace (159, 239, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Split -- Velo misto (169, 249, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Walls of Dubrovnik (150, 235, 0) ***Sign*** Message: St. Nicholas Fortress (152, 236, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sibenik (182, 250, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Podgorica--under the rule of the Albanian Bushati Family of Shkodra (180, 245, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Niksic (171, 247, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dubrovnik--Pearl of the Adriatic. "Non bene pro toto libertas venditur auro(Liberty is not sold for all the gold )"-- Republic of Ragusa (174, 250, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Càttaro (194, 251, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Prizren (202, 251, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Skopje Fortress,North Macedonia (183, 236, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pljevlja (108, 21, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Osnabrück--Friedensstadt ("city of peace"),where Peace of Westphalia was negotiated (97, 23, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lippe river (110, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sparrenberg Castle of Bielefeld.At the end of the 17th century, the Sparrenburg was partly used as a prison (114, 32, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: My name is Friedrich Wilhelm AdamSertürner,I live here-- Paderborn.Recently I isolated morphine--which can reduce your soldiers' painness . I need more crystal to isolate enough morphine,so many wounded in your army Finally! Here, give the 20 Crystal to me, and I'll give you this in return,taking this in the fight your men might show uncommon valour! (104, 38, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Since the French revolution war began, it been said some parts of the treasure of the Cologne Cathedral were brought to safety to here--Arnsberg, also the relics of the Biblical Magi. "Sir,look there is a tomb on the ground,did it bury something under it?" (84, 41, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bastogne--famous for its effective defence walls,agricultural and cattle fairs (91, 46, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The "Old Crane" of Andernach (Ger. der "Alte Krahnen"), a 16th-century stony land based treadwheel tower crane (90, 45, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Hohe Acht(747m) (92, 65, 0) ***Rogue*** Message: I am Johannes Bückler,people call me criminal legend of Simmern.Yes I theft at least 40 head of cattle and horses,and they now belong to me! (103, 66, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wiesbaden -- one of the oldest spa towns in Europe. Its name translates to "meadow baths", a reference to its famed hot springs. (101, 82, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Heidelberg University (117, 78, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Würzburg Residence (93, 84, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Landau (116, 84, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kitzingen--The resulting prosperity carried Kitzingen through the 18th century as one of the most important ports on the Main River. (122, 96, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nürnberg Castle (120, 94, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fürth (107, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jagst river (114, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lech river (224, 251, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nestos river (219, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Musala peak(2,925m) (243, 221, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kamchiya river (230, 224, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Yantra river (225, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Plovdiv Roman theatre (231, 244, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kardzhali (231, 237, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Stara Zagora (244, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Memorial of the Battle of Varna (235, 220, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ruse--the most significant Bulgarian river port (243, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nesebar (241, 227, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Burgas--an important Ottoman port in the Black Sea (238, 240, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Grand Synagogue of Adrianople (251, 238, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nicomedia (243, 250, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Canakkale--a seaport of Ottoman Empire (130, 153, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bad Gastein Waterfall (248, 84, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Central Russian Upland (also Central Upland and East European Upland) is an upland area of the East European Plain and is an undulating plateau with an average elevation of 230-250 m (750-820 ft). It highest peak is measured at 293 m (961 ft). The southeastern portion of the upland known as the Kalach Upland. The Central Upland is built of Precambrian deposits of the crystalline Voronezh Massif. As your army marching towarding the center of this upland,massive creatures that seems come from the Precambrian rushes to you. Is this so-called Cambrian Explosion or Implosion? (225, 202, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Varful Moldoveanu(2,544m) (237, 215, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (211, 171, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Szamos river (191, 182, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Koros river (194, 185, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bekescsaba (204, 171, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Debrecen-- The Calvinist Rome, Cívis City (204, 162, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nyíregyháza (234, 208, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ialomita River (229, 211, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bucharest (218, 220, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jiu river (223, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Olt river (216, 226, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (210, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vidin pentagon castles--as in the time of Pazvante Chioru' ,Osman Pazvantoglu rules here (221, 218, 0) ***Familiar*** Message: "Rebel pasha Osman Pazvantoglu ordered us to burn down this city!" (225, 209, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pitesti (230, 200, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Prahova Valley (238, 198, 0) ***Phoenix*** Message: Buzau seems like the Phoenix bird--always recovers from repeated destruction. (227, 196, 0) ***Vampire*** Message: Those Vampires from Castle of Torcsvár is coming for you (212, 178, 0) ***Sign*** Message: St. Michael's Church, Cluj-Napoca (211, 178, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: We demanded the equality of the Romanian nation in Transylvania in respect to the other nations (Saxon, Szekler and Hungarian) governed by the Unio Trium Nationum.We have sent two representatives to Vienna. If the Emperor of Vienna agrees to our request of demanding equal political rights with the other ethnicities of Transylvania and a share of the Transylvanian Diet proportional to our population, we will offer a one good handicrafts to thank him for giving us equal opportunities. We are very grateful for your majesty's kindness, and we would like to present this medal to the Vienna royal family. (214, 221, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Severin Fortress,Drobeta-Turnu Severin-- the most important strategic redoubt on the Danube. (223, 194, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nagyszeben--The City with Eyes (216, 190, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alba Iulia (218, 190, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Maros river (230, 161, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Botosani--the biggest and the oldest fair of Moldavia (110, 48, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "We are The Brothers Grimm ,we lived here in Kassel.Wanna listen to some fairy tales ?" "Sure!" "What about Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ?" (216, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Transylvanian--a land that is rich in myths and legends. (217, 184, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Aha,look at our guests!"--Goblins of Transylvanian (221, 189, 0) ***Event*** Message: "We gonna eat you!"--Goblins of Transylvanian (216, 166, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Stop,this is our site!!"--Giants of Transylvanian (206, 176, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Coming for you!"--Phantoms of Transylvanian (213, 194, 0) ***Event*** Message: "These can be our dinner!"--Man-eating ogres of Transylvanian (212, 172, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Coming for you!"--werewolves of Transylvanian (112, 47, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "I can tell you Little Red Riding Hood." (111, 48, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hercules monument (Kassel) (221, 180, 0) ***Event*** Message: "This is our lord Dracula’s castle.Who are you?"--The vampires. (220, 179, 0) ***Event*** Message: The amulet of Dracula seems not here. (193, 92, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pilica river (191, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dunajec river (167, 82, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Barycz river (157, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mysla river (175, 51, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bydgoszcz Canal--built in 1772-1775 (170, 92, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oder river (170, 96, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bystrzyca river (160, 55, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Obra river (183, 35, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vistula lagoon (184, 57, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Skrwa river (194, 49, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Sniardwy (196, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Swider river (199, 95, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wieprz river (150, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Randow river (161, 49, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gorzów Wielkopolski (160, 49, 0) ***Event*** Message: A French battalion of 1,500 men of Louis-Nicolas Davout's corps open fire on you. (189, 45, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Olsztyn--Miasto Mlode Duchem (199, 119, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wislok river (168, 116, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oder river (197, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rzeszow (182, 115, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wawel Castle, Kraków (172, 104, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Welcome to Piast tower of Opole! As a centre of commerce due to our position on the intersection of several main trade routes, which helped to generate steady profits from transit trade.You will be our new protector (160, 78, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zielona Góra--famous for its winemaking. (203, 100, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lublin (193, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kielce -- an important centre of limestone mining (175, 73, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Prosna river (234, 76, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Druts river (226, 89, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Northern Sluch river (239, 83, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gomel (240, 83, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Do you want to learn Chabad philosophy from Jewish mysticism?"--Yitzchak Eizik Epstein (217, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pina river (181, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Osa river (202, 48, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nemunas river (195, 43, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Niegocin (226, 54, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Orsha (206, 49, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Merkys river (193, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jura River (203, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nevezis river (208, 32, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sventoji river (201, 24, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Siauliai (202, 45, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alytus (196, 22, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zemaici? aukstuma (191, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Venta river (195, 4, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Stende river (228, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Peipus (232, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Luga river (211, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aiviekste river (216, 2, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pirita river (204, 2, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kasari river (221, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Tartu-- founded in 1632 by king Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. (221, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Emajogi river (212, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gauja river (222, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Daugava River (205, 20, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lielupe river (190, 13, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Liepāja--"City where the wind is born" (215, 21, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jēkabpils (227, 24, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ludza (214, 115, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bug river (245, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sula river (246, 111, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vorskla river (250, 149, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Inhulez river (233, 113, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Teterev river (226, 147, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Seret river (250, 147, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kherson--an important port on the Black Sea and on the Dnieper River (250, 163, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tylihul Estuary (249, 164, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Odessa (241, 160, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Raut river (250, 180, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cogalnic river (243, 168, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The fortress of Tighina (244, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Larga river (246, 187, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cahul--known for its thermal spas (219, 109, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lutsk (216, 131, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tarnopol--Devastated by an outbreak of smallpox in 1770 (230, 117, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zhytomyr (231, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vinnytsia (248, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kryvyi Rih (210, 145, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Uzhhorod (212, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Khust (220, 146, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ivano-Frankivsk--to defend the multi-ethnic population of the region in case of armed conflicts (251, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dormition Cathedral, Kharkiv (251, 109, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kharkiv (243, 95, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Transfiguration Cathedral, Chernihiv (242, 96, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Black Grave (246, 98, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sumy (250, 92, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Saddle, brother, your swift steeds. As to mine, they are ready, saddled ahead, near Kursk; as to my Kurskers, they are famous knights—swaddled under war-horns, nursed under helmets, fed from the point of the lance; to them the trails are familiar, to them the ravines are known, the bows they have are strung tight, the quivers, unclosed, the sabers, sharpened; themselves, like gray wolves, they lope in the field, seeking for themselves honor, and for their prince, glory." (251, 92, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kursk (250, 87, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Central Russian Upland (250, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lebedyan-- a center of horse racing and horse breeding (246, 56, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oka river (247, 14, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod (230, 16, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pskov (246, 22, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pola river (249, 45, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Klyazma River (250, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dubna river (249, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Volga river (209, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zamosc (199, 83, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Siedlce (203, 87, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Biala Podlaska (193, 97, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Radom (186, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Skierniewice (180, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jasna Góra Monastery (178, 78, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Warta River (224, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pripet marshes (236, 95, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dnieper (243, 105, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brovary--got its name after breweries where special beer was made. (220, 217, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Craiova--"Plague destroyed the city, save yourself,run." (194, 54, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kolno (188, 52, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nidzica Castle (166, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Szczecinek (173, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brda river (169, 29, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Slupsk (12, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vilaine river (22, 30, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rance river (12, 19, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aulne river (19, 45, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saint George Palace,Rennes.--Now used temporarily as barracks serving the revolution (15, 22, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brest--the second French military port after Toulon (11, 26, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Quimper Cathedral (18, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sèvre Nantaise river (15, 63, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Boulogne river (30, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Clain river (23, 59, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oudon river (21, 65, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Erdre river (23, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Loire river (26, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Baptistère Saint-Jean,Poitiers (20, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Angoulême (24, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dordogne river (20, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vezere river (17, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lot river (34, 114, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Abbey of Saint Martial, Limoges (29, 134, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tulle firearms factory (45, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eure river (39, 29, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Risle river (41, 26, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Le Havre (49, 43, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Epte river (43, 41, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: When you came near evreux,you find the bronze of Jupiter Stator, who establish principles of Roman religion -- sacrifice in Roman mythology. (60, 45, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aisne river (54, 42, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Beauvais (64, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lys river (56, 21, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Canche river (64, 23, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lille--a manufacturing city since the 16th century, a great industrial capital of the industrial revolution (77, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Meuse river (74, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saulx river (70, 53, 0) ***Pit Lord*** Message: "Marat ordered us to eliminate counter-revolutionaries!Get away!"--Those 235 Federes, Guardsmen and Sansculottes. (46, 72, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Essonne river (48, 56, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Orge river (33, 60, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Huisne river (43, 48, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chartres Cathedral (42, 120, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Allier river (52, 138, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saone river (78, 146, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rotten river (43, 189, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gardon river (45, 179, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ardèche river (49, 170, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Drome river (48, 182, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eygues river (61, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Argens river (57, 125, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Doubs river (67, 105, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Semouse river (61, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ognon river (55, 142, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ain river (54, 129, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Grosne river (63, 94, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Yonne river (63, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: loing river (46, 119, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aron river (46, 125, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arroux river (52, 109, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Burgundy mountain (86, 73, 0) ***Black Dragon*** Message: A fearsome dragon ,the Graoully,is rushing to you (83, 102, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Isenheim Altarpiece--originally intended for a hospital, the altar painting may have been designed to provide comfort and solace to the sick (84, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Colmar--capitale des vins d'Alsace (58, 111, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dijon (49, 107, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Auxerre (61, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chatillon-sur-Seine (72, 92, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Langres (53, 127, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chalon-sur-Saone (64, 127, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pontarlier (39, 121, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sioule river (36, 141, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Puy de Sancy (41, 125, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Clermont-Ferrand (39, 150, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Michel d'Aiguilhe (60, 151, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Annecy (58, 155, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chambery (52, 166, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Valence (60, 165, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Day of the Tiles We need men to hurl down roof-tiles on the royal soldiers "Long live forever our parliament! May God preserve the King and the devil take Brienne and Lamoignon." (61, 165, 0) ***Equestrian's Gloves*** Message: Grenoble glove industry (61, 164, 0) ***Equestrian's Gloves*** Message: Grenoble glove industry (44, 167, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Privas (34, 196, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Herault river (6, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Midouze river (20, 167, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aveyron river (35, 194, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Montpellier--the world's oldest medical school (35, 195, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Place de la Comedie (33, 160, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: A wolf, dog, or wolf-dog hybrid around Mende area often kills people.We need to hunt that beast. The beast is in Margeride Mountains (34, 154, 0) ***Cerberus*** Message: "We will eat you alive!"--Beasts of Gevaudan (43, 134, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Roanne (41, 191, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arena of Nimes (27, 174, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Albi (20, 193, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Foix prison (1, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nive river (85, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Elz river (88, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wutach river (86, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Freiburg Minster,Freiburg--"fortified town of free citizens" (93, 141, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Splügen Pass (84, 120, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aare river (63, 140, 0) ***Sign*** Message: St. Pierre Cathedral,Geneva (87, 120, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhine (91, 121, 0) ***Inexhaustible Cart of Ore*** Message: I am Johann Conrad Fischer,I can help you in the steel industry (71, 128, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aare river (75, 124, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Solothurn (67, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fribourg (79, 130, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kapellbrücke (82, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Lucerne (74, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sion (113, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Corno Grande(2,912m) (112, 223, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Volturno river (117, 203, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Reno river (95, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arno river (106, 220, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tiber river (107, 196, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Panaro river (94, 190, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Taro river (44, 196, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arles Amphitheatre (77, 178, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Po river (78, 174, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Turin (30, 203, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Perpignan --known for its centuries-old garnet industry. (84, 201, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Genoa--"Genuensis ergo mercator" (71, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aosta (106, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bolzano (92, 207, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Carrara (112, 206, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Two Towers, Bologna (105, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fountain of Neptune, Florence (102, 211, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palazzo Pitti (118, 209, 0) ***Sign*** Message: San Marino--"Libertas" (118, 214, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arch of Trajan (Ancona) (116, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: L'Aquila (120, 220, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Castello Monforte (124, 226, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Basilica di San Nicola,Bari (119, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Potenza (124, 234, 0) ***Cape of Velocity*** Message: "VVV"Catanzaro is also known as the city of the three V's, referring to the three distinct features of the city, namely Saint Vitalian, the patron saint; velvet, because the city has been an important silk centre since Byzantine times; and wind (vento in Italian), because of the strong breezes from the Ionian Sea and La Sila. (123, 234, 0) ***Cape of Velocity*** Message: Catanzaro's silk industry (123, 233, 0) ***Cape of Velocity*** Message: "VVV" (127, 227, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Otranto (118, 238, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Messina (132, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Koper (132, 188, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Trieste (103, 199, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Military Academy of Modena (96, 194, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Parma (84, 180, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ticino river (81, 182, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tanaro river (74, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cuneo (88, 186, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Piacenza (86, 151, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bellinzona (81, 165, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Novara (77, 183, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Asti (99, 169, 0) ***Sign*** Message: San Salvatore, Brescia. Are you come for Winged Victory of Brescia? (98, 169, 0) ***Storm Elemental*** Message: "We wanna make a Brescia Explosion by lightning!" (96, 153, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sondrio (111, 143, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Innsbruck (114, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brenta river (116, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Treviso (129, 187, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Soca river (83, 18, 0) ***Sign*** Message: 's-Hertogenbosch--Marsh Dragon (83, 25, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hasselt (88, 14, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Culemborg--'Vrijstad' (free city) (82, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dordrecht (91, 19, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nijmegen (97, 16, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lochem (118, 190, 0) ***Conflux*** Name: Venice Timed events: Name: eAteneo_Veneto Message: In 1812,Ateneo Veneto founded. The Ateneo Veneto was formed on 12 January 1812 through the merger of the Società Veneta di Medicina, the Accademia dei Filareti, and the Accademia Veneta Letteraria pursuant to a decree of Napoleon I dated 25 December 1810 The Ateneo Veneto, a non-profit organization, institution of science, literature and arts, is committed to making full use of its historical and artistic heritage (the building, art-collection and library) and to the pursuit of cultural activities (scholarly studies, courses in history, science, literature and art, lectures, conferences, theatrical, musical and cinematic events, exhibitions and the Torta Prize for restoration) and social initiatives (hosting local associations and committees without their own premises, collaborating with the institutions of the city, co-organizing University courses for senior citizens held at the Ateneo Veneto, contributing to the cultural education of young students and scholars through subsidized training-courses in the library and the Ateneo Veneto, and co-operating with the city's cultural organizations). It will continue to expand its services, including recreational activities connected with the above-mentioned initiatives, using the Internet and multi-media facilities.Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries the Ateneo Veneto acted as a forum for debates on crucial matters for the city in the fields of culture, science, art, literature, medicine, politics, economics and law. Such free discussions on major issues have continued to characterize the Ateneo Veneto, testifying to its civic, social and cultural commitment. (103, 3, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Groningen (97, 2, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Leeuwarden Jewish cemetery (86, 235, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Roman Amphitheatre of Cagliari (83, 227, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fountain of the Rosello (80, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dyle river (229, 98, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mazyr (228, 97, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Uzh river (82, 184, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: I was forced to feed his cow with grain because there was such a lot of it, and no room to place it within the city--Alessandria (81, 184, 0) ***Gorgon*** Message: the cow's stomach filled with grain (157, 6, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lagan river (169, 2, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Vattern (139, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rudkobing (139, 5, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Maribo Cathedral (142, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nykobing Falster (147, 6, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Naestved (180, 11, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Visby Cathedral (159, 3, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nissan river (166, 11, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kalmar Castle (166, 4, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jonkoping (175, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Orebro (173, 4, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Linkoping (179, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vasteras (11, 226, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ebro river (21, 201, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Principality of Andorra--"Virtus Unita Fortior" (22, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cardener river (31, 214, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ter river (16, 215, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Old Cathedral of Lerida (0, 176, 0) ***Gorgon*** Message: "Olite’s bullfighting race transports the bulls from the corral outside to the bullring, where they will face the matador on the way. Today, anyone can participate.If you prove that you are a good matador, we reward you with a bullfighting cloak-it can make you more agile." (0, 175, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Olite (10, 210, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cinca river (12, 172, 0) ***Sign*** Message: National Stud of Tarbes (122, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Grosse Beerberg(983m) (192, 34, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: I am Johann Friedrich Goldbeck of Insterburg. I could offer Prussian army complete topography of the Kingdom of Prussia. Ah, your flag is green then you must be Prussian's ally Russian! Here is a prize for you. Do you accept? (186, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pregolya river (167, 89, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kaczawa river (42, 246, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chelif River (29, 249, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chott Ech Chergui (64, 248, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chott el Hodna (16, 250, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saharan Atlas (8, 251, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Issa( 2,236 m) (70, 249, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Djebel Chelia(2,328 m) (66, 242, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhumel River (6, 246, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tlemcen--a trading city which connected African and European merchants (66, 245, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tell Atlas (83, 246, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Medjerda River (94, 246, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Medina of Tunis (92, 246, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tunis (89, 242, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bizerte (92, 251, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Great Mosque of Kairouan (68, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tizi Ouzou (80, 251, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aurès Mountains (80, 242, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bona (67, 70, 0) ***Halfling*** Message: "To Bastille!" (66, 72, 0) ***Event*** Message: Governor of the Bastille, marquis de Launay and his thirty-three Swiss grenadiers fire on the crowds (107, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lingen (89, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aachen--Due to the hot spring, hydrothermal spring ,here is famous for Spas (154, 84, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Liberec (158, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Snězka(1,603m) (214, 167, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Baia mare--"Superior Mining" of Austrian (173, 189, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pecs--"The City of Culture" (A kultúra városa) (203, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arad--A busy transportation hub on the Maros River (188, 193, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Szeged--Since the witch trials between 1728 and 1744 ,only several witch remains here. (63, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Algiers (97, 162, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Iseo (15, 194, 0) ***Event*** Message: Forming a natural border with Spain, the mighty Pyrenees and the surrounding areas have a fascinating history that dates back thousands of years. In Greek mythology, Pyrene is a princess who gave her name to the Pyrenees. The Greek historian Herodotus says Pyrene is the name of a town in Celtic Europe. According to Silius Italicus,she was the virgin daughter of Bebryx, a king in Mediterranean Gaul by whom the hero Hercules was given hospitality during his quest to steal the cattle of Geryon during his famous Labours. Hercules, characteristically drunk and lustful, violates the sacred code of hospitality and rapes his host's daughter. Pyrene gives birth to a serpent and runs away to the woods, afraid that her father will be angry. Alone, she pours out her story to the trees, attracting the attention of wild beasts who tear her to pieces. After his victory over Geryon, Hercules passes through the kingdom of Bebryx again, finding the girl's lacerated remains. As is often the case in stories of this hero, the sober Hercules responds with heartbroken grief and remorse at the actions of his darker self, and lays Pyrene to rest tenderly, demanding that the surrounding geography join in mourning and preserve her name:"struck by Herculean voice, the mountaintops shudder at the ridges; he kept crying out with a sorrowful noise 'Pyrene!' and all the rock-cliffs and wild-beast haunts echo back 'Pyrene!' … The mountains hold on to the wept-over name through the ages." At this time,you see serpents coming to you,giving you no time to explain that you are not the one they revange their mother (64, 70, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Citizens, there is no time to lose; the dismissal of Necker is the knell of a Saint Bartholomew for patriots!This very night all the Swiss and German battalions will leave the Champ de Mars to massacre us all; one resource is left;take up arms and adopt cockades by which we may know each other!"--Camille Desmoulins (63, 70, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: "To Bastille!" (63, 71, 0) ***Halfling*** Message: "Let us storm Bastille!" (66, 70, 0) ***Marksman*** Message: soldiers of the elite Gardes Francaises regiment joined the revolutionaries (65, 70, 0) ***Crusader*** Message: "Vive la nation!"--A commander of Regiment des Gardes Francaises and his men (68, 73, 0) ***Event*** Message: What is your political position? The Mountain-left Girondist-down (51, 79, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palais Bourbon (53, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: National Constituent Assembly is waiting for Jacques Pierre Brissot to speak about Patriotefrancais. (48, 92, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palace of Versailles (46, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Lafayette raises the saber and leads the President of the National Assembly and all the deputies in a solemn oath to the coming Constitution: We swear to be forever faithful to the Nation, to the Law and to the King, to uphold with all our might the Constitution as decided by the National Assembly and accepted by the King, and to remain united with all French people by the indissoluble bonds of brotherhood. (47, 85, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Is King Louis XVI willing to come from the palace to take part in Festival of the Federation? What, is he still in the Palace of Versailles?You should forcibly bring him from his guard back to the people in Paris! Citizens!Our king Louis XVI has accepted constitutional monarchy，let's celebrate Fête de la Federation! (45, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Every single National Guard unit have to send two men out of every hundred on the celebration We got Fourteen thousand federes came from all province Excellent! You have found the soldiers.Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, bishop of Autun has been waiting here for the king and Lafayette. (75, 55, 0) ***Helm of Chaos*** Message: "I am king, what do you want to do?"--Louis XVI (41, 153, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (56, 82, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We intent to "oppose, as much as we are able, all that the representatives of the Commune may undertake that is harmful to the general rights of our constituents" We are seriously concerned about the victims in the events in the Champ de Mars Danton will lead a secret insurrectionary committee to overthrow the National Legislative Assembly! (60, 60, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Feuillant monks,Rue Saint-Honore (59, 62, 0) ***Troll*** Message: "Five or six hundred heads cut off would have assured your repose, freedom and happiness."--Jean-Paul Marat (56, 65, 0) ***Monk*** Message: The Legislative Assembly creates a Committee of Surveillance to oversee the government. These are appointed officials (53, 64, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is the king’s inner palace, you have no permission to search Unless you ask Friends of the People --Marat to apply for the National Convention's permission We have a discovery in the king's apartment in the Tuileries Palace of the armoire de fer, an iron strongbox containing Louis XVI's secret correspondence with Mirabeau and with foreign monarchs. King Louis XVI betrayed the country and the people , arrest him immediately! (58, 62, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Salle du Manège--formaly the indoor royal riding academy France need a big victory emboldened the newly assembled National Convention The newly elected National Convention holds its first session behind closed doors, in the Salle du Manège, the former riding school of the Tuileries Palace, and elects its Bureau. Of the 749 deputies, 113 are Jacobins, who take their seats in the highest benches in the hall, the Montagne (Mountain), thus their nickname of Montagnards, the "Mountaineers" (54, 72, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Revolutionaries wait For my head on a silver plate Just a puppet on a lonely string Oh who would ever want to be king? Never an honest word But that was when I ruled the world --Louis XVI, 'Peuple je meurs innocent!' (57, 82, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Cordeliers Convent The National Assembly should adopt the opinion of our Cordeliers Club The Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. People call here the Cordeliers district, "the only sanctuary where liberty has not been violated" (18, 26, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: “Don't force us to accept the republic!”--The levee en masse of Pontrieux (22, 56, 0) ***Halfling*** Message: “We are loyal to the royal family!”--The levee en masse of Craon (27, 60, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: “Long live the king!”--The levee en masse of Chateau-Gontier (55, 82, 0) ***Enchanter*** Message: "A new commune, the revolutionary Paris Commune!"--Georges Danton (54, 66, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: "We worry about the safety of the King with the absence of the guard."--Hundreds of nobles with concealed weapons (19, 64, 0) ***Pit Lord*** Message: "I formed Legion of Marat here in Nante,Lets send prisoners to the guillotine!"--Jean-Baptiste Carrier (21, 64, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: These Royalist troops from Vendee attacked the city Nante on their way to Normandy (where they hoped to receive British support) (20, 23, 0) ***Halfling*** Message: “Long live the king!”--The levee en masse of Lannion (15, 31, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: “We are loyal to the royal family!”--The levee en masse of Carhaix (Finistère) (32, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Orne river (34, 25, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chateau de Caen --built c. 1060 by William the Conqueror (William of Normandy) (35, 27, 0) ***Horned Demon*** Message: "The disorganisers are those who want to level everything: property, comforts, the price of commodities, the various services rendered to the State... who want the workmen in the camp to receive the salary of the legislator... who want to level even talents, knowledge, the virtues, because they themselves have none of these things. I'm not guilty"--Jacques Pierre Brissot (36, 26, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: At the Jacobin Club, Robespierre and Marat call for an insurrection against the Convention. The Paris Commune begins preparing a seizure of power. Has the Paris Commune arrested the Girondin of the Convention? We found a person with forged documents here (98, 69, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: We promis not to fight against the allies for one year,we will fight French royalists in the Vendee region of France.So can you release us? (70, 24, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Scheldt river (49, 189, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palais des Papes,Avignon (50, 188, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city is captured by the Federalistes You need to release their Girondin leaders in the National Convention What,you arrest their leaders instead? (51, 190, 0) ***Archer*** Message: "Vive Federalistes"! (49, 188, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: "Vive Federalistes"! (50, 189, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: "Vive Girondins"! (43, 39, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: "Vive Girondins"! (42, 40, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: They are the Federalistes You need to release their Girondin leaders in the National Convention What,you arrest their leaders instead? (40, 192, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city is captured by the Federalistes You need to release their Girondin leaders in the National Convention What,you arrest their leaders instead? (38, 191, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Citadel of Montpellier-Down Nimes-Right (41, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: MaisonCarree (41, 193, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: "Vive Girondins"! (40, 193, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: "Vive Girondins"! (52, 65, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Convention adopts a new Law of Suspects, permitting the arrest and rapid trial of anyone suspected of opposing the Revolution You have to solve the Insurrections of federalistes in the south first These are the newly appointed 16 judges and another 48 jurors of the Revolutionary Tribunal (53, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Here is Committee of Public Safety established by the Convention to oversee the ministries and to be chief executive body of the government "You group of non-partisan soldiers, you must not offend Congress!" "Okay, the republic is over" (52, 66, 0) ***Demon*** Message: “The Convention votes to arrest Marat for using his newspaper L'Ami du peuple to incite violence and murder, and demand to suspend the Convention.”--29 Girondins deputies says, you ignore that and arrest them. (55, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Day of Daggers We allow a smaller contingent of 20 delegates into the palace to see the King "We suspect that the armed nobles arrived as part of a counter-revolution!" --the remaining officers of the National Guard (26, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chateau d'Angers (26, 69, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Here Angers welcomes Republicans refugeesto live in Royalist rural areas.Are you coming for Apocalypse Tapestry? (25, 68, 0) ***Skeleton*** Message: Do you want to give mercy to these Royalists? (27, 69, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Angers.The city is captured by the Vendeens Capture Marseille first Siege of Angers (32, 62, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (31, 63, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city is captured by the Vendeens Capture Marseille first Battle of Le Mans (1793) (19, 75, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cholet--the heart of the counter-revolutionary struggle in the Vendee (20, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Cholet We need reinforcements from Mainz. The army of the Republic and the royalists are fighting fiercely here (20, 77, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (68, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Yser river (54, 217, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: Admiral Hood ordered evacuation of the fleet and garrison from Toulon (54, 216, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (55, 71, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Place de la Concorde--In the center of the square is the guillotine (62, 73, 0) ***Devil*** Message: "I will retire only when the Convention has delivered to the people the deputies denounced by the Commune."--Francois Hanriot (63, 73, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Hotel de Ville We elect Jean Paul Marat head of the Jacobin Club At the Jacobin Club, Robespierre and Marat call for an insurrection against the Convention. (63, 69, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: Revolution! (63, 59, 0) ***Troll*** Message: "Aidez-moi, ma chère amie!"--Jean-Paul Marat (63, 60, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Marat asked what was happening in Caen and Corday explained, reciting a list of the offending deputies. "Their heads will fall within a fortnight."Jean-Paul Marat says. "I killed one man to save a hundred thousand."-- Charlotte Corday (63, 61, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Forced to retire from the Convention due to his worsening skin disease, Marat continued to work from home, where he soaked in a medicinal bath. Now that the Montagnards no longer needed his support in the struggle against the Girondins, Robespierre and other leading Montagnards began to separate themselves from him, while the Convention largely ignored his letters. Marat asks for Charlotte Corday to enter and give her an audience by his bath (63, 62, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Some people sympathize with the Girondins. They are not satisfied with what happened in Nantes Are you loyal to the revolution, or loyal to life？ (39, 192, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Convention votes to arrest Marat for using his newspaper L'Ami du peuple to incite violence and murder, and demand to suspend the Convention. Marat goes into hiding. The position of the Federalistes in Convention is defended now (61, 71, 0) ***Pit Lord*** Message: "You are traitors to the revolution! "--Maximilien Robespierre and his Comrades (60, 72, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After the Festival of the Supreme Being conducted by Robespierre,some deputies visibly show annoyance with his behavior at the Festival.Robespierre gives a violent speech at the Convention, demanding, without naming them, the arrest and punishment of "traitors" in the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The Convention first votes to publish the speech, but Billaud-Varenne and Cambon demand names and attack Robespierre. The prison could not hold him, Robespierre and his comrades came back here at Hotel de Ville No trial is considered necessary.Its time to end the Terror (59, 72, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Convention votes to arrest Marat for using his newspaper L'Ami du peuple to incite violence and murder, and demand to suspend the Convention. Marat violently denounces the enrages. Charlotte Corday assassinated Jean-Paul Marat in his bath. Robespierre elected to the Committee of Public Safety on July 27. (48, 39, 0) ***Master Genie*** Message: My name is Francois-Adrien Boieldieu.They call me "the French Mozart" (74, 200, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Saorgio Win Siege of Toulon first Massena will capture the Tenda pass,led's expel the Sardinians from this area! (72, 199, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (66, 63, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: And I will tell you Carnot wall (68, 63, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "I formed the munitions department"--Lazare Carnot (66, 64, 0) ***Phoenix*** Message: "Organizer of Victory"Lazare Carnot at your serviece.And these subordinates of mine can assist various legions to build (67, 62, 0) ***Mercury*** Message: "Copper was lacking for guns？Melt that church bells down!"--Lazare Carnot (65, 65, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Tourcoing Win Battle of Tourcoing Carnot foresightedly despatches a large part of the Parisian artillery to the front. (81, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Basel (9, 40, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: If Batavia Republic is established,send army here quickly If Batavia Republic is established,send army here quickly On 23 June 1795, In support of the Chouans, an army of emigres, under the command of Joseph de Puisaye, landed at Quiberon. (20, 76, 0) ***Magog*** Message: "The siege of Nantes is perhaps the most important military event of our revolution. Perhaps the destinies of the Republic [herself] were tied to the resistance of that town."General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns join you (74, 205, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Monaco--"Deo Juvante" (79, 202, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Luckily a brig got past the British warships and arrived before the battle, bringing 100,000 biscuit rations and 24,000 pairs of shoes, raising morale throughout the camp! (77, 200, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Loano French army will be under the orders of General of Division Andre Massena (78, 201, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Saorgio Win Battle of Saorgio Our army of 40,000 men lacked provisions, decent clothing and munitions, since the British Royal Navy had cut off its supply lines to Genoa. (25, 80, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The Cavalry school of France, Saumur. (24, 80, 0) ***Gog*** Message: These Vendean insurgents captured the town of Saumur (18, 59, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Savenay Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (13, 72, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns win Battle of Savenay Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (13, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns win Battle of Savenay Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (11, 50, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns win Battle of Savenay Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (26, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns win Battle of Savenay Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (21, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns win Battle of Savenay Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (27, 64, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get General Louis Marie Turreau and his Infernal columns win Battle of Savenay Let us give the royalist a decisive blow (79, 198, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Montenotte Win Battle of Loano A crack appeared in the enemy's front, it is time to defeat them! (79, 195, 0) ***Minotaur*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (79, 196, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (109, 187, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Are you afraid of crossing this bridge,Muiron?"--Napoleon. "No,General."Muiron answered. "Oh no,Muiron,You need to live!"--Napoleon (109, 185, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: Macquard and his men join you from north (106, 172, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Garda (105, 172, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Arcole Win Battle of Arcole Massena's 18th Demi-brigade ("the Brave"), newly arrived from Lake Garda. (105, 171, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Massena's 18th Demi-brigade ("the Brave") join you (106, 176, 0) ***Medusa Queen*** Message: You Caught an artillery officer of the Austrian army (105, 178, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Rivoli Win Battle of Arcole Defeat the reinforcements of Austria which Try to rescue Mantua (106, 177, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (103, 183, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mincio River (104, 187, 0) ***Infernal Troglodyte*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (102, 187, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Mantua Win Battle of Rivoli Now the Austrians in the city can only surrender (131, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Monument of Diomedes (124, 216, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Isole Tremiti Here is a stronghold of Joachim Murat's supporters (63, 137, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: January 26,1798: The Directory authorizes French troops to intervene on behalf of the Swiss uprising in Vaud against the Swiss government and support The Vaud region of Switzerland declarance of independence from the Swiss government in Bern. Sign the Treaty of Campo first, to prevent Austria from intervening The Vaud region of Switzerland welcomes French army (74, 130, 0) ***Master Gremlin*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (74, 132, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need gain control of key alpine passes You can win siege of mantua and then move your Italian Legion here Battle_of_Grauholz (124, 188, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tagliamento river (102, 240, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Soldiers: You are one of the wings of the Army of England. You have made war in the mountains, plains, and cities. It remains to make it on the ocean. The Roman legions, whom you have often imitated, but never yet equaled, combated Carthage, by turns, n the seas and on the plains of Zama. Victory never deserted their standards, because they never ceased to be brave, patient, and united. Soldiers, the eyes of Europe are upon you. You have great destinies to accomplish, battles to fight, dangers and fatigues to overcome. You are about to do more than you have yet done, for the prosperity of your country, the happiness of man, and for your own glory." Sign Treaty of Campo Formio and get The Directory approves Bonaparte's plan to invade Egypt. "Soldiers:You are about to undertake a conquest the effects of which, on civilization and commerce, are incalculable. The blow you are about to give to England will be the best aimed, the most sensibly felt, she can receive until the time arrives when you can give her her death-blow. "We must make some fatiguing marches; we must fight several battles; we shall succeed in all we undertake. The destinies are with us. The Mameluke beys, who favor exclusively English commerce, whose extortions oppress our merchants, and who tyrannize over the unfortunate inhabitants of the Nile, a few days after our arrival will no longer exist. "The people amongst whom we are going to live are Mahometans. The first article of there faith is this: 'There is but one God and Mahomet is His prophet.' Do not contradict them. Behave to them as you behaved to the Jewsto the Italians. Pay respect to their muftis and their imaums, as you did to the rabbis and the bishops. Extend to the ceremonies prescribed by the Koran and the mosques the same toleration which you showed to the synagogues, to the religion of Moses and of Jesus Christ. "The Roman legions protect all religions. You will here find customs different from those of Europe. You must accommodate yourselves to them. The people amongst whom we are about to mix differ from us in the treatment of women; but in all countries he who violates is a monster. Pillage only enriches a small number of men; it dishonors us; it destroys our resources; it converts into enemies the people whom it is our interest to have for friends. "The first town we shall come to was built by Alexander. At every step we shall meet with grand recollections, worthy of exciting the emulation of Frenchmen." (112, 247, 0) ***Zealot*** Message: You released Mannarino along with other political prisoners, after their over twenty years imprisonment.They were the ringleader of The Rising of the Priests --the Maltese Rebellion of 1775 ,or the September 1775 Rebellion, which was an uprising led by Maltese clergy against the Order of Saint John, who had sovereignty over Malta. (138, 251, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of the Pyramids Capture Malta first "Form in squares!We will defeat those Mamluks cavaliers!"--Napoleon orders (92, 120, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Stockach and Engen Win Second Battle of Zurich Austrian army are formed of the Electorate of Bavaria, 6,000 troops from the Duchy of Württemberg, 5,000 soldiers of low quality from the Archbishopric of Mainz and 7,000 militiamen from the County of Tyrol. (93, 121, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (94, 121, 0) ***Beholder*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (53, 73, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Now first of all,Marshal Soult,you need to give up the title of Marshal General of France you recived before. Please turn in your badge of courage which Louis Philippe awarded you，marshal Soult,and we will let you go back to the beginning. Thank you ,King Nicolas,you're welcome! (28, 60, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Don't do harm to the king! Don't do harm to the king! You killed king's Swiss guards and did harm to our king Louis (16, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Don't do harm to the king! Don't do harm to the king! You killed king's Swiss guards and did harm to our king Louis (18, 27, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Don't do harm to the king! Don't do harm to the king! You killed king's Swiss guards and did harm to our king Louis (19, 23, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Don't do harm to the king! Don't do harm to the king! You killed king's Swiss guards and did harm to our king Louis (24, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Don't do harm to the king! Don't do harm to the king! You killed king's Swiss guards and did harm to our king Louis (23, 56, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Don't do harm to the king! Don't do harm to the king! You killed king's Swiss guards and did harm to our king Louis (88, 169, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Lodi Win Battle of Lodi The enemy was expelled from this area (55, 85, 0) ***Zealot*** Message: General Bonaparte wants to send us to negotiate with the Vendeen religious leaders in the west,we accept that task (30, 18, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Our fight was not a struggle against the revolution, but a fight for the preservation of their liberty and freedom for our religion. Sign Concordat of 1801 Thank you for restoring our religious freedom, General Bonaparte (23, 36, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Our fight was not a struggle against the revolution, but a fight for the preservation of their liberty and freedom for our religion. Sign Concordat of 1801 Thank you for restoring our religious freedom, General Bonaparte (18, 54, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Our fight was not a struggle against the revolution, but a fight for the preservation of their liberty and freedom for our religion. Sign Concordat of 1801 Thank you for restoring our religious freedom, General Bonaparte (18, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Our fight was not a struggle against the revolution, but a fight for the preservation of their liberty and freedom for our religion. Sign Concordat of 1801 Thank you for restoring our religious freedom, General Bonaparte (68, 155, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Great Saint Bernard Pass (70, 155, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Cavalry General Francois etienne de Kellermann and his Heavy cavalry join you (69, 155, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (69, 156, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon Crossing the Alps--May 1800 We need horses to tow the cannon We successfully crossed the Alps! (83, 186, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Marengo Lead the army across the Alps to attack the enemy from the north We almost lost the battle,but there is still hope to turn defeat into victory. (84, 186, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need Desaix and his two infantry divisions. We need Desaix and his two infantry divisions. "Why am I not allowed to weep?"--Napoleon (85, 186, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (86, 186, 0) ***Scorpicore*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (121, 123, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (122, 123, 0) ***Scorpicore*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (81, 93, 0) ***Arch Mage*** Message: The Treaty of Luneville declared that "there shall be, henceforth and forever, peace, amity, and good understanding" among the parties. The treaty required Austria to enforce the conditions of the earlier Treaty of Campo Formio (concluded on 17 October 1797). Certain Austrian holdings within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire were relinquished, and French control was extended to the left bank of the Rhine, "in complete sovereignty" but France renounced any claim to territories east of the Rhine. Contested boundaries in Italy were set. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was awarded to the French, but the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand III, was promised territorial compensations in Germany. In a secret article, the compensations were tentatively set to be the Archbishopric of Salzburg and Berchtesgaden.The two parties agreed to respect the independence of the Batavian, Cisalpine, Helvetic and Ligurian Republics. On the other hand, Austria's possession of Venetia and Dalmatian coast was confirmed. (49, 85, 0) ***Ghost Dragon*** Message: "Now, let's go home to die..."Marshal Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey says,"Wait..wait,are you serious,Soult?where are you taking me?" (67, 60, 0) ***Event*** Message: Near The Temple (68, 85, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Troyes (66, 74, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: So you prefer The Mountain? You should give us something You bribe the commander of the National Guard to release a prisoner who was held here by the passionate masses. (65, 74, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Arno wokes up to discover that the prisoner who called him pisspot had stolen his father's watch. Infuriated, Arno demanded that he give it back, but was challenged to a duel with wooden training swords instead. After besting him, Arno once again demanded his watch back before telling him to return to his "crazy drawings". As the prisoner asked what drawings he spoke about, Arno showed him the wall but discovered that the drawings weren't there. The prisoner grabbed Arno by the arm, dragging him over to the wall and telling him to concentrate.The prisoner told him that they were messages from the past and that he had himself thrown into half the prisons in Paris in search of them. As the prisoner asked what was his name, Arno introduced himself. Not surprised, the prisoner introduced himself as Pierre Bellec and that he knew Arno's father. Bellec then returned the watch to Arno and told him that his father was a member of the Assassins, a group dedicated to protecting liberty of humankind. By using Arno's Eagle vision, Arno saw once again the symbols. It is about"Leap of Faith" (72, 77, 0) ***Battle Dwarf*** Message: "Please cease fire, we surrender!" (71, 77, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "A rumor developed claiming that there was an underground passage between the Tuileries and the Chateau.our goal is to prevent the King from escaping through the Chateau! " (60, 69, 0) ***Event*** Message: Chapter 1:French Revolution It was a period of fundamental political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended in November 1799 with the formation of the French Consulate. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of Western liberal democracy. It was the founding national moment for France, the West, and indeed, perhaps, of modernity itself. (65, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Seine (64, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After joining the Brotherhood of Assassins and training for more than a year,on 4 January 1791,Arno finnally found Sivert ,the man who murdered Arno's fatherhere here inside the Cathedrale Notre-Dame de Paris Posing as Duchesneau, Arno learned all he could from Sivert before stabbing him in the cheek with his Hidden Blade, killing him instantly. In that moment, Arno saw Sivert's memories, discovering that the Templar felt underappreciated by de la Serre. Arno learned that Sivert had recruited a partner-in-crime on the night of Francois' murder, the Roi des Thunes, who struck the killing blow. The Templar and the Roi des Thunes met through the mediation of a man named la Touche. (63, 78, 0) ***Event*** Message: Arno finished Sivert, Assassin Council gave him the Phantom Blade, a mechanism which could shoot darts (60, 74, 0) ***Champion*** Message: You found Chretien Lafrenière (59, 74, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Holy Innocents' Cemetery Arnault saw that Lafrenière's troops were gathering Arno killed the Templar only to learn that Lafrenière had penned the letter to Francois de la Serre, warning the former Grand Master of an eventual betrayal within the Templar Order. Arno also discovered that Lafrenière was planning an attack on the Hotel de Beauvais (62, 76, 0) ***Arch Devil*** Message: "Yes,I murdered Mirabeau,I done this because I strongly believed that no peace could be achieved between the two factions and that purging the Brotherhood to remake it into a stronger organization was a good thing!"--Bellec (60, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Wracked with guilt and blaming himself for de la Serre's death, Arno drown his sorrow in alcohol. Looking the medallion Bellec gave him, Arno saw with the Eagle vision the symbol of a rose window. Wanting to erase his past mistakes, Arno decided to join the Assassin. Match the medallion's symbol with the window of the Sainte-Chapelle Arno entered in the chapel. Finding a mechanish, he put the medallion in it. As he rearranged the chandeliers, Arno opened a secret hole on the floor. Arno jumped in it (64, 74, 0) ***Pixie*** Message: "Long live Grand master Germain!" (62, 74, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Find the murderer of Mirabeau Find the murderer of Mirabeau Keep chasing Germain (65, 59, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Square du Temple Find Germain's Female subordinate Mary Germain is in the crypt under this temple tower (74, 58, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (74, 59, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (58, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Halle aux bles (Paris) Germain gave out the whole story about the pin was commissioned by a Templar knight named Chretien Lafrenière several years ago Arnault found a lot of gunpowder and guns stored in the Halle aux bles, and found a booklet, from which he learned about Lafrenière's movements. Before leaving, Arnault lit the powder keg and set the exchange torch. This alarmed the guards of Lafrenière (65, 58, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Square du Temple The Temple is also known for having been the place where the French royal family was jailed at the time of the Revolution. After the king and the queen been guillotined,Germain had proclaime the rebirth of the Templar Order. Germain posited to Arno that the reason for de la Serre's murder was to rid the Templar Order of corruption and bigotry, while also stating that it served only the first phase of the Order's reformation, and that it would be truly reborn with the death of the King. (56, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Louis XVI formally accepts the new Constitution in the middle of September We need to convene First session of the new national Legislative Assembly Now the new national Legislative Assembly takes the place of The National Constituent Assembly .Our first meet will be held on October. (60, 77, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Conciergerie--on the right of Place Thionville(Place Dauphine) After Marie-Antoinette is transferred from the Temple to the Conciergerie here, the Revolutionary Tribunal will charged her with treason. October 16,1793,Marie-Antoinette is convicted and guillotined on the Place de la Revolution.A necklace was found on her neck, which does not seem to be that Diamond Necklace in the 1785 Affair.We can not let this matter be disclosed to the public (63, 74, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Looking for new clues as the mob ransacked the TuileriePalace Kill Frederic Rouille The memory of Frederic Rouille shows that this woman named Mary colluded with the captains of the grain transporters, hoarding grain, and finally caused the revolution.Now she and the boat are at this secret pier, grab her quickly (62, 77, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Looking for evidence Looking for evidence Climbing on the roof of Sainte Chapelle, Arno discovered that the traitor was Bellec (26, 231, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palma (42, 13, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (47, 11, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (53, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (58, 6, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (64, 4, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (70, 2, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (5, 16, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (11, 14, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (15, 12, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (23, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (31, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (36, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (37, 11, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (15, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (14, 12, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (46, 11, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (65, 2, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (7, 63, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (13, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (7, 57, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (7, 62, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (5, 110, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (12, 100, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (5, 106, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (5, 107, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (36, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (44, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (52, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (60, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (67, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (75, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (76, 223, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (76, 229, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (76, 235, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (76, 241, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (90, 207, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (81, 211, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (80, 217, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (82, 208, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (54, 32, 0) ***Dread Knight*** Message: Charles Cornwallis is here to sign on behalf of the United Kingdom (30, 227, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (29, 227, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (22, 228, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (23, 227, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (53, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Legion of Honour After Treaty of Amiens,The Legion of Honour Established in May,1802 by Napoleon Bonaparte The order's motto is Honneur et Patrie ("Honour and Fatherland"), and its seat is the Palais de la Legion d'Honneur next to the Musee d'Orsay, on the left bank of the Seine in Paris. The order is divided into five degrees of increasing distinction: Chevalier (Knight), Officier (Officer), Commandeur (Commander), Grand officier (Grand Officer), and Grand-croix (Grand Cross). (148, 249, 0) ***Angel*** Message: Pierre Daumesnil at your service (57, 77, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Seine Amont(Haute Seine) (91, 98, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Send whom to get the Duke then?"Napoleon asks. "What about Caulaincourt"Talleyrand answers. (89, 100, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Thwart the royalist conspiracy in Paris Thwart the royalist conspiracy of Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise Find the mastermind behind the conspiracy (90, 99, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "I think Duke of Enghien has something to do with Cadoudal"Schulmeister says. (93, 98, 0) ***Helm of Chaos*** Message: Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien (69, 82, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aube river (72, 80, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Napoleonic Code (French: Code Napoleon, lit. "Code Napoleon"), officially the Civil Code of the French (French: Code civil des Francais; simply referred to as Code civil) is the French civil code established under the French Consulate in 1804 and still in force, although frequently amended. Find Jean-Jacques-Regis de Cambacerès The Napoleonic Code entered into force on 21 March 1804. (70, 79, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Chateaude Vincennes Find Pierre Daumesnil "I shall surrender Vincennes when I get my leg back"--Pierre Daumesnil (72, 82, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Find Duke of Enghien Duke lives in the house of Ettenheim,near Rhine Executing the Duke will be an irreparable mistake, and now you have a chance to recover it and use a code to perfect the legal trial (70, 81, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chateau de Vincennes (72, 81, 0) ***Enchanter*** Message: For some reason I can't explain Once you go there was never, never an honest word And that was when I ruled the world ”Jean-Jacques-Regis de Cambacerès ，how is the Civil Code?""General,It will be called Napoleonic Code!" (63, 88, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The royalists in Paris are going to act again recently Did Bonaparte finished a"A whiff of grapeshot"? February 28,1796: On the orders of the Directory, General Bonaparte will close the extreme leftist Club du Pantheon, founded by a follower of Marat. (62, 87, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Pantheon club March 2: The Directory names General Bonaparte the commander of the Army of Italy. (59, 87, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pantheon (59, 83, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Arno arrived at the slum to single out the Roi des Thunes ' lieutenant Aloys la Touche, who was in the process of amputating a young man's right foot. Before Arno could intervene, the Marquis de Sade casually introduced himself and advised Arno not to lash out so hastily, suggesting instead that he follow la Touche back to his master. Arno accepted this advice and tailed la Touche back to his residence. Once inside, he assaulted la Touche and shackled him to the wall. Arno demanded Le Roi des Thunes ' location from la Touche, threatening to kill him if he didn't comply. Terrified, la Touche told Arno that he could find the King of Beggars in the catacombs beneath the old church. Returning to the surface, Arno discovered that the Marquis de Sade had become the new Roi des Thunes. (60, 83, 0) ***Bowstring of the Unicorn's Mane*** Message: As Arno turned to leave, de Sade produced the poisoned pin that killed de la Serre, identifying a silversmith named Francois-Thomas Germain as its creator. (63, 80, 0) ***Event*** Message: Our Lady of Paris--Cathedrale Notre-Dame de Paris (69, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Marengo Win Battle of Marengo Cadoudal and his men recently sneaked into Paris, and they are planning a conspiracy against the First Consul of France, Napoleon Bonaparte (68, 67, 0) ***Rogue*** Message: Georges Cadoudal and his men--the culprits of the bombing (67, 67, 0) ***Dread Knight*** Message: Anne Jean Marie Rene Savary and his Gendarmes d'elite de la Garde Imperiale formed,to protect official residences and palaces and to provide security to important political figures. (55, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tour d'Ordre,Boulogne (133, 141, 0) ***Event*** Message: subject to a salt toll for passing here (98, 78, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rhine (96, 76, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mannheim--Rhine crossing point (116, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Altmühl river (103, 120, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Iller river (104, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ulm (107, 115, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Murat,give the enemy a final blow Murat,give the enemy a final blow (107, 114, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (104, 119, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Now Soult,occupy Memmingen,then cut off Mack from Tyrol (112, 185, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Caldiero Win Battle of Ulm Attract Charles's attention (109, 183, 0) ***Minotaur King*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (110, 183, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (82, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chateau de Luneville, a renowned resort (57, 215, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: These people surrendered to the British army in Egypt and need to be isolated and observed.One of them is Louis-Nicolas Davout Win Battle of Marengo Louis-Nicolas Davout is Desaix's reliable friend (112, 107, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Schulmeister will make fool of Austrian commander Mack (111, 108, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Get Old Guard first Get Old Guard first Battle of Ulm (54, 57, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arc de triomphe de l'etoile (55, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout The Iron Marshal, known for his discipline and unblemished record Born: May 10, 1770 Place of Birth: Annoux, Yonne, France Died: June 1, 1823 Cause of Death: Illness Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: DAVOUST on the east pillar (56, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Jean Lannes Close friend to Napoleon and the first of Napoleon's marshals to die of wounds received in battle Born: April 10, 1769 Place of Birth: Lectoure, Gers, France Died: May 31, 1809 Cause of Death: Mortally wounded Place of Death: Kaiser-Ebersdorf, Austria Arc de Triomphe: LANNES on the east pillar (58, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Józef Antoni Poniatowski Polish prince who became a Marshal of France but died a few days later at Leipzig Born: May 7, 1763 Place of Birth: Warsaw, Poland Died: October 19, 1813 Cause of Death: Killed in action Place of Death: Leipzig, Germany Arc de Triomphe: PONIATOWSKY on the east pillar (59, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General Nicolas Marie Songis des Courbons General de division and commander of the artillery of the Grande Armee Born: April 23, 1761 Place of Birth: Troyes, Aube, France Died: December 27, 1810 Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: SONGIS on the east pillar (57, 56, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Nicolas-Charles Oudinot Commander of an elite grenadier division and Napoleon's most wounded marshal Born: April 25, 1767 Place of Birth: Bar-le-Duc, Meuse, France Died: September 13, 1847 Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: OUDINOT on the east pillar (57, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Jean Baptiste Bessières Marshal of France who commanded the cavalry of the Imperial Guard Born: August 6, 1768 Place of Birth: Prayssac, Lot, France Died: May 1, 1813 Cause of Death: Killed in action Place of Death: Rippach, Germany Arc de Triomphe: BESSIERES on the east pillar (54, 55, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Jean Baptiste Jules de Bernadotte Brother-in-law to Joseph Bonaparte, Marshal of France, and Crown Prince of Sweden who led Sweden against France in 1813 and 1814 Born: January 26, 1763 Place of Birth: Pau, Pyrenees-Atlantiques, France Died: March 8, 1844 Place of Death: Stockholm, Sweden Arc de Triomphe: BERNADOTTE on the north pillar (54, 56, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch-Gilbert du Motier Lafayette Born: September 6, 1757 Place of Birth: Chavaniac, Haute-Loire, France Died: May 20, 1834 Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: LAFAYETTE on the north pillar (55, 60, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Doctor Dominique-Jean Larrey Inventor of battlefield ambulances and Chief Surgeon to the Imperial Guard Born: July 8, 1766 Place of Birth: Beaudean, Hautes-Pyrenees, France Died: May 25, 1842 Cause of Death: Illness Place of Death: Lyon, France Arc de Triomphe: LARREY on the south pillar (53, 60, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General Thomas Alexandre Davy Dumas Black general de division during the Revolution and father of the author Alexandre Dumas Born: March 25, 1762 Place of Birth: Jeremie, Saint-Domingue Died: February 26, 1806 Place of Death: Villers-Cotterets, France Arc de Triomphe: DUMAS on the south pillar (56, 52, 0) ***Event*** Message: Franciade--Northern suburbs of Paris (61, 54, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Marne river (55, 55, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General Francisco de Miranda Venezuelan officer who served at the battles of Valmy and Neerwinden and strove for South American independence Born: June 9, 1756 Place of Birth: Caracas, Venezuela Died: July 14, 1816 Cause of Death: Apoplexy Place of Death: Cadiz, Spain Arc de Triomphe: MIRANDA on the north pillar (53, 55, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General Louis Friant Brother-in-law to Marshal Davout and General Leclerc and renowned divisional commander Born: September 18, 1758 Place of Birth: Morlancourt, Somme, France Died: June 24, 1829 Place of Death: Seraincourt, France Arc de Triomphe: FRIANT on the north pillar (52, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult The Duke of Damnation and Hand of Iron, a Marshal of France best known for his campaigns in the Spanish Peninsula Born: March 29, 1769 Place of Birth: Saint-Amans-Labastide, Tarn, France Died: November 26, 1851 Place of Death: Saint-Amans-Labastide, France Arc de Triomphe: SOULT on the west pillar (52, 56, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General Armand-Augustin-Louis de Caulaincourt Aide-de-camp to Napoleon and notable ambassador to Moscow Born: December 9, 1773 Place of Birth: Caulaincourt, Aisne, France Died: February 19, 1827 Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: CAULAINCOURT, L. on the west pillar (54, 58, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Andre Massena Talented army commander during the Revolution who became a Marshal of France Born: May 6, 1758 Place of Birth: Nice, Alpes-Maritimes, France Died: April 4, 1817 Cause of Death: Illness Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: MASSENA on the south pillar (54, 59, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Joachim Murat Brother-in-law to Napoleon, Marshal of France, King of Naples, and dashing cavalry leader Born: March 25, 1767 Place of Birth: La Bastide-Fortunière, Lot, France Died: October 13, 1815 Cause of Death: Executed Place of Death: Pizzo, Italy Arc de Triomphe: MURAT on the south pillar (54, 61, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: As a strong supporter of public works, Napoleon ordered numerous construction projects throughout the French Empire. After his victory over the Third Coalition at Austerlitz in 1805, to commemorate his victories he commissioned three public works: the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, the Vendome Column, and the Arc de Triomphe. The largest of these structures, the Arc de Triomphe, was intended to honor the military leaders and victories of the French Revolution, Consulate, and Empire. Win Battle of Austerlitz The Arc de Triomphe de l'etoile is one of the most famous monuments in Paris, France, standing at the western end of the Champs-elysees at the centre of Place Charles de Gaulle, formerly named Place de l'etoile—the etoile or "star" of the juncture formed by its twelve radiating avenues. The location of the arc and the plaza is shared between three arrondissements, 16th (south and west), 17th (north), and 8th (east). The Arc de Triomphe honours those who fought and died for France in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, with the names of all French victories and generals inscribed on its inner and outer surfaces. Beneath its vault lies the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from World War I. (169, 158, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Komarno-- main base of Danube flotilla,well-defensible fortification (164, 144, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peace of Pressburg (1805) Win Battle of Austerlitz Beyond the clauses establishing "peace and amity" and the Austrian withdrawal from the Third Coalition, the treaty also mandated substantial territorial concessions by the Austrian Empire. The French gains of the previous treaties of Campo Formio and Luneville were reiterated, while recent Austrian acquisitions in Italy and southern Germany were ceded to France and Bavaria, respectively. The scattered Austrian holdings in Swabia were passed to French allies: the King of Württemberg, and the Elector of Baden, while Bavaria received Tyrol and Vorarlberg. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, of which Napoleon had become king earlier that year. Augsburg, previously an independent Free Imperial City, was ceded to Bavaria. As a minor compensation, the Austrian Empire annexed the Electorate of Salzburg, which had been under Habsburg rule since 1803. The elector, the Austrian Emperor's brother, was compensated with the Grand Duchy of Würzburg. Emperor Francis II also recognized the kingly titles assumed by the Electors of Bavaria and Württemberg, which foreshadowed the end of the Holy Roman Empire. Within months of the signing of the treaty and after a new entity, the Confederation of the Rhine, had been created by Napoleon, Francis II renounced his title as Holy Roman Emperor and became Emperor of the Austrian Empire with the title of Francis I of Austria. An indemnity of 40 million francs to France was also provided for in the treaty. (104, 96, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Vanguard against Lucifer in Hell ,led by Dominique Vandamme join you (123, 62, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. After the Peace of Pressburg,some members of the coalition had previously been fighting France as part of the Third Coalition, and there was no intervening period of general peace The German philosopher Hegel, who was then a professor at the University of Jena, is said to have completed his chef d'?uvre, the Phenomenology of Spirit, while the battle raged. Hegel considered this battle to be "the end of the history", in terms of evolution of human societies towards what would be called the "universal homogeneous state" (126, 62, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Naumburg--the seat of the bishops (123, 63, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Auerstedt Further north at Auerstedt, both Davout and Bernadotte received orders to come to Napoleon's aid. Davout attempted to comply via Eckartsberga, Bernadotte via Dornburg. Davout's route south, however, was blocked by the Prussian main force of 60,500 men, including the Prussian King, the Duke of Brunswick and Field Marshals von M?llendorf and von Kalckreuth.A savage battle ensued. Although outnumbered two to one, Davout's superbly trained and disciplined III Corps endured repeated attacks before it eventually took the offensive and put the Prussians to flight. (125, 65, 0) ***Medusa Queen*** Message: Prussian Army branch led by Prince of Hohenlohe (133, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Holsten Gate (131, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lübeck--Queen of the Hanseatic League (152, 35, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We are general Lasalle's hussars,We have taken Stettin. (151, 33, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Stettin Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt,and keep chasing Prussian army French army captured Stettin (133, 16, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Lübeck Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt,and keep chasing Prussian army The Prussian army surrendered (188, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alle river (186, 37, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Eylau Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt first In late January Bennigsen's Russian army went on the offensive in East Prussia, pushing far to the west (176, 29, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Obserwatorium Astronomiczne Jana Heweliusza w Gdańsku,Danzig Research Society (178, 29, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Now we get precious resources (such as powder, grain, eau de vie) of Danzig which Grande Armee lacked, for a substantial campaign in the east. (177, 29, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Francois Joseph Lefebvre and his troops join you (178, 31, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Danzig (1807) Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt,and keep chasing Prussian army In a letter dated 18 February 1807, Napoleon noted to Marshal Lefebvre: Your glory is linked to the taking of Danzig: you must go there (79, 201, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General of Division Jean Serurier joins you from left wing (78, 202, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General of Division Pierre Augereau joins you from right wing (93, 86, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Heavy Cavalry commander etienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty and his men join you (186, 36, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Eylau Cavalry charge at Eylau--one of the greatest cavalry charges in history. Riding over the fields of Eylau the following morning, Marshal Ney observed: "Quel massacre! Et sans resultat" ("What a massacre! And without result") (191, 30, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the town of Tilsit in July 1807 in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland. The first was signed on 7 July, between Emperor Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France, when they met on a raft in the middle of the Neman River. According to the treaty, Prussia will compensate France 120 million francs (190, 30, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaties of Tilsit. Treaties of Tilsit.Win Battle of Friedland first The treaty ended the Fourth Coalition and the war between Imperial Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that rendered the rest of continental Europe almost powerless. The two countries secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes.At the end of the war Napoleon was master of almost all of western and central continental Europe, except for Spain, Portugal, Austria and several other smaller states.After the Treaty of Tilsit, the Empire was at its zenith. (192, 31, 0) ***Master Gremlin*** Message: 'In that case everything can be speedily settled between us and peace is made.’-- Napoleon replied (123, 112, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Teugen-Hausen Win Battle of Corunna in Peninsular War Battle of Teugen-Hausen (124, 111, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Teugen-Hausen (125, 112, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Leader of heavy cavalry,Louis-Pierre Montbrun and his horsemen join you. (108, 246, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Frigate squadron commanded by Admiral Denis Decrès at your service (8, 30, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Commissary to the army ,oldier, statesman, historian, and poet Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno, comte Daru join you (111, 190, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Arcole Win Battle of Lodi The two legions of Austria must be prevented from meeting (110, 189, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The best map-maker --Louis Albert Guislain Bacler d'Albe at your service.Do you want to have homogeneous maps of Italy and then of Europe (with the title "Map of the Emperor")? (56, 68, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: We need to rebuild the National Gendarmerie Arrest the royalists for conspiracy General of brigade etienne Radet will be the chief command of all the Gendarmerie (armed police.) , and responsible for the security of the whole city of Paris (225, 54, 0) ***Gremlin*** Message: At last, on November 21, Ney and his small band of 900 armed men arrived at Orsha, escorted by the Viceroy, Eugène de Beauharnais. When Napoleon heard the good news of Ney’s reappearance he leaped for joy and cried, “So I have saved my Eagles!” After the Emperor heard all the details of the heroic Marshal’s exploits, he proclaimed him “the Bravest of the Brave.” (135, 46, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Magdeburg (136, 54, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mulde river (129, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: White Elster river (125, 73, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saale rive (128, 66, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Defeat these Russo-Prussian force (128, 65, 0) ***Wolf Raider*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (128, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Marshals Bessières will lead the pre-war reconnaissance operations by him own (127, 68, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Lützen Sign Treaty of Schonbrunn Following the disaster of French invasion of Russia in 1812, a new Coalition consisting of Britain, Sweden, Prussia and Russia formed against France. (149, 75, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Russo-Prussian force is retreating in an orderly manner, Ney, don’t let them go (148, 76, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Bautzen Fight Battle of Lützen first Battle of Bautzen (181, 57, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Thorn--City of Angels,Copernicus' House (161, 80, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French Glogau garrison Win Battle of Bautzen to save the garrison here The garrison was rescued (180, 60, 0) ***Event*** Message: French Thorn garrison (183, 80, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bzura river (190, 74, 0) ***Sign*** Message: French Modlin garrison (144, 85, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eble river (74, 57, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant Colonel Jean Victor Marie Moreau at your command (125, 113, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Eckmühl.Capture that pontoon bridge (142, 75, 0) ***Azure Dragon*** Message: Moreau was mortally wounded in the Battle of Dresden ,his final words, "Soyez tranquilles, messieurs; c'est mon sort," ("Be calm, gentlemen; this is my fate") (141, 77, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Dresden Fight Battle of Bautzen first Battle of Dresden (142, 76, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (143, 80, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dresden Castle (146, 48, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French Spandau garrison Win Battle of Dresden to save the garrison here The garrison was rescued (140, 135, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Linz--at here Johannes Kepler once discovered the distance-cubed-over-time-squared—or "third"—law of planetary motion. (140, 138, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Ebelsberg win Battle of Regensburg This battle and the heavy casualties were unnecessary (141, 138, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We found a military chest containing $4.5 million Gulden and large quantities of food, ammunition, and 100 cannon that Archduke Maximilian of Austria-Este failed to carry off or destroy. (63, 87, 0) ***Green Dragon*** Message: I am Wolf Tone,leader of the Irish revolutionaries,I come to France for seeking military support from the Directory, to liberate Ireland. (147, 161, 0) ***Chaos Hydra*** Message: General Charles Leclerc will announcing to the French Directory the signature of the peace preliminaries at Leoben. (147, 162, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Leoben Battle in Mantua still not ends yet? This is a general armistice and preliminary peace agreement between the Holy Roman Empire and the First French Republic that ended the War of the First Coalition. (223, 187, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: I am Teleki Sámuel,do you want to know more about books? (228, 197, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fekete templom of Brassó (23, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Welcome to Saint-Malo--home of the corsairs, French privateers.Our captain Francois Aregnaudeau and his Duc de Dantzig were last heard of on 13 December 1811.Can you find him for us? No,we don't believe that Aregnaudeau's ship has became a ghost ship.Unless you proof it. That was such a terrible story.And we admire your courage to find out the turth! (108, 251, 0) ***Admiral's Hat*** Message: The First Barbary War showed that America could execute a war far from home, and that American forces had the cohesion to fight together as Americans rather than separately as Georgians, New Yorkers, etc. The United States Navy and Marines became a permanent part of the American government and American history. (106, 251, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First Barbary War United States President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay this tribute. Thank to William Eaton,,this was the first time the United States flag was raised in victory on foreign soil. The action is memorialized in a line of the Marines' Hymn—"the shores of Tripoli". (100, 243, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Pirates from the Barbary States seizing American merchant ships and holding the crews for ransom, demanding the U.S. pay tribute to the Barbary rulers (66, 75, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: "The revolutionaries is coming,goodbye dude,"Bellec gave Arno a medallion saying you could join the Assassins if you escape from this. (68, 75, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: So you pick Girondist? You should give us something You bribe the commander of the National Guard to release a prisoner who was held here by the passionate masses. (78, 19, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Antwerp (79, 18, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General Francois-Nicolas-Benoit Haxo could help you on defencing the fortress and castles (88, 28, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (87, 29, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Maastricht (1793) Francisco de Miranda advanced along the river Meuse towards the heavily-fortified city of Maastricht If you lose the battle, you will be indicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal.Win it,leave France,return to Latin america to achieve the independence (86, 29, 0) ***Event*** Message: Siege of Maastricht (1793) (2, 243, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ceuta--"Ceuta, mi ciudad querida",during the Napoleonic Wars, the city was garrisoned by British troops allied with Spain. (14, 242, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oran (15, 243, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish forces under siege by Moors in Orán San Martín promoted to second sublieutenant after the battle. (249, 29, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tver (240, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Where am I?"--Marshal Ney asked Find those memoirs about Grande Armee "You are in 1812's Russia .By the way, I have a copy of Caulaincourt's memoir called 《With Napoleon in Russia》. Take a look. It will help you recall all the details of the war. Farewell. Now you can fire me from the French side, and I may never return to her " --Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron (112, 207, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Bologna (169, 223, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zenica (248, 24, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nilov Monastery (70, 52, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Reims Cathedral (63, 209, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cannes (180, 102, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Czestochowa (94, 128, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Abbey of Saint Gall,St. Gallen (65, 136, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lausanne (205, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Panevezys (242, 52, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mozhaysk (23, 246, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saida (109, 112, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Elchingen (190, 218, 0) ***Efreet Sultan*** Message: You capture an Osman Pasha (76, 59, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (77, 57, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Valmy Win Austro-Turkish war Battle of Valmy (77, 26, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Neerwinden win Battle of Neerwinden French evacuation of the Low Countries (96, 67, 0) ***Skeleton*** Message: You try to negotiate with the allied forces, but some allied forces continue to fire (95, 69, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nahe river (65, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Valenciennes (1793) (67, 32, 0) ***Wight*** Message: You were attacked by a column of the British and Austrian coalition forces (66, 29, 0) ***Cavalier*** Message: The French garrison commander Jean Henri Becays Ferrand resigned (72, 197, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (111, 80, 0) ***Event*** Message: Charles's main force attack you (112, 79, 0) ***Troglodyte*** Message: You found the Austrian vanguard (110, 80, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr and his soldier join you (109, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Würzburg Win Battle of Lodi We must defend the Rhine Front (121, 79, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The summer of 1796 saw the two French armies of Jourdan and Jean Victor Marie Moreau advance into Germany. Win Battle of Saorgio in Italy first Battle of Würzburg (107, 72, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Defeat the Austrian army Defeat the Austrian army in Battle of Würzburg So you defeated Charles？ (109, 72, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Würzburg Win Battle of Würzburg Charles forced Jourdan's army back to the Rhine. With his colleague in retreat, Moreau was isolated and compelled to abandon southern Germany. (153, 48, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French Kustrin garrison Win Battle of Dresden to save the garrison here The garrison was rescued (221, 150, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Denisko uprising Win Battle of Würzburg,then mobilize the army to suppress the uprising destroy all Polish military camps (219, 150, 0) ***Unicorn*** Message: You arrested the leaders of the uprising (116, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Venice--"City of Water" (117, 192, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua The Venetian gave up the gate to the French army (124, 184, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Campo Formio Battle in Mantua still not ends yet? This will end the War of the First Coalition and leave Great Britain fighting alone against revolutionary France. (125, 184, 0) ***Arch Mage*** Message: "We will guarantee the interests of France in the Mediterranean and the Rhine, and Austria also requires the property in Venice"--Philipp von Cobenzl, representative of the Austrian monarchy (126, 184, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Campo Formio Battle in Mantua still not ends yet? This will end the War of the First Coalition and leave Great Britain fighting alone against revolutionary France. (119, 190, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city of Venice with Terraferma (Venetian mainland), Venetian Istria, Venetian Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor region were turned over to the Habsburg emperor according to Treaty of Campo Formio Sign Treaty of Campo Formio The city of Venice were turned over to the Habsburg emperor according to Treaty of Campo Formio (103, 241, 0) ***Behemoth*** Message: General Jean-Andoche Junot at your service (93, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oglio river (91, 174, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Oglio river (84, 128, 0) ***Tower*** Name: Zurich Timed events: Name: e-frHelvetic Republic Message: French troops completely overran Switzerland and the Old Swiss Confederation collapsed.121 cantonal deputies proclaimed the Helvetic Republic, "One and Indivisible".A cantonal assembly was called in the canton of Zürich, but most of the politicians from the previous assembly were re-elected. The new regime abolished cantonal sovereignty and feudal rights. The occupying forces established a centralised state based on the ideas of the French Revolution. Name: e-au Message: On 19 February 1803, the Act of Mediation restored the cantons. With the abolition of the centralized state, Switzerland became a confederation once again. (83, 127, 0) ***Wolf Raider*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (83, 126, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (83, 125, 0) ***Angel*** Message: General of division edouard Mortier at your service (82, 123, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Zurich War in Egypt is the fuse of War of the Second Coalition Now defeat the Russian army and the Austrian army,and take Zurich! (85, 127, 0) ***Cavalier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (85, 125, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Habsburg Monarchy commanded by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (85, 124, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First Battle of Zurich Win Battle of Cassano d'Adda The Helvetic Republic in 1798 became a battlefield of the French Revolutionary Wars. (85, 126, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French army led by general Andre Massena (94, 119, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (95, 119, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (96, 120, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Habsburg Monarchy led by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (97, 120, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Stockach and Engen Win First Battle of Zurich Battle of Stockach and Engen (120, 123, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General Antoine Drouot--the Monk-Soldier at your service (119, 124, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Hohenlinden Win Battle of Stockach and Engen Battle of Hohenlinden (83, 93, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Luneville Win Battle of Hohenlinden and Battle of Marengo The Treaty of Luneville declares that "there shall be, henceforth and forever, peace, amity, and good understanding" among the France and Holy Roman Empire. Count Ludwig von Cobenzl, the Austrian foreign minister is waiting for your grace (83, 94, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Luneville Finish Battle of Hohenlinden Treaty of Luneville (108, 107, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Ulm Atfer Treaty of Luneville,In 1805, the United Kingdom, the Austrian Empire, Sweden, and the Russian Empire formed the Third Coalition to overthrow the French Empire. Napoleon had surrounded Mack's entire army at Ulm (108, 108, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Günzburg.Try to defeat the French army here and break out as much as possible (107, 109, 0) ***Manticore*** Message: Well done!Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este and a few other generals now able to escape to Bohemia with about 1,200 cavalry (111, 179, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Verona Arena (109, 181, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French army led by Marshal Andre Massena (110, 181, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Habsburg Monarchy led by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (108, 109, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (111, 181, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Caldiero Atfer Treaty of Luneville,In 1805, the United Kingdom, the Austrian Empire, Sweden, and the Russian Empire formed the Third Coalition to overthrow the French Empire. Northern Italy campaign broke again Vienna is in danger, we need to get rid of the French army here as soon as possible, and go back and reinforce the capital of Vienna. (188, 219, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Belgrade(1789) Habsburg Austrian army led by Feldmarschall Ernst Gideon von Laudon besieged an Ottoman Turkish force under Osman Pasha in the fortress of Belgrade. Franz von Weyrother also served in the 1788—1790 Turkish War as Adjutant of Feldmarschalleutnant Maximilian Browne and on 1 February 1789, was appointed to Capitain-lieutenant (junior Captain) followed by Hauptmann (full Captain) on 6 July. After a three-week leaguer, the Austrians forced the surrender of the fortress. (160, 126, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 127, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Austerlitz,also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors His Majesty Holy Roman Emperor Francis II arrived His Majesty Holy Roman Emperor Francis II arrived (161, 128, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Battle of Caldiero and move Charles's force northward Finish Battle of Caldiero and move Charles's force northward Now our coalition has completely defeated the French in number (160, 129, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Austerlitz Finish Battle of Ulm first We lost in Battle of Ulm but Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este managed to escape with 2000 cavalry to Bohemia and succeeded in holding the Bavarian division of Prince Karl Philipp von Wrede in Iglau thereby and preventing it from joining Napoleon's French main force here at Brno (164, 145, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pressburg (163, 144, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The treaty was signed in Pressburg, Kingdom of Hungary, by Johann I Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein, and the Hungarian Count Ignác Gyulay for the Austrian Empire and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand for France. (164, 143, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peace of Pressburg (1805) Win Battle of Austerlitz Peace of Pressburg (1805) (163, 143, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The treaty was signed in Pressburg, Kingdom of Hungary, by Johann I Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein, and the Hungarian Count Ignác Gyulay for the Austrian Empire and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand for France. (152, 228, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zrmanja river (153, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gracac (160, 232, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: 2nd Dalmatian Campaign Sign Treaties of Tilsit Continuing north to join War of the Fifth Coalition (159, 232, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dalmatian Campaign (1809) Invade Naples first Dalmatian Campaign (1809) (158, 231, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Knin -- a key castle and the main entrance to Dalmatia (152, 159, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Styrian Armoury (152, 161, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Schlossberg (Graz) (154, 161, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Graz The defenders offered stout resistance, but ultimately Marmont broke out of Dalmatia.Marmont reached Ljubljana (Laibach) in Carniola. Now he is Continuing north Battle of Graz (155, 160, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French division led by Jean-Baptiste Broussier. (151, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dalmatian Campaign (1809) Sign Peace of Pressburg Stop Marmont from going north from here at Gospic (149, 222, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: Frech army led by Auguste Marmont (186, 80, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We'll cross the Vistula, we'll cross the Warta, We shall be Polish. Bonaparte has given us the example Of how we should prevail. Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt,and destroy the coalition force French army led by Napoleon entered Warsaw on December 19th, 1806.Duchy of Warsaw established. (189, 85, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Raszyn Sign Peace of Pressburg and end thec fourth coalition first The first Battle of Raszyn was fought on 19 April 1809 between armies of the Austrian Empire under Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este and the Duchy of Warsaw under Józef Antoni Poniatowski, as part of the War of the Fifth Coalition in the Napoleonic Wars. (189, 84, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Armies of the Duchy of Warsaw under Józef Antoni Poniatowski (155, 141, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need to float heavy barges and obstacles down river,to smash through the French bridge Need Wood and Ore for making the barges and obstacles Now let the barge go down the river to break down the French bridge and isolate the French army from Lobau Island! (156, 139, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: All the remaining French troops and commanders trapped on Lobau Island surrendered.In addition, our army seized a large amount of French supplies and ammunition (158, 139, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: Congratulations!You capture the French eagle flag bearer in this Aspern-Essling,and capture many eagle flags! (156, 141, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Oops,the French built aonther flaoting bridge Need Wood and Ore for making the barges and obstacles Now let the barge go down the river to break down the French bridge and isolate the French army from Lobau Island! (156, 142, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Oops,the French built aonther flaoting bridge Need Wood and Ore for making the barges and obstacles Now let the barge go down the river to break down the French bridge and isolate the French army from Lobau Island! (159, 136, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Aspern-Essling Capture Aspern first Well done!Now capture Essling from French Young Guard (157, 137, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Napoleon couldn’t hold it any longer. At 4pm , he ordered the exhausted cavalry to launch a final charge and began to retreat. (155, 136, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Aspern-Essling Destroy the French floating bridge and engineers first Our Austrian First Column will attack Aspern (158, 137, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (155, 137, 0) ***Royal Griffin*** Message: General Molitor's French garrison clung on desperately (154, 137, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General Bellegarde's Second Column join you (106, 190, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Mantua Finish Battle of Saorgio in Italy The French invested the fortress of Mantua starting in early June 1796. (164, 128, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Morava river (156, 132, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dyje river (167, 97, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: "Longue vie à l'empereur!" (167, 98, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Metternich, tell your emperor, if Austria is going to war against France, I promise to razing Vienna to the ground."Napoleon says."Then you are determined to lose, Your Majesty."Metternich answers. "You see,Metternich, I rebuilt my army again, they are called the Marie-Louise regiment."--Napoleon "Should call them toy soldiers."--Metternich (168, 99, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Truce of Plaswitz Since the Treaty of Schonbrunn,We Austria have lost too much territory and resources. It’s time to take advantage of Russia’s exhaustion of Napoleon’s army to force Napoleon to return our interests. (141, 82, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fichtelberg(1,214m) (143, 84, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: 32,000 French troops under General Dominique Vandamme,including two Polish regiments of Uhlans.Vandamme ordered his forces to form squares (143, 85, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Kulm Coalition force commanded by Karl von Schwarzenberg If Vandamme won the battle, the French would take the passes in the mountains, and the retreating Coalition army could be trapped by Napoleon.So we must defeat Vandamme (142, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Kulm The Truce or Armistice of Plaswitz was a nine-week armistice during the Napoleonic Wars, agreed between Napoleon I of France and the Allies on 4 June 1813 In the time the Truce bought, the Landwehr was mobilised and Metternich finalised the Treaty of Reichenbach on 27 June, agreeing that Austria would join the Allies should Napoleon fail to meet certain conditions by a specific day. He failed to meet those conditions, the Truce was allowed to lapse without renewal, and Austria declared war on 12 August. (236, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Siret river (243, 193, 0) ***Arch Devil*** Message: "I am Russian Field Marshal Mikhail Kamensky!" (242, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Galati--the only port for the most part of Moldavia's existence,is now burning down by the armies of the Russian general Mikhail Kamensky. (243, 192, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: "We are Kamensky 's serfs,and we were under Kamensky's maltreatment for so long!" (250, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ochakov (235, 193, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: An Austrian corps under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg join you (237, 192, 0) ***Event*** Message: Chapter 1:Russo-Turkish War(1787-1791) (236, 192, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Focsani (235, 195, 0) ***Efreeti*** Message: You capture the Ottoman vizier Cenaze Hasan Pasha (248, 191, 0) ***Efreet Sultan*** Message: You capture Aydoslu Mehmed Pasha. The defeat was seen as a catastrophe in the Ottoman Empire, while in Russia it was glorified in the country's first national anthem, Let the thunder of victory sound! "Triumph's thunder louder, higher! Russian pride is running high! Russia's glory sparkles brighter! We have humbled Muslim might. Refrain: Hail to you for this, o Catherine! Gentle mother to us all! Danube's swiftly flowing waters Are at last in our firm hands; Caucasus respects our prowess, Russia rules Crimean lands. Turkish-Tatar hordes no longer May disturb our calm domain. Proud Selim won't be the stronger evermore, as Crescent wanes. Refrain Groans by Ishmael repeated 'Round the world are heard perforce. Envy, enmity — defeated! — Turn to poison at the source. Make the most of every triumph — For our foes it's time to see: Russia reaches farther-higher Over mountain peaks and seas. Refrain Brilliant Empress, gaze at visions, And behold, a woman great: In your thoughts and your decisions As one soul we all partake. Look at grand cathedrals' splendor, Contemplate our strength and grace; See your subjects' hearts surrender To rejoice before your face!" (248, 192, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Izmail (242, 197, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (244, 196, 0) ***Demon*** Message: the Turks were led by Koca Yusuf Pasha. (246, 199, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tulcea--an important centre for the transit trade (244, 198, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Macin Win Siege of Izmail At first, the victory was in doubt, but then the Turkish army was vanquished by a charge of the Russian left, under Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov, and started retreating in disorder (238, 176, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eminescu's Linden Tree (240, 179, 0) ***Ogre Mage*** Message: Alexander Bezborodko was despatched to Jassy to prevent the peace congress there from breaking up, and succeeded, in the face of all but insuperable difficulties, in concluding a treaty exceedingly advantageous to Russia (9 January 1792) (239, 179, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Treaty of Jassy.Signed at Jassy (Iasi) in Moldavia (presently in Romania), was a pact between the Russian and Ottoman Empires ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-92 and confirming Russia's increasing dominance in the Black Sea. Win Battle of Macin to Drive the Ottoman army out of Moldova Accordingly, the Treaty of Jassy was signed on 9 January 1792, recognizing Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Yedisan (Odessa and Ochakov) was also ceded to Russia, and the Dniester was made the Russian frontier in Europe, while the Russian Asiatic frontier—the Kuban River—remained unchanged. The Ottoman war goal to reclaim the Crimea had failed, and if not for the French Revolution, the Ottoman Empire's situation could have been much worse. (210, 75, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Baranavichy (216, 73, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nyoman river (207, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jewish community,Hrodna (211, 69, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mir Castle Complex (208, 67, 0) ***Dendroid Guard*** Message: Lithuanian force under Józef Judycki resorted towards Grodno. (93, 57, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (92, 59, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The archbishop-elector's chief minister of Coblenz,Ferdinand Freiherr von Duminique here welcomes all French emigres and royalist French refugees. Army of Conde are looking for their leader Louis Joseph, Prince of Conde. The Comte de Provence and the Comte d'Artois is already waiting for your. (93, 60, 0) ***Black Knight*** Message: "Let's recapture our power in France!"--Charles Philippe de Bourbon and Louis XVIII. (76, 57, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Valmy The battle took place on 20 September 1792 as Prussian troops commanded by the Duke of Brunswick attempted to march on Paris We will easily defeat these French revolutionary forces (221, 121, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Hidden battle of the Russian plot--Battle of Zieleńce Sign Treaty of Jassy This battle is decisive in Southern theater (220, 120, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Polish forces commanded by Prince Józef Poniatowski (189, 112, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Raclawice Kosciuszko inspired his peasant brigade with shouts of "My boys, take that artillery! For God, and the Fatherland! Go forward with faith!" (189, 111, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Russian army let by Alexander Tormasov (192, 83, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Suvorov issued an order on 3 November 1794 that included special instructions regarding the treatment of enemy civilians, "Do not enter houses; spare any enemy asking for quarter; do not kill unarmed men; do not make war on women; do not touch youngsters". (192, 81, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Thousands of Polish soldiers and civilians tried to cross the Vistula. Will you give mercy to them? (89, 166, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: One youngger sister of Napoleon is here Find General Charles Leclerc Napoleon married her to General Charles Leclerc in French-occupied Milan on 14 June 1797 (87, 140, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Gotthard Pass (69, 154, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Italian war is in crisis To be First Consul What a daring crossing of the Alps,General! (69, 153, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon Crossing the Alps--May 1800 Napoleon Crossing the Alps Napoleon Crossing the Alps--by Jacques-Louis David (191, 31, 0) ***Gremlin*** Message: Alexander reportedly said, 'Sire, I hate the English no less than you do and I am ready to assist you in any enterprise against them.’ (186, 35, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Levin August von Bennigsen’s artillery fires at you (186, 34, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The cavalry of Pyotr Bagration is attacking you (188, 36, 0) ***Champion*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (189, 36, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French Cavalry charge at Eylau (193, 31, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaties of Tilsit. Treaties of Tilsit.Win Battle of Eylau first The treaty ended the Fourth Coalition and the war between Imperial Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that rendered the rest of continental Europe almost powerless. The two countries secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes. (232, 51, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We suffered heavy losses in this battle, 6,000 to 8,000 casualties, including 4,000 lost as prisoners to the Russians. We suffered heavy losses in this battle, 6,000 to 8,000 casualties, including 4,000 lost as prisoners to the Russians. Get rid of the pursuit of the Cossacks as soon as possible, continue to retreat towards Smolensk, and catch up with the main force (221, 35, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Polotsk.Wittgenstein's victory set the stage for the Battle of Berezina in November, in which three Russian armies converged on Napoleon from separate directions (217, 35, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dzisna river (223, 36, 0) ***Crystal Dragon*** Message: You capture French Marshal Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr (222, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Boris stones (227, 42, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vitebsk (230, 43, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Hiden russian battle--Battle of Vitebsk (1812) Barclay's motivation to make a stand resulted from political pressures and from his own desire to improve the army's morale, after weeks of retreating without a fight (217, 60, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Minsk (184, 30, 0) ***Event*** Message: Universitas Albertina (116, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vesuvius(1,281m) (116, 226, 0) ***Event*** Message: When you approached Mount Vesuvius, there was a sudden loud noise, and then it burst out with flames pointing towards the sky, and then, the sky was covered by dark clouds of smoke and dust, and the burning material that poured down like pouring rain, it was like The end of the world (112, 224, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sign Peace of Pressburg Sign Peace of Pressburg Siege of Gaeta (1806) (229, 42, 0) ***Event*** Message: Complex European Joint Force Containing Poles, Italians, Saxons, Prussians, and even Austrians under the command of Emperor Napoleon I (227, 41, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French invasion of Russia Win Battle of Friedland first Napoleon capture Vitebsk (91, 36, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cologne university (91, 38, 0) ***Mage*** Message: "For the defense of the Empire and Cologne,We--Rote Funken (red sparks) never surrender!" (16, 97, 0) ***Sign*** Message: La Roche-sur-Yon (46, 118, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nevers (45, 151, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saint-etienne-- known as the French city of the "weapon, cycle and ribbon" (19, 170, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Montauban (85, 53, 0) ***Fortress*** Name: LuxembourgCity (86, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Strasbourg (65, 210, 0) ***Sign*** Message: St Marguerite Island. (225, 198, 0) ***Bone Dragon*** Message: Transylvanian-born field marshal Michael von Melas at your service (118, 80, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (117, 81, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Cavalry officer Johann Sigismund Riesch ,Michael von Kienmayerand and their men join you in the battle (92, 126, 0) ***Event*** Message: Hieronymus von Colloredo-Mansfeld led a force to climb the Winterthur highlands southwest of Lake Constance (Bodensee) in Switzerland by surprise (151, 161, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: General of Cavalry Franz Seraph of Orsini-Rosenberg join you (107, 169, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen led a 5,200-man brigade in Paul Davidovich's corps join you from west bank of Adige river (108, 181, 0) ***Minotaur*** Message: The Battle of Austerlitz had been fought,Rush over to reinforce! (89, 178, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Feldmarschall-Leutnant Josef Philipp Vukassovich and his men join you (192, 85, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Kosciuszko Uprising-Battle of Praga Win Battle of Maciejowice first Kosciuszko Uprising-Battle of Praga (192, 84, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General of Cavalry Alexander Petrovich Tormasov commanded one of the seven assault columns,join you (190, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Polonia House,Pultusk (237, 194, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Rymnik As the commander-in-chief of all Russo-Austrian forces of the front, Suvorov quickly took command of the combined Austro-Russian army. (236, 195, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: While the Austrians advance was pinning down enemy troops, the rest of Suvorov's army outflanked the enemy army and attacked them with cavalry, causing panic among the Ottomans who had almost nowhere to retreat but across the Rymnik, where most of them drowned while trying to cross it. (251, 78, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Cossack regiment commander Vasily Vasilievich Orlov-Denisov and his men join you (251, 77, 0) ***Wolf Raider*** Message: Some Cossack skirmishers near the Don River charge at you (205, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Riga (212, 2, 0) ***Event*** Message: Norwegian descent, Estonian commander Karl Fedorovich Baghowut and his men at your service (214, 3, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Reval (250, 152, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant General of Engineering Artillery Vasily Grigorievich Kostenetsky at your service (90, 138, 0) ***Event*** Message: General of Infantry Matvey Evgrafovich Khrapovitsky join you in crossing the Alps (84, 140, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: It was Battle of Gotthard Pass,a part of Italian and Swiss expedition Win Battle of Cassano d'Adda then march through the Alps We need to retreat to Italy (86, 140, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Teufelsbrücke ("Devil's Bridge"),Schollenen Gorge (84, 141, 0) ***Goblin*** Message: Suvorov accepted Grand Duke Constantine idea to dismount his Cossacks and use their horses as pack animals.The Cossacks who lost horses are angry of this (85, 141, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Suvorov crossing the alps--Sept 1799 That was a difficult choice because the Cossacks' mounts were their own property, not army issue. Finally,Suvorov succeeded in rescuing his army and did not lose a single battle. (83, 139, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Suvorov crossing the alps--Sept 1799 Suvorov crossing the alps March of Suvorov through the Alps-- by Vasily Surikov. (249, 165, 0) ***Event*** Message: Nickolay Vasilievich Ilovaisky join you (87, 141, 0) ***Event*** Message: Count, General of Infantry, General-Aide-de-Camp Karl Fedorovich Toll at your command (139, 251, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 137, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Wagram.Destroy the enemy from the center.Wagram will be the largest battle in European history up to its time. (161, 139, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General Pierre David de Colbert-Chabanais will form the 2e regiment de chevau-legers lanciers de la Garde imperiale(the Red Lancers) (160, 140, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Wagram Napoleon beat the Austrian forces in Battle of Regensburg Napoleon beat the Austrian forces and occupied Vienna at the beginning of May 1809.Towards the end of May, Napoleon resumed the offensive, suffering a surprise defeat at the Battle of Aspern-Essling. (215, 239, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sofia-- "triangle of religious tolerance" of Christianity, Islam and Judaism. (237, 158, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Balti (31, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aurillac (93, 161, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bergamo (35, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alencon (174, 85, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kalisz (147, 160, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Leoben--home to miners (164, 90, 0) ***Event*** Message: Stationed Polish uhlans in the city attack on you (165, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Liegnitz (169, 93, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of the Katzbach Win Patriotic War of 1812,win Second Battle of Polotsk The two armies stumbled upon one another at 9 am after MacDonald crossed the swollen Katzbach river. (167, 90, 0) ***Cavalier*** Message: The remnants of MacDonald's army retreated, with hundreds drowning in the Katzbach and the Raging Neisse which were in spate (167, 91, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The forces of the First French Empire under Marshal MacDonald (168, 92, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The battle gave rise to a German saying, now obsolete: "Der geht ran wie Blücher an der Katzbach!" ("He's advancing like Blücher at Katzbach!"), referring to Blücher and describing vigorous, forceful behavior. (24, 223, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Barcelona Timed events: Name: Barcelona_Trading_Company Message: The Barcelona Company was one of a number of chartered companies established by the Bourbon crown in the 18th century, part of the larger Bourbon Reforms, with the intention to reform Spanish commerce with the Americas,enabled the development of free trade between Catalonia and the Americas to flourish ，to integrate the economies at the peripheries of the American Empire and to reduce English and French piracy and contraband in the Eastern Caribbean. Imported products included raw cotton, indigo, brazilwood, cocoa, tobacco, sugar amongst others (59, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Calais--"brightest jewel in the English crown" (55, 212, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Toulon Capture Marseille first Take Toulon back from the British, Spanish, Sardinians and insurgents and save the Republic! (55, 213, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Wattignies Win Battle of Wattignies You must relieve the British and Spanish threats to Toulon (56, 216, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: At the last moment of evacuation from Toulon, thousands of French royalist refugees rushed to your deck hoping to be taken away (55, 216, 0) ***Marksman*** Message: The French shore turrets under the command of Bonaparte fire at you (53, 218, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Toulon Win Siege of Valenciennes (1793) The British siege of 1793 marked the first involvement of the Royal Navy with the French Revolution. (54, 218, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Battle of Hondschoote in the Flanders Finish Battle of Hondschoote in the Flanders Siege of Toulon (65, 30, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: York was proclaimed as a saviour by the population of the town, which trampled the tricolour underfoot and declared him King of France (55, 218, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Smith, I heard that your arson skills are superb Smith, you were given the task of burning as many French ships and stores as possible before the harbour could be captured. Commodore Sidney Smith was instructed by Hood to have the delivery fleet and the arsenal burnt. (76, 239, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (135, 251, 0) ***Archer*** Message: Nelson gave orders that boats be sent to pull survivors from the water around the remains of Orient(the French flagship) (90, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dom Tower of Utrecht-- It is lined with the unique wharf-basement structures that create a two-level street along the canals. (86, 1, 0) ***Giant*** Message: You captured supreme commander of the Franco-Batavian forces, General Guillaume Marie Anne Brune (88, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Franco-Batavian forces led by General Guillaume Marie Anne Brune (89, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Russian troops for the expedition to Holland join you (55, 34, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Amiens Win First Battle of Algeciras The Treaty of Amiens temporarily ended hostilities between France and the United Kingdom at the end of the War of the Second Coalition. It marked the end of the French Revolutionary Wars; after a short peace it set the stage for the Napoleonic Wars. Britain gave up most of its recent conquests; France was to evacuate Naples and Egypt. Britain retained Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Trinidad. It was signed in the city of Amiens on 27 March 1802 (4 Germinal X in the French Revolutionary calendar) by Joseph Bonaparte and Marquess Cornwallis as a "Definitive Treaty of Peace." The consequent peace lasted only one year (18 May 1803) and was the only period of general peace in Europe between 1793 and 1814. (54, 33, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Joseph Bonaparte is here to sign on behalf of the France (115, 248, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon sent his aide-de-camp Jean-Andoche Junot to request permission from the Grand Master for the French fleet to water at Malta. Find Jean-Andoche Junot Napoleon sent his aide-de-camp Jean-Andoche Junot to request permission from the Grand Master for the French fleet to water at Malta. (54, 92, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Adrien-Marie Legendre works here The Academie des sciences made Legendre an adjoint member in 1783 and an associate in 1785. In 1789, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society Legendre assisted with the Anglo-French Survey (1784-1790) to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory by means of trigonometry (55, 92, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Paris Observatory Please supply some Optical instruments for us Through the centuries the Paris Observatory has continued in support of astronomical activities, and in the 21st century connects multiple sites and organizations, supporting astronomy and science, past and present (54, 0, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Anglo-French Survey (1784-1790) Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, proposed that Roy should lead the project. The Anglo-French Survey (1784-1790) was the geodetic survey to measure the relative position of Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory via triangulation. The English operations, executed by William Roy, consisted of the measurements of bases at Hounslow Heath (1784) and Romney Marsh (1787), the measurements of the angles of the triangles (1787-1788) and finally the calculation of all the triangles (1788-1790). (53, 0, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hounslow Heath (63, 10, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Dunkirk Let's measure Paris meridian here at Dunkirk Joseph Delambrev is here in charge of the northern expedition, measuring the meridian from Dunkirk to Rodez in the south of France. (24, 166, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "I am uncertain of the precision of my measurements owing to anomalous results in verifying my latitude by astronomical observation.But I can teach you somedhing about deep-sky objects and comets."Mechain said. (119, 22, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Caroline Herschel lives here at Hanover Following her father's death, her brothers William and Alexander proposed that she join them in Bath, England to have a trial period as a singer for musician brother William's church performances. Caroline eventually left Hanover after her brother's intervention,started the journey to England (52, 31, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Amiens Win First Battle of Copenhagen to frustrate the League of Armed Neutrality comprising Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, and Russia, which enforce free trade with France. Nine days later Nelson destroyed the Danish fleet in Copenhagen ending any potential for a combined fleet to threaten British naval superiority (53, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Algeciras is a contributory factor in the signing of Treaty of Amien Win Second Battle of Algeciras What then is the significance of Amiens? It was not just a gasp for breath from two exhausted belligerents, nor a sham peace treaty, nor a part of any premeditated strategy. This interval of peace determined that when the conflict resumed, that it became a fight to the death. (57, 73, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Old Louver (54, 74, 0) ***Event*** Message: when you come out of the other end of the gate, my God, you recognize This was Paris on the eve of July 14, 1789! The citizens are just heading towards the Bastille. That magic door can turn back the time? It’s too late to find out, you must take action to participate in the revolution! (44, 92, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: "Stop approaching the king's bedroom!"Shouted a group of soldiers who could not be identified as the National Guard or the King's Guard in the chaos (60, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cambrai guillotine (11, 127, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Girondin estuary (12, 111, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Seudre river (16, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rochefort--a high-security penal colony involving hard labour (16, 109, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the Jacobin period of the French Revolution (1790-95), over 800 Roman Catholic priests and other clergy who refused to take the anti-Papal oath of the "Civil Constitution of the Clergy" were put aboard a fleet of prison ships in Rochefort harbour (17, 109, 0) ***Monk*** Message: Praised be Jesus Christ! (11, 106, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Cochrane organised an inshore squadron of fireships and bomb vessels, including a converted frigate, and personally led this force into Basque Roads on the evening of 11 April. (12, 108, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French Atlantic Fleet under Zacharie Allemand (10, 108, 0) ***Event*** Message: Ile d'Oleron (10, 105, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of the Basque Roads Win Battle of San Domingo of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 During the Trafalgar Campaign of 1805 and the Atlantic campaign of 1806 the French Atlantic Fleet had suffered severe losses and the survivors were trapped in the French Biscay ports under a close blockade from the British Channel Fleet. (11, 107, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: On 6 April the bomb vessel HMS Aetna, equipped with a heavy mortar, arrived with William Congreve, inventor of a rocket artillery system which was to be used in the attack. (154, 6, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First Battle of Copenhagen Finish Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland The Admiralty had instructed Parker to frustrate the League of Armed Neutrality comprising Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, and Russia, which enforce free trade with France. The British viewed the League to be very much in the French interest and a serious threat. The League was hostile to the British blockade and, according to the British, its existence threatened the supply of timber and naval stores from Scandinavia. (153, 8, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Parker authorized Nelson to command the assault fleet，giving Nelson the twelve ships-of-the-line with the shallowest drafts, and all the smaller ships in the fleet. (154, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Malmo (150, 8, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Danish fleet led by Olfert Fischer were moored along the shore with old ships (hulks) (152, 6, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: It is not feasible to attack this Tre Kroner fortress from the front. Try to bypass the shoals from the south and attack the Danish ships lined up to protect the Copenhagen harbor， from south to north. (151, 6, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: To the Brothers of Englishmen, the Danes Lord Nelson has directions to spare Denmark when she is no longer resisting, but if firing is continued on the part of Denmark, Lord Nelson will be obliged to set on fire the floating batteries he has taken, without having the power of saving the brave Danes who have defended them. —Nelson The guns of the dozen southernmost Danish ships had started to fall silent owing to the damage they had sustained, and the fighting moved northward. Finnally after reading Nelson's letter,the Tre Kroner fortress resigned (150, 7, 0) ***Giant*** Message: Nleson had known this Danish commander Fischer in the West Indies,so Nelson tried to convince him ,and then the Prince, of British protection against the Russians. (150, 5, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Copenhagen Win Battle of San Domingo of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 Britain's first response to Napoleon's Continental system was to launch a major naval attack on Denmark.On 26 August, General Wellesley was detached with his reserve ,95th Rifles,and two light brigades of British artillery, as well as one battalion, eight squadrons and one troop of horse artillery from the King's German Legion (KGL) to disperse a force which had been sent to relieve the beleaguered city. (152, 3, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Nothing ever was more brilliant, more salutary or more effectual than the success [at Copenhagen]" the Royal Navy bombarded Copenhagen, seizing the Danish fleet, and assured use of the sea lanes in the North Sea and Baltic Sea for the British merchant fleet. (147, 2, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Soro Academy (25, 52, 0) ***Harpy Hag*** Message: Counter-revolutionary, an insurrectionist and a staunch royalist leader Jean Chouan joins you (25, 51, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: french Republicans soldiers attack on you (24, 52, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Please take us out of France to England, please! (25, 50, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: At Saint-Ouen-des-Toits, in the department of Mayenne, Jean Cottereau (known as Jean Chouan) led the insurgents. "Our Chouannerie needs help from Great Britain immediately!" (7, 42, 0) ***Event*** Message: Invasion of France (1795) or the Battle of Quiberon (84, 235, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cagliari (133, 249, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of the Nile Nelson sailed again, intending to search the seas off Cyprus, but decided to pass Alexandria again for a final check. Searching along the coast, Nelson finally discovered the French fleet in Aboukir Bay on 1 August 1798 (134, 249, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797) first Win Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797) first Battle of the Nile (86, 211, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Anglo-Corsican Kingdom(a client state of the Kingdom of Great Britain),Bastia (84, 213, 0) ***Event*** Message: Corte (83, 214, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Corsican patriot, statesman and military leader Pasquale Paoli join you,On June 17,1794,the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom is established. (90, 209, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gorgona (89, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Coastal watch tower,Capraia (90, 217, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pianosa (97, 219, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Isola del Giglio (85, 211, 0) ***Random Monster 1*** Message: Friends, and not by mere accident--Long live Anglo-Corsican Kingdom! (83, 213, 0) ***Marksman*** Message: Calvi was a heavily fortified position, defended by two large modern artillery forts. (95, 211, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: establish the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom first establish the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom first French Republican troops is heading here. It is not suitable to stay here for a long time. Let us go to Elba. (93, 211, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Livorno--"Ideal town" (94, 211, 0) ***Imp*** Message: 4,000 French royalists of Portoferraio ask for asylum (93, 214, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Elba (91, 213, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The French Emperor Napoleon was exiled to Elba, after his forced abdication following the Treaty of Fontainebleau (9, 242, 0) ***Archer*** Message: Regiment of Murcia under your command (22, 229, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (16, 229, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (10, 234, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (7, 239, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (8, 238, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Royal Navy has blocked the sea, you need to seek peace to achieve freedom of navigation at sea Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens comes into force, the war is over.For now. (9, 234, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (8, 239, 0) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (24, 224, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: San Martín took part in several Spanish campaigns in North Africa, fighting in Melilla and in Oran against the Moors in 1791, among others finish war with Moors in North Africa first (29, 211, 0) ***Marksman*** Message: The French government ordered the army to stand on the defensive ,Perignon was replaced by Scherer. (2, 161, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bayonne (1, 160, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Abdications of Bayonne The Abdications of Bayonne took place on 7 May 1808 in the castle of Marracq in Bayonne when the French emperor Napoleon I forced two Spanish kings—Charles IV and his son, Ferdinand VII—to renounce the throne in his favour. The move was Napoleon's response to the Tumult of Aranjuez (17-19 March), when Ferdinand VII forced his father's first abdication, and the uprising of 2 May against French troops in Spain (present in accordance with the Treaty of Fontainebleau). Deal with Tumult of Aranjuez first The Peninsula war is about to begin.Rather than staying here with spainish royal famlily ,Primer Pintor de Cámara (Prime Court Painter) to the Spanish Crown Francisco Goya feels gloomy about the future of society and decide to go back to Madrid with you. Goya completed a set of eleven small pictures painted on tin that mark a significant change in the tone and subject matter of his art, and draw from the dark and dramatic realms of fantasy nightmare. (25, 223, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: sign Treaties of Tilsit first sign Treaties of Tilsit first Between 9 and 12 February,1808, the French divisions of the eastern and western Pyrenees crossed the border and occupied Barcelona with 12,000 troops (1, 197, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aljafería Palace,,Zaragoza (3, 194, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In January Junot was replaced with Marshall Lannes who had been recovering from an earlier injury. The Spanish defenders had been preparing for street fighting from the beginning. Lannes, however, had decided on a slow block-by-block siege of each individual fortification in order to minimise French casualties. The suffering of the city had been terrible with estimated deaths of 54,000 made up of 20,000 soldiers and 34,000 civilians.Lannes himself estimated that the population of Saragossa had fallen from 55,500 to 15,000. (3, 195, 0) ***Monk*** Message: The Spaniards fought with determination, endured disease and starvation, entrenching themselves in convents and burning their own homes. (1, 196, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar,Zaragoza (3, 196, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second siege of Zaragoza Zaragoza, already scarred from Lefebvre's bombardments that summer, was under a second siege that had commenced on 20 December. Lannes and Moncey committed two army corps of 45,000 men and considerable artillery firepower. (10, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mequinenza (9, 225, 0) ***Marksman*** Message: an Imperial French army under General Louis Gabriel Suchet (15, 225, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: Louis Gabriel Suchet's French Army of Aragon laid siege to a Spanish garrison (16, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Amphitheatre of Tarragona (1, 167, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of the Nive of Campagne du Nord de l'Espagne et des Pyrenees The Battle fought between 9th and 13th December 1813; Wellington’s army crossing the River Nive and moving further into France; a battle with some of the fiercest fighting of the Peninsular War win Battle of Vitoria first Eventually, between 23 and 27 February, Wellington cut off Bayonne by crossing the mouth of the Adour west of the city (2, 166, 0) ***Angel*** Message: Marshal Nicolas Soult's French army (6, 163, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Adour river (3, 166, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On the night of 12 December,1813, a temporary pontoon bridge over the Nive at Villefranque was washed away. This isolated Hill's 14,000 men and 10 guns on the east bank of the river, just as the French were reorganizing for an assault. The capable Hill performed superbly, feeding in his few reserves with skill and exhorting his troops. However, after the arrival of reinforcements under Wellington, the French troops refused to continue the attack. The French near-mutiny forced Soult to reluctantly retreat into Bayonne, having lost 3,000 men against Anglo-Portuguese losses of 1,750. The Allied army commander rode up to his subordinate and congratulated him, "Hill, the day's your own." It was on this day that General Hill was heard, for only the second time in the entire war, to use profanity. When Wellington heard about it he remarked that "if Hill has begun to swear, they all must mind what they are about". (2, 199, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Disasters of War-- a series of 82 prints created between 1810 and 1820 by the Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya Grouping 1:War War grouping(from Plates 1 to 47)consist mainly of realistic depictions of the horrors of the war fought against the French. Most portray the aftermath of battle; they include mutilated torsos and limbs mounted on trees, like "fragments of marble sculpture" Although it is agreed that Goya could not have witnessed this incident, Robert Hughes believes it may have been his visit to Zaragoza in the lull between the first and second phases of the siege that inspired him to produce the series (191, 219, 0) ***Stronghold*** Name: Nándorfeherv Timed events: Name: e18040214 Message: The Serbian Revolution ultimately became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans, provoking unrest among the Christians in both Greece and Bulgaria. Name: e18070108 Message: Following a successful siege with 25,000 men in late 1806, on 8 January 1807 Karadorde proclaimed Belgrade the capital of Serbia after the remaining fortifications surrounded on St Stephen's day Name: e1815Second Serbian Uprising Message: In 1815,Milo? Obrenovi? started the Second Serbian Uprising and conquered Belgrade.The Principality of Serbia was established, governed by its own parliament, constitution and royal dynasty. Name: eUniversity_of_Belgrade Message: In1808,First Serbian Academy, the Great School, is established by Dositej Obradovi?, Serbian key figure in the Age of Enlightenment.It is the oldest and largest university in Serbia. (190, 219, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Sistova The Treaty of Sistova ended the last Austro-Turkish war (1787-91). The Treaty of Sistova ended the last Austro-Turkish war (1787-91). Austria's ally, Russia, had also been very successful, but Austria was threatened with invasion by Prussia.Also, the French Revolution had broken out and demanded Austria's urgent attention. Under that pressure, Austria accepted only very meagre gains from the war: only the town of Orsova (modern Orsova) and two small places on the Croatian frontier were ceded to Austria. (189, 219, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (92, 33, 0) ***Centaurs Axe*** Message: Aachen has proved an important site for the production of historical manuscripts.Here are some. (91, 37, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cologne Cathedral (91, 42, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alter Friedhof, Bonn (91, 43, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eifel (91, 40, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On Haydn's return trip from London to Vienna in July 1792, when Beethoven played in the orchestra at the Redoute in Godesberg，Arrangements were made by German nobleman Waldstein who lived in Bonn for Beethoven to study with the older master Dear Beethoven! You go to realise a long-desired wish: the genius of Mozart is still in mourning and weeps for the death of its disciple. (...) By incessant application, receive Mozart's spirit from Haydn's hands.-- Count Waldstein (56, 69, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Champs-Elysees (150, 143, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Ulm Win Battle of Ulm French force led by Murat entered Vienna (149, 142, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: This is the reserve team for the Battle of Austerlitz of the French Army This is the reserve team for the Battle of Austerlitz of the French Army Are you ready for the 36-hour rush march,Friant?Victory depends on you!! (184, 164, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Before his death in February 1790, Joseph II was forced to rescind many of his administrative reforms. He returned the crown of St. Stephen to Buda in Hungary and promised to abide by the Hungarian constitution. (154, 143, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Belvedere,Vienna (157, 146, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The meeting at Schwechat of Emperor Leopold I with Jan Sobieski in 1683, after the liberation of Vienna, is commemorated by an obelisk. (154, 142, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Osterreichische Galerie Belvedere (151, 143, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Joseph II's martinet method of improving the young Francis was "fear and unpleasantness."The young Archduke was isolated, the reasoning being that this would make him more self-sufficient as it was felt by Joseph that Francis "failed to lead himself, to do his own thinking." Nonetheless, Francis greatly admired his uncle, if rather feared him. To complete his training, Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary and he settled easily into the routine of military life After the death of Joseph II in 1790, Francis's father became Emperor. Franz had an early taste of power while acting as Leopold's deputy in Vienna while the incoming Emperor traversed the Empire attempting to win back those alienated by his brother's policies. Soon Franz's father Leopold also passed away,Franz become the Emperor. One minute I held the key Next the walls were closed on me And I discovered that my castles stand Upon pillars of salt and pillars of sand (99, 117, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Ostrach Sign Treaty of Campo Formio The battle occurred during Holy Week, 1799, amid rain and dense fog. It was the first non-Italy-based battle of the War of the Second Coalition. (98, 116, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: French forces commanded by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan. (112, 74, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Hanau Win Battle of Leipzig first From Würzburg, Wrede moved towards the strategic city of Hanau, along one of Napoleon's main retreat routes. (111, 74, 0) ***Crusader*** Message: Napoleon was forced to abandon central Germany to the coalition and hastily retreated westwards. (152, 141, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Beethoven's Symphony No. 7, was premiered in Vienna on 8 December 1813, with Beethoven himself conducting at a charity concert for soldiers wounded in the Battle of Hanau. Finish Battle of Hanau. he Symphony No. 7 in A major, Op. 92, is a symphony in four movements composed by Ludwig van Beethoven between 1811 and 1812, while improving his health in the Bohemian spa town of Teplice. The work is dedicated to Count Moritz von Fries. At its premiere, Beethoven was noted as remarking that it was one of his best works. The second movement, Allegretto, was the most popular movement and had to be encored. The instant popularity of the Allegretto resulted in its frequent performance separate from the complete symphony (151, 141, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The 7th Symphony seems to be another of Beethoven's musical confrontations with Napoleon, this time in the context of the European wars of liberation from years of Napoleonic domination The work was premiered with Beethoven himself conducting in Vienna on 8 December 1813 at a charity concert for soldiers wounded in the Battle of Hanau. In Beethoven's address to the participants, the motives are not openly named: "We are moved by nothing but pure patriotism and the joyful sacrifice of our powers for those who have sacrificed so much for us." (242, 130, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Inhul river (244, 137, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The town Mykolaiv was founded in 1789 by the Russian Governor General of Novorossiya, Prince Grigory Potemkin, initially as a shipyard called simply a New Shipyard on the Ingul river (247, 5, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rumyantsev Obelisk (135, 65, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Leipzig (131, 65, 0) ***Event*** Message: General Gyulai's Austrian Third Corps is threating our rear (134, 67, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pleisse river (127, 235, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (137, 233, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (131, 238, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (132, 230, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (145, 242, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (140, 238, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (133, 234, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (135, 226, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (130, 225, 0) ***Event*** Message: A succession of small British Royal Navy and Austrian Navy squadrons and independent cruisers attack on you(Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814) (75, 7, 0) ***Event*** Message: Walcheren Campaign--involved little fighting, but heavy losses from the sickness popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever".In all, the British government spent almost ￡8 million on the campaign. Along with the 4,000 men that had died during the campaign, almost 12,000 were still ill by February 1810 and many others remained permanently weakened. (52, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We the Girondins supported an aggressive foreign policy Rally patriots around the Revolution, liberate oppressed peoples from despotism, and test the loyalty of King Louis XVI! War will be fought against Austria (73, 38, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Siege of Mainz. Finish Siege of Mainz. 1/3 (72, 39, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We lost in Siege of Valenciennes We lost in Siege of Valenciennes 2/3 (76, 34, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Prussian IV Corps (Bülow's) was the first to arrive in strength. Bülow's objective was Plancenoit, which the Prussians intended to use as a springboard into the rear of the French positions (73, 35, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In the middle of the position occupied by the French army, and exactly upon the height, is a farm (sic), called La Belle Alliance. The march of all the Prussian columns was directed towards this farm, which was visible from every side. It was there that Napoleon was during the battle; it was thence that he gave his orders, that he flattered himself with the hopes of victory; and it was there that his ruin was decided. There, too, it was that, by happy chance, Field Marshal Blücher and Lord Wellington met in the dark, and mutually saluted each other as victors. —General Gneisenau. Other sources agree that the meeting of the commanders took place near La Belle Alliance, with this occurring at around 21:00. (74, 35, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Meanwhile, with Wellington's centre exposed by the fall of La Haye Sainte and the Plancenoit front temporarily stabilised, Napoleon committed his last reserve, the hitherto-undefeated Imperial Guard infantry. Soon a panic of Plancenoit’s fall to the Prussians passed through the French lines as the astounding news spread: "La Garde recule. Sauve qui peut!" ("The Guard is retreating. Every man for himself!") Wellington now stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups and waved his hat in the air to signal a general advance. His army rushed forward from the lines and threw themselves upon the retreating French. Those left in semi-cohesive units retreated towards La Belle Alliance. It was during this retreat that some of the Guards were invited to surrender, eliciting the famous,retort "La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!" ("The Guard dies, it does not surrender!") (72, 32, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hougoumont Farm (74, 32, 0) ***Sign*** Message: La Haye Sainte Farm (73, 30, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: British-led coalition consisting of units from the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Hanover, Brunswick, and Nassau, under the command of the Duke of Wellington, referred to by many authors as the Anglo-allied army or Wellington's army Upon learning that the Prussian army was able to support him, Wellington decided to offer battle on the Mont-Saint-Jean escarpment across the Brussels road, near the village of Waterloo. (72, 34, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "To Paris!"At this crucial juncture, Uxbridge ordered his two brigades of British heavy cavalry—formed unseen behind the ridge—to charge in support of the hard-pressed infantry. The 1st Brigade, known as the Household Brigade, commanded by Major-General Lord Edward Somerset, consisted of guards regiments: the 1st and 2nd Life Guards, the Royal Horse Guards (the Blues), and the 1st (King's) Dragoon Guards. The 2nd Brigade, also known as the Union Brigade, commanded by Major-General Sir William Ponsonby, was so called as it consisted of an English, the 1st (The Royals); a Scottish, 2nd ('Scots Greys'); and an Irish, 6th (Inniskilling); regiment of heavy dragoons. Napoleon promptly responded by ordering a counter-attack by the cuirassier brigades of Farine and Travers and Jaquinot's two Chevau-leger (lancer) regiments in the I Corps light cavalry division. (75, 34, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Up until now Wellington was on the back foot and would have been beaten without Blucher's army. In the second stage of the battle, the Duke said: "Give me Blücher or give me night" and this is enough to see clearly that he was actually saying "I'm about to get my butt kicked". Some authors ridicule Blucher, describing him as "rashing fool", "idiot", "very poor general" etc. Blucher was aware of his limitations, and freely admitted his need for the expert assistance of his chief-of-staff General Gneisenau to keep him along the right strategic lines. Gneiseanu believed Wellington failed to march to the Prussian assistance at Ligny and was in favour of retreating towards the Rhine River, leaving Wellington to his own devices. Blucher thought otherwise. "They are Prussians, aren't they ?" "Yes, sire." (73, 31, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Beginning of the battle and the attack on Hougoumont. The French troops arrived slowly on the battlefield and acclaimed the Emperor as they took up their positions. The British, Germans and Netherland troops could hear the French regimental bands playing.The French employed the three divisions of II Corps in this sector, for a total of 33 battalions and some 14,000 muskets, launched an attack on Hougoumont (92, 213, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Save the French royalists in Livorno Save the French royalists in Livorno The British landed on the Island of Elba on July 9, 1796. (133, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "We seem to have reached the crisis; now all depends on fighting hard." - Napoleon, 12th October 1813 "One should not believe but they are really attacking me." - Napoleon at Leipzig (132, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Leipzig(Battle of the Nations) Win Battle of Dresden first On the eve of battle, Napoleon uttered perhaps his most famous quote: “Between a battle lost and a battle won, the distance is immense and there stand empires.” (68, 182, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Hidden Chapter 8 of France:Hundred Days Napoleon writes: " ... by marching quickly, I left people ignorant of [the size of] my forces. I wouldn't have succeeded if I'd marched on Toulon, because they'd have formed a correct idea of how feeble they were, and no one likes getting stuck in such escapades." Napoleon instructed General Cambronne: "You will go on ahead - always ahead. But remember that I forbid one drop of French blood to be shed to recover my crown." Napoleon I left Elba in February 1815 and stopped at Gap on 5 March 1815 with 40 horsemen and 10 grenadiers, where he had thousands of copies of his Proclamations printed. The whole population of the city accompanied Napoleon when he left Gap. Acknowledging the reception of the population of these regions, he left the Haut-Alpins with the following message: The inhabitants of the departments of the high and low Alps, citizens, I was deeply touched by all the feelings that you have shown me, your wishes are granted. The cause of the Nation will triumph again. You're right to call me your father; I live for the honour and happiness of France. My return banishes all your concerns; it ensures the conservation of all properties, equality among all classes and the rights you have enjoyed for the last 25 years, and after which our fathers have so yearned, forming today a part of your existence. In all circumstances where I find myself, I will always remember with great interest all that I've seen through your country. (66, 181, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Vive l'Empereur! (64, 183, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gap,Hautes Alpes (60, 166, 0) ***Equestrian's Gloves*** Message: Grenoble glove industry (65, 181, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: Vive l'Empereur! (67, 181, 0) ***Crusader*** Message: Vive l'Empereur ! (60, 171, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Except in royalist Provence, Napoleon was warmly received. Napoleon landed at Golfe Juan ,then arrived at Gap first He avoided much of Provence by taking a route through the Alps, marked today as the Route Napoleon. (60, 170, 0) ***Angel*** Message: "Sire, let me talk to them."--l Pierre-Jacques-Etienne Cambronne (60, 169, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon arrived in Grenoble where an army commanded by Ney awaited him. Ney declared "It's good thing the Man from Elba has attempted his crazy enterprise. It's going to be the last act of his tragedy. I'll fix Bonaparte. ... That raving lunatic'll never forgive me for making him abdicate." He repeats his words about taking Napoleon back to Paris in an iron cage.Ney became animated in word and gesture and cried "I'll march at your head. And if need be it'll be I who'll fire the first shot ! ... I'll run my sword through the first man that budges !" "Clad in the little grey overcoat which so often had had a magical effect on the men ... he came forward to within pistol range." There is a sudden silence before Napoleon says: "Here I am. Soldiers of the 5th Line, recognise me ... If there is a soldier among you who wants to kill his Emperor he can do so." (According to Louis Marchand "Kill your emperor, if you can.") Randon: "The Polish Guard Lancers, sabres sheathed, reached the men of the 5th Line, began parleying with them, broke them up; and almost instantly shouts of Vive l'Empereur ! rang out on all sides. As if by an electric reaction the state of exaltation passed through the ranks of the 5th, and in the twinkling of an eye shakos were on bayonet points, and all chests breathed out vivat !" (60, 168, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: "Vive l'Empereur ! "--Soldiers of the 5th Line (74, 33, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Marshal Ney led a large French cavalry force launched a waterloo French cavalry charge:About four p.m., the French artillery in front of us ceased firing all of a sudden, and we saw large masses of cavalry advance: not a man present who survived could have forgotten in after life the awful grandeur of that charge. You discovered at a distance what appeared to be an overwhelming, long moving line, which, ever advancing, glittered like a stormy wave of the sea when it catches the sunlight. On they came until they got near enough, whilst the very earth seemed to vibrate beneath the thundering tramp of the mounted host. One might suppose that nothing could have resisted the shock of this terrible moving mass. They were the famous cuirassiers, almost all old soldiers, who had distinguished themselves on most of the battlefields of Europe. In an almost incredibly short period they were within twenty yards of us, shouting "Vive l'Empereur!" The word of command, "Prepare to receive cavalry", had been given, every man in the front ranks knelt, and a wall bristling with steel, held together by steady hands, presented itself to the infuriated cuirassiers. (73, 32, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: d'Erlon's infantry columns launched an attack on Papelotte.The marching soldiers flattened the fields of rye "whose crops "had stood almost as tall as a man." Riding at the front of the four divisions was Marshal Ney and General d’Erlon, with their staff.At two o'clock in the afternoon, along the Chemin d'Ohain between La Haye Sainte and Papelotte, the French were winning the battle fo Waterloo." (72, 31, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Waterloo Elm--located just south west of the intersection of the sunken lane and the Genappe-Brussels main road. It was the Duke of Wellington's command post for much of the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815). The combined Allies forces of United Kingdom, the King's German Legion, the Netherlands,Hannover, Brunswick and Nassau are now under your command.Completely defeat Napoleon and his imperial army,end the Napoleonic Wars! (70, 76, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On 28 February 1791 More than a thousand work men from the faubourgs armed with pickaxes and pikes followed the lead of Antoine Joseph Santerre to here Vincennes to demolish the prison Lafayette should come and lead the National Guard to quell the riot here (212, 3, 0) ***Sign*** Message: "Where is Old Thomas?"--"The symbols and guardians of Tallinn?It's on top of the spire of Tallinn Town Hall! Can you see?" (210, 0, 0) ***Event*** Message: Hidden Chapter of Russia Section 1:Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790) Battle of Reval Undaunted by the Swedish defeats and failures during 1789, the Swedish king, Gustav III sent the battlefleet under his brother Prince Karl, Duke of Sodermanland, to eliminate Admiral Chichagov's Russian squadron, which had wintered in the harbour at Reval. (44, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The State Apartments of the King,Royal Apartments (76, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: This is Varennes, there are no unusual flights passing by recently Rumor has it that the king is going to flee abroad under the protection of the royalist army. Jean-Baptiste Drouet, the postmaster of Sainte-Menehould, recognized that it was King Louis XVI and his family who fled here!Catch the king! (77, 55, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aire river (82, 57, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The heavily fortified royalist citadel of Montmedy (82, 56, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: This is the terminal of Flight to Varennes--Montmedy The French royal family seems to have some trouble in Varenne.Go to rescue King Louis XVI The French royal family is safe now (83, 57, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: At Montmedy General Francois Claude de Bouille, the marquis de Bouille, had concentrated a force of 10,000 regulars of the old royal army who were considered to still be loyal to the monarchy.They been waiting you and the royal family (81, 55, 0) ***Enchanter*** Message: "Now that I have assisted in the escape of the French royal family,please introduce me to Prince Charles and his consort, Duchess Charlotte, and I will introduce them to the Swedish {{Freemason}ry}!"--Carl Adolf Andersson Boheman (150, 13, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bergen auf Rügen (160, 0, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (159, 0, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On May 26, 1898,a British fleet carrying 14,000 troops under Sir John Moore entered the port of Gothenburg. Defeat Russian army at Aland Islands in Finnish War Due to various disagreements with the Swedish king, however, they never landed and sailed off to fight the French in Spain after leaving 16 battleships and 20 other ships at Sweden's disposal. (229, 210, 0) ***Efreet Sultan*** Message: Treaty of Bucharest (1812) ,was ratified by Alexander I of Russia 13 days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia.It will ensure the safety of Russia’s southern wing during the coming war with France. (220, 35, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) and Sign Treaty of Bucharest (1812) Finish Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) and Sign Treaty of Bucharest (1812) In this way, Russia’s southern wing is safe too.The commanders were able to get many of the Russian soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas before the expected attack of Napoleon. (219, 34, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Polotsk Win Finnish War In this way, Russia’s northern wing is safe (145, 16, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Stralsund(1807) The French army began their offensive towards Swedish Pomerania in early 1807 and besieged Stralsund on 15 January. (146, 54, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Dennewitz.French forces commanded by Marshal Michel Ney.The battle marked a turning point in the German Campaign of 1813 as not only did the Allied victory end Napoleon's hopes of capturing Berlin and knocking Prussia out of the war, but the severity of the French defeat was also the catalyst for the defection of Napoleon's primary German ally Bavaria and the erosion of fidelity in the Saxon Army toward the Napoleonic cause. (149, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of GroBbeeren Finish Coup of 1809 in Stockholm first The Battle of GroBbeeren occurred on 23 August 1813 in neighboring Blankenfelde and Sputendorf between the Allied Army of the North under Crown Prince Charles John - formerly Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte (53, 87, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Treaty was also signed by Portugal and Sweden while Spain signed shortly after in July The treaty reapportioned several territories amongst various countries. Most notably, France retained all territory that it possessed on 1 January 1792 and so reacquired many of the territories lost to Britain during the war. They included Guadeloupe (Art. IX), which had been ceded to Sweden by Britain when it entered the coalition. In return, Sweden was compensated 24 million francs, which gave rise to the Guadeloupe Fund. (53, 88, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Paris (1814) Win Battle of Leipzig first The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 April between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies. (54, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: There were three important Americans in France to negotiate the treaty for the United States: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay Regarding the American treaty, the key episodes came in September 1782, when French Foreign Minister Vergennes proposed a solution that was strongly opposed by his ally, the United States. France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except for Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it could capture Gibraltar from the British. The negotiations between the sides seem to be unable to compromise. The war will go on (54, 88, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Paris (1814) Win Battle of the Nive of Campagne du Nord de l'Espagne et des Pyrenees first The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 April between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies. (54, 87, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Treaty was also signed by Portugal and Sweden while Spain signed shortly after in July The treaty returned to Spain the territory of Santo Domingo, which had been transferred to France by the 1795 Peace of Basel in 1795 (Art. VIII). That implicitly recognised French sovereignty over Saint-Domingue, which Dessalines had proclaimed independent under the name of Haiti. France did not recognize the independence of Haiti until 1824 (55, 87, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Treaty of Paris was the official peace treaty between the United States and Britain that ended the American Revolutionary War. It was signed on September 3, 1783. The Congress of the Confederation ratified the treaty on January 14, 1784. King George III ratified the treaty on April 9, 1784. This was five weeks after the deadline, but nobody complained. Win Battle of Yorktown The three Americans did a great job in negotiating the treaty. They got two very important points agreed and signed off: The first point, and most important to the Americans, was that Britain recognize the Thirteen Colonies to be free and independent states. That Britain no longer had any claim on the land or government. The second major point was that the boundaries of the United States allowed for western expansion. This would prove important later as the US continued to grow west all the way to the Pacific Ocean. (37, 134, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (33, 116, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (63, 127, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (65, 102, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (52, 34, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (33, 182, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French citizens are required to have a passport to travel in the interior of the country. Have you sought a permit from National Legislative Assembly officials? No clearance documents? It’s okay, National Legislative Assembly officials told me you are qualified to pass (48, 66, 0) ***Celestial Necklace of Bliss*** Message: "I wish that Malmaison may soon become the source of riches for all [of France]"--Josephine (47, 65, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Chateau de Malmaison In January 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte proposed to her and they were married on 9 March Until meeting Bonaparte, she was known as Rose, but Bonaparte preferred to call her Josephine, the name she adopted from then on.She used rare and exotic plants and animals to improve the rose garden of Chateau de Malmaison (27, 205, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Truillas Finish Malaspina Expedition First Battle of Truillas (44, 90, 0) ***Cavalier*** Message: ordnance officer Gaspard Gourgaud at your service (78, 31, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Waterloo Start the Hundred Days from Gap first, and travel all the way to Grenoble The Prussians failed to get close to Wellington, but Marshal Grouchy arrived on the battlefield from the east in time, and it was time to annihilate the British expeditionary force! (106, 212, 0) ***Event*** Message: Commander of the Italian city of Florence Honore Charles Reille at your service (0, 232, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (1, 232, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Second siege of Zaragoza. Win Second siege of Zaragoza. Louis-Gabriel Suchet ,Duke of Albufera join you (243, 2, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Yakov Petrovich Kulnev formed a vanguard of Wittgenstein's corps The Russian host could vaunt the name Of many a seasoned veteran Recorded on the scroll of fame Before our war began. Barclay, Kamensky, Bagration, Were household names to every son of Finland. When they hove in sight, We could expect a fight. But Kulnev's name was new to all Before the flame of war was blown And he came rushing like a squall, Scarce dreamed of before known. He struck like lightning from the blue So terrible and yet so new, But ne'er to be forgot, we felt, From the first blow he dealt. (243, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Yakov Petrovich Kulnev at your service (235, 214, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arges river (230, 213, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812) A massive Ottoman offensive aimed at Russian-occupied Bucharest, the Wallachian capital, was promptly checked at Obilesti by as few as 4,500 soldiers commanded by Mikhail Miloradovich (June 2, 1807). (230, 212, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: rear-guard of General Miloradovich,General of Cavalry Fedor Petrovich Uvarov and his men join you (180, 251, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Three years later, Alexander I of Russia, still entertaining grand designs aimed at stalling Napoleon's expansion in the Adriatic, mounted another Mediterranean expedition, with Vice-Admiral Senyavin as commander-in-chief. By September 1806, Senyavin reasserted Russian control of the southern Adriatic, disrupted Dubrovnik's sea trade, and was poised to attack Lesina. He found a natural ally in the Orthodox prince-bishops of Montenegro, who pledged to support him on land. (238, 251, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: A new war with Turkey had erupted and Senyavin's squadron was ordered to proceed to the Aegean Sea in order to attack Constantinople. Found a natural ally in the Orthodox prince-bishops of Montenegro first He reached the Dardanelles on 24 February 1807 and captured the island of Tenedos in March. Using the island as his place d'armes, Senyavin blockaded the Straits and cut off supplies to the Sultan's capital. (239, 251, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Senyavin's Mediterranean squadron join you (47, 4, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Mutiny on the Bounty--The mutiny on the Royal Navy vessel HMS Bounty occurred in the South Pacific Ocean on 28 April 1789. Disaffected crewmen, led by acting-Lieutenant Fletcher Christian, seized control of the ship from their captain, Lieutenant William Bligh, and set him and 18 loyalists adrift in the ship's open launch. The mutineers variously settled on Tahiti or on Pitcairn Island. Bligh navigated more than 3,500 nautical miles (6,500 km; 4,000 mi) in the launch to reach safety, and began the process of bringing the mutineers to justice. find Admiral Lord Hood in Battle of the Chesapeake to presided over the Bounty court martial The court martial opened on 12 September 1792 on HMS Duke in Portsmouth harbour, with Vice-Admiral Lord Hood, Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth, presiding.Some mutineerswere sentenced to death by hanging (75, 217, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Spanish naval officer Juan de Lángara and his fleet join you (147, 17, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Marshal Guillaume Marie Anne Brune led 40,000 French, German, Spanish, Italian, and Dutch soldiers against the fortress Stralsund (244, 0, 0) ***Event*** Message: Ambassador to Russia Curt von Stedingk at your service (135, 250, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Battle of the Nile was a major blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. The fleet had been destroyed: Orient, another ship and two frigates had been burnt, seven 74-gun ships and two 80-gun ships had been captured, and only two ships-of-the-line and two frigates escaped, while the forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded. Napoleon attacked north along the Mediterranean coast, but Turkish defenders supported by Captain Sir Sidney Smith defeated his army at the Siege of Acre. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships. Given its strategic importance, some historians regard Nelson's achievement at the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than that at Trafalgar seven years later After Battle of the Nile, 1 August 1798,Scenes of celebration erupted across the country, balls and victory feasts were held and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson and his captains swords, whilst the King ordered them to be presented with special medals. (162, 136, 0) ***Minotaur King*** Message: Austrian army leader Archduke Charles dispatches messenger to call for a ceasefire (162, 135, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1809, after the Battle of Wagram, Nicolas Oudinot was promoted to the rank of Marshal of France. In 1809, after the Battle of Wagram, Nicolas Oudinot was promoted to the rank of Marshal of France. He was made a titular duke in chief of the duche-grand fief of Reggio in the satellite Kingdom of Naples, and received a large money grant in April 1810 (145, 249, 0) ***Event*** Message: And inspector-general of artillery Marmont joins the traval (146, 249, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Look,Berthier is here too!"Lannes says. (145, 250, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Ottoman forces were transported to Egypt by Sidney Smith's British fleet (146, 250, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: You captured Ottoman Commander Mustafa Pasha (147, 250, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British Admiral Sir Sidney Smith sends Napoleon a packet of French newspapers,it shows that the political situation in Paris was very dangerous, and a new Jacobin appeared. The Muiron and another boat are waiting at shore,let'sail back to France! (106, 175, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Andre Massena was granted his first ducal victory title as chief of Rivoli on 24 August 1808. (161, 138, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Dominique Jean Larrey joined in the Battle of Aspern-Essling, where he operated on Marshall Jean Lannes and amputated one of his legs in two minutes. He became the favorite of the Emperor, who commented, "If the army ever erects a monument to express its gratitude, it should do so in honor of Larrey", he was ennobled as a Baron on the field of Wagram in 1809 (104, 218, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Papal States First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua In 1796, during the French Revolutionary Wars, French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Rome and captured Pope Pius VI, taking him as a prisoner to France, where he died in 1799. The following year, after a sede vacante period lasting approximately six months, Chiaramonti was elected to the papacy, taking the name Pius VII. (105, 217, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Papal States (85, 184, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On 15 November 1809 Pius VII consecrated the church at La Voglina, Valenza Po, Piemonte with the intention of the villa La Voglina becoming his spiritual base whilst in exile. Unfortunately his residency was short lived once Napoleon became aware of his intentions of establishing a permanent base and he was soon exiled to France. Despite this, the pope continued to refer to Napoleon as "my dear son" but added that he was "a somewhat stubborn son, but a son still". Pius VII's imprisonment did in fact come with one bright side for him. It gave him an aura that recognized him as a living martyr, so that when he arrived back in Rome in May 1814, he was greeted most warmly by the Italians as a hero (84, 184, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Villa La Voglina,Valenza Po, Piemonte sign the Treaty of Schonbrunn first Despite this, France occupied and annexed the Papal States in 1809 and took Pius VII as their prisoner (51, 71, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Joseph Bonaparte was asked by his brother Napoleon to monitor {{Freemason}ry} as Grand Master of the Grand Orient of France (1804-1815).With Cambacerès, he encouraged the post-Revolution rebirth of the {{Freemason}ry} Order in France. (116, 228, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On 30 March 1806 Napoleon issued a decree installing Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples and Sicily; the decree said as follows: "Napoleon, by the Grace of God and the constitutions. Emperor of the French and King of Italy, to all those to whom these presents come, greetings. The interests of our people, the honour of our Crown, and the tranquillity of the Continent of Europe requiring that we should assure, in a stable and definite manner, the lot of the people of Naples and of Sicily, who have fallen into our power by the right of conquest, and who constitute a part of the Grand Empire, we declare that we recognise, as King of Naples and of Sicily, our well-beloved brother, Joseph Napoleon, Grand Elector of France. This Crown will be hereditary, by order of primogeniture, in his descendants male, legitimate, and natural, etc." Joseph's arrival in Naples was warmly greeted with cheers and he was eager to be a monarch well liked by his subjects. Seeking to win the favour of the local elites, he maintained in their posts the vast majority of those who had held office and position under the Bourbons and was anxious to not in any way appear a foreign oppressor. Bonaparte embarked on an ambitious programme of reform and regeneration, in order to raise Naples to the level of a modern state in the mould of Napoleonic France. Monastic orders were suppressed, their property nationalised, and their funds confiscated to steady the royal finances.Feudal privileges and taxes were abolished; however, the nobility was compensated by an indemnity in the form of a certificate that could be exchanged in return for lands nationalised from the Church. Provincial intendants were instructed to engage those dispossessed former monks who were willing to work in public education, and to ensure that elderly monks no longer able to support themselves could move into communal establishments founded for their care. The practice of forcibly recruiting prisoners into the army was abolished. To suppress and control robbers in the mountains, military commissions were established with the power to judge and execute, without appeal, all those brigands arrested with arms in their possession.Public works programmes were begun to provide employment to the poor and invest in improvements to the kingdom. Although the kingdom was not at that time furnished with a constitution, and thus Joseph's will as monarch reigned supreme, there is yet no instance of him ever adopting a measure of policy without prior discussion of the matter in the Council of State and the passing of a majority vote in favour his course of action by the counsellors. (51, 72, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon,Paris--Mother lodge to Joachim Murat Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon,Paris--Mother lodge to Joachim Murat Late in Naples , where Joachim Murat became king on August 1, 1808, the (military) Franco-Italian lodges saw a blossoming of the Rite of Mizraim, which would last until the end of the Empire. In 1811, Murat required the Grand Orient and Supreme Council of Naples to unify, and became their Grand Commander. It was doubtless during this period that the first attempts were made to establish the Rite of Mizraim in France. The rite thus received its third series (67-77° mystic degrees) the last (78-90°) would be introduced only until about 1812 in Naples. (66, 166, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On 22 December 1793, Dumas was given command of the Army of the Alps. His campaign in the Alps centered on defeating Austrian and Piedmontese troops defending the glacier-covered Little Saint Bernard Pass at Mont Cenis, on the French-Piedmont border. After months of planning and reconnaissance from his base in Grenoble, he had to wait for snow conditions to be favorable to his troops' passage (88, 178, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Lodi Win battle of Montenotte Austrian rear guard is there! (89, 176, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Songis des Courbons rendered invaluable services during the Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars, at the battles of Salo, Lonato, Castiglione. Named interim chief of battalion in 1794, his promotion was made permanent in the 8th foot artillery regiment.Songis was transferred to the "Army of Italy" the same year, displaying exceptional talent and knowledge of his arm, which drew the attention of the army's commander-in-chief, General Napoleon Bonaparte. Impressed by Songis's battlefield performances, Bonaparte obtained for him the rank of chef de brigade (colonel) from the French Directory. (67, 166, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 138, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Dr. Larrey, you must save Marshal Lannes’s life!"--Napoleon "Amputation? You know he is Marshal Rana! ""That’s why I amputate his legs, and if he was someone else, I gave him a bullet." Thank you for your hard work. Marshal Lannes seems to have recovered. The army cheered for it and its morale was high. Now it is possible to defeat the Austrians in one go. (189, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The title of Duc d'Auerstaedt (sometimes written Auerstadt) was created by Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, for the Marshal of France Louis Nicolas Davout in 1808 as a victory title rewarding and commemorating Davout's splendid victory at the Battle of Auerstaedt in 1806-1807 Davout added to his renown in the battles of Eylau and Friedland. Napoleon left him as governor-general of the newly created Duchy of Warsaw following the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, and the next year awarded him with the title of Duke of Auerstadt. (188, 81, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Louis-Nicolas d'Avout (10 May 1770 - 1 June 1823), better known as Davout, 1st Duke of Auerstaedt, 1st Prince of Eckmühl, was a French military commander and Marshal of the Empire who served during both the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. His talent for war, along with his reputation as a stern disciplinarian, earned him the nickname "The Iron Marshal" (Le Marechal de fer) . He is rankedalong with Marshals Andre Massena and Jean Lannes as one of Napoleon's finest commanders.[need quotation to verify] His loyalty and obedience to Napoleon were absolute. (136, 250, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French fleet under Vice-Admiral Francois-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. (187, 34, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: At the Battle of Eylau, Friant's Division arrived to reinforce the French right on the morning of 8 February 1807, helping to turn a near-defeat into a stalemate (51, 73, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Orient de France Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Orient de France Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (59, 17, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Marshal Soult will be responsible for training the Grande Armee Grande Armee is established here in Boulogne! (58, 17, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Legion of Honour established.Each component of the Napoleonic armies had its own distinction and weapons of honour. Develop the Napoleonic Code first Now to distribute the first medals of the Legion d'honneur (56, 85, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Luxembourg Palace The time for the coup d’etat is not yet ripe, and military results need to be achieved in Switzerland October 23,1799: Lucien Bonaparte, younger brother of General Napoleon Bonaparte, is elected President of the Council of Five Hundred. (55, 84, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Coup of 18 Brumaire We support you to overthrew the Directory and to be the First Consul of France,General! (56, 84, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In France Lagrange was received with every mark of distinction and special apartments in the Louvre were prepared for his reception, and he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences, which later became part of the Institut de France (1795). It may be added that Napoleon, when he attained power, warmly encouraged scientific studies in France, and was a liberal benefactor of them.Appointed senator in 1799,Lagrange was the first signer of the Senatus-consulte which in 1802 annexed his fatherland Piedmont to France.He acquired French citizenship in consequence. JOSEPH LOUIS LAGRANGE. Senator. Count of the Empire. Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of the Reunion. Member of the Institute and the Bureau of Longitude.In 1787, at age 51, he moved from Berlin to Paris and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He remained in France until the end of his life. He was instrumental in the decimalisation in Revolutionary France, became the first professor of analysis at the ecole Polytechnique upon its opening in 1794, was a founding member of the Bureau des Longitudes, and became Senator in 1799. (122, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the Second War against Napoleon Georg Carl von Dobeln led troops in Swedish Pomerania and sent troops to relieve Hamburg, which was besieged by the French, without authorisation. (115, 228, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Joseph thus presided over Naples in the best traditions of Enlightened absolutism, doubling the revenue of the crown from seven to fourteen million ducats in his brief two-year reign while all the time seeking to lighten the burdens of his people rather than increase them. Joseph thus presided over Naples in the best traditions of Enlightened absolutism, doubling the revenue of the crown from seven to fourteen million ducats in his brief two-year reign while all the time seeking to lighten the burdens of his people rather than increase them. (121, 230, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: While in Italy, Vigee Le Brun was elected to the Academy in Parma (1789) and the Accademia di San Luca in Rome (1790). In Naples,Vigee Le Brun also painted allegorical portraits of the notorious Emma Hamilton as Ariadne (1790) and as a Bacchante (ca. 1792). Lady Hamilton was similarly the model for Vigee Le Brun's Sibyl (1792), which was inspired by the painted sibyls of Domenichino. (155, 2, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Hans Christian Orsted became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1806 and continued research on electric currents and acoustics. (49, 38, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Rouen--During the Reign of Terror, Rouen was one of the few towns to maintain a significant musical life While living in France, Fulton designed the first working muscle-powered submarine, Nautilus, between 1793 and 1797. He also experimented with torpedoes. When tested, his submarine operated underwater for 17 minutes in 25 feet of water. He asked the government to subsidize its construction, but he was turned down twice. Eventually, he approached the Minister of Marine and, in 1800, was granted permission to build. The shipyard Perrier in Rouen built it, and the submarine sailed first in July 1800 on the Seine River in the same city. (48, 38, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Fulton built the first Nautilus of copper sheets over iron ribs at the Perrier boatyard in Rouen.Nautilus was a submarine first tested in 1800. (49, 71, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Friends Meeting--Mother lodge to General Armand de Caulaincourt, Duke of Vicenza Armand-Augustin-Louis, Marquis de Caulaincourt (9 December 1773 - 19 February 1827), Duc de Vicence was a French military officer, diplomat, grand officer of the Grand Orient de France and close advisor to Napoleon I. (50, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Grand Orient de France,Paris (150, 250, 0) ***Event*** Message: Vivant Denon,Claude Louis Berthollet and Gaspard Monge join you (81, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Meurthe river (190, 79, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni,Warsaw)--Mother lodge to Prince Marshal Jozef Antoni Poniatowski Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni,Warsaw)--Mother lodge to Prince Marshal Jozef Antoni Poniatowski Bracia Francuzi i Polacy Zjednoczeni(Les Freres Polonais et Frau?ais reunis) - a Masonic lodge founded in August 1807 in the French rite at Warsaw (189, 78, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (190, 78, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (188, 78, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Bracia Polacy Zjetnoczeni Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (48, 208, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite,Marseille-Mother lodge to Joseph Bonaparte Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite-Mother lodge to Joseph Bonaparte Joseph Bonaparte was admitted to Marseille's lodge la Parfaite Sincerite in 1793 (48, 207, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (49, 207, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (50, 207, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge la Parfaite Sincerite Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (60, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Arras (59, 28, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Sophie Madeleine,Arras--Mother lodge to Constable Joseph Fouche Masonic lodge Sophie Madeleine,Arras--Mother lodge to Constable Joseph Fouche Constable Joseph Fouche initiated {{Freemason}ry} in the "Sophie Madeleine, Queen of Sweden" Lodge in Arras,he monitored {{Freemason}ry} for Napoleon,he would be in charge of Masonic Justice. Fouche could find a valuable source of information on {Freemason}s throughout the empire. (62, 80, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Develop the Napoleonic Code Develop the Napoleonic Code first Napoleon was crowned Emperor of the French on Sunday, December 2, 1804 (11 Frimaire, Year XIII according to the French Republican calendar), at Notre-Dame de Paris in Paris. It marked "the instantiation of modern empire" and was a "transparently masterminded piece of modern propaganda". (59, 60, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Some supporters of constitutional monarchy met here to oppose the Jacobins People here do not approve of radical actions in the revolution Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret and his more moderate political ideas have won the respect of the Girondin, he now joins you wearing a sash (123, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: J?ger corps of the Hessian Leib Infantry Regiment at your service (124, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Johann Ewald's Memoirs: A Hessian captain's notes on the Revolutionary War (125, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Essay on Partisan Warfare (German: Abhandlung über den kleinen Krieg)--by Johann von Ewald (126, 2, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In addition to numerous treatises on military tactics, Ewald kept a journal during his service in North America. The diary was a four volume bound edition prepared by Ewald for his heirs in 1798. Joseph Tustin acquired three of the four volumes in the aftermath of World War II, and spent many years searching for the missing third volume. Although he believes it to have been destroyed, he did acquire a copy of the third volume's text, made from a copy of the original in the possession of the heirs of the Schleswig-Holstein nobility. Tustin describes the diary as "the most important and comprehensive diary kept by a Hessian mercenary." (249, 167, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Leipzig first Win Battle of Leipzig first After a brief return in France, during the Bourbon Restoration, Langeron returned to Odessa as he was appointed the Military Governor of Kherson and Odessa, the commander-in-chief of the Bug and Black Sea Cossacks, and the Governor of Yekaterinoslav, Kherson, and Crimea. (249, 168, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Exports continued to grow under his rule, to 40 million rubles in 1817.The most far-reaching legislation in Langeron's term was that the port of Odessa was pronounced a free port in 1819, which allowed the selling and storing of imported goods with no customs duties. Today Odessa has a street and a beach named after Langeron. (148, 18, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Franco-Swedish War.The Franco-Swedish War or Pomeranian War was the first involvement by Sweden in the Napoleonic Wars. The country joined the Third Coalition in an effort to defeat France under Napoleon Bonaparte. Finish Finnish War First Great Sortie of Stralsund.Bernadotte has recently received favor from across Sweden in the Franco-Swedish War because he has treated Swedish prisoners of war well. (186, 4, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The reason is Bernadotte has treated Swedish prisoners of war well in the Franco-Swedish War Bernadotte was elected by the Riksdag of the Estates in Orebro to be the new crown prince,and was subsequently made Generalissimus of the Swedish Armed Forces by the King. On 2 November 1810 Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm, and on 5 November he received the homage of the Riksdag of the Estates, and he was adopted by King Charles XIII under the name of "Charles John" (Karl Johan). “I have beheld war near at hand, and I know all its evils: for it is not conquest which can console a country for the blood of her children, spilt on a foreign land. I have seen the mighty Emperor of the French, so often crowned with the laurel of victory, surrounded by his invincible armies, sigh after the olive-branches of peace. Yes, Gentlemen, peace is the only glorious aim of a sage and enlightened government: it is not the extent of a state which constitutes its strength and independence; it is its laws, its commerce, its industry, and above all, its national spirit.” Charles John, address to the Estates, 5 November 1810. (139, 14, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Rostock-the oldest and largest university in continental northern Europe and the Baltic Sea area (134, 76, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: {Freemason}s Lodge Archimedes zu den drei Rei?bretern Altenburg, Germany Blücher became a {Freemason} here (93, 58, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We--Army of Conde had but a single goal, to invade France, end the Revolution, and restore Bourbon rule! Please fund us with 400,000 gold then we will fight for you. Let us restore Bourbon rule in France! (55, 78, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: French Academy of Sciences Laplace was elected to the academy, a place where he conducted the majority of his science In 1785, Laplace took the key forward step on Laplace transforms, using integrals of this form to transform a whole differential equation from a function of time into a lower order function of space. The transformed equation was easier to solve than the original because algebra could be used to manipulate the transformed differential equation into a simpler form. The inverse Laplace transform was then taken to convert the simplified function of space back into a function of time.This integral operator transforms a function of time (t) into a function of position or space (s). (117, 21, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Congreve enjoyed the friendship of the Prince regent, who supported his rocket projects and in whose household he served as an equerry from 1811. The Prince Regent was also the Elector of Hanover, and he was awarded the honorary rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Hanoverian army's artillery in 1811. He now 'applied to Lord Chatham (the responsible minister in charge of the Ordnance Department) for permission to have some large rockets made at Woolwich’. Permission was granted and 'several six-pounder rockets’ made 'on principles I had previously ascertained’ achieved a range of 'full two thousand yards’. (90, 133, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The reaction in Paris to Louis Philippe's involvement in Dumouriez's treason inevitably resulted in misfortunes for the Orleans family You are not Monsieur Chabos. Begone! Throughout this period, he never stayed in one place more than 48 hours. Finally, in October 1793, Louis Philippe was appointed a teacher of geography, history, mathematics and modern languages, at a boys' boarding school. The school, owned by a Monsieur Jost, was in Reichenau, a village on the upper Rhine in the then independent Grisons league state, now part of Switzerland. His salary was 1,400 francs and he taught under the name Monsieur Chabos. (161, 126, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Marshal Franz von Weyrother will draw up the battle plans Marshal Franz von Weyrother abandoned his previous plan to outflank the French army from the right, and instead adopted General Kutuzov’s plan to defeat the French army from the front. (159, 125, 0) ***Angel*** Message: You found the enemy's eagle flag bearer in this battle (97, 71, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Mainz Win Battle of Neerwinden first Nearly 19,000 French troops surrendered at the end of the siege (96, 72, 0) ***Event*** Message: Cavalry commander Friedrich Joseph, Count of Nauendorf and his men join you (97, 69, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The War of the First Coalition brought about Weyrother's important transfer to the Generalquartiermeisterstab on 16 July 1794 and he joined its former chief, Generalmajor Neu, who was now the Governor of the key fortress of Mainz, where he soon gained the reputation of a cunning and well-educated officer, who was entrusted by Major General Neu with defensive actions against the French besiegers, when Neu was too ill to direct them. (248, 152, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Siege of Ochakov (1788) (249, 152, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: When Russia went to war with Turkey, Freire obtained an appointment to serve in the army of Catherine II During the campaign of 1788 - 1789, commanded by Prince Potemkin, Freire served with distinction in the Crimean War, on the plains of the Danube and particularly at the Siege of Ochakov, where he was among the first in his regiment on the front lines when the garrison surrendered on 17 October 1788 after a prolonged siege. Freire was then reward with a ceremonial sword and the rank of Colonel of the Imperial Russian Army, which rank was confirmed in absentia by the Portuguese army in 1790. (158, 141, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First defeated the main force of the French army on the north bank of the river First defeated the main force of the French army on the north bank of the river Although our troops were also exhausted, the situation of the French army was even worse. They huddle together on the island of Lobau and were at a loss. Now is the time to wipe out the French army, don't miss this great opportunity! (158, 142, 0) ***Marksman*** Message: A small number of French III corps that have crossed the bridge opened fire (154, 140, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Habsburg Monarchy led by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen Charles reformed the Austrian army along French lines,copying Napoleon's corps system,and introducing new infantry tactics. (153, 139, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Aspern-Essling Sign Peace of Pressburg Now,with Napoleon busy in Spain,British promise of cash subsidies,plus a supporting attack in northern Europe,it looks like the ideal time to strike (157, 142, 0) ***Dwarf*** Message: Annihilate these French bridge engineers,Annihilate these French bridge engineers and prevent the French army from building new floating bridges on the Danube (159, 137, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Despite the withering fire, Klenau's force reached Essling's edge, where his men set up 64 artillery pieces and bombarded the French for nearly an hour. Meanwhile, Napoleon had launched an attack on the main army at the Austrian center. Klenau's force stood on the immediate right flank of the center, opposite the attacking force of Lannes. The French cavalry, in reserve, prepared to move at either flank, or to the center, depending on where the Austrian line broke first. The French nearly broke through at the center but, at the last minute, Charles arrived with his last reserve, leading his soldiers with a color in his hand. Lannes was checked, and the impetus of the attack died out all along the line. In the final hours of the battle, Lannes himself was cut down by a cannonball from Klenau's artillery. For his leadership at Essling, Klenau received the Commander's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa (157, 139, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Archduke Charles managed to secure a decisive victory In the Battle of Aspern-Essling (21-22 May 1809) (117, 80, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (117, 79, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Johann I Joseph--Prince of Liechtenstein commanded a mixed cavalry-infantry brigade in Anton Sztaray's division at the Battle of Würzburg on 3 September 1796.After this action he was awarded the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa. (133, 39, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Vom Kriege (in War),by Carl von Clausewitz "War is the continuation of politics by other means." "strategy"--"the use of engagements for the object of war" (134, 38, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Clausewitz was a professional combat soldier who was involved in numerous military campaigns, but he is famous primarily as a military theorist interested in the examination of war, utilising the campaigns of Frederick the Great and Napoleon as frames of reference for his work.He wrote a careful, systematic, philosophical examination of war in all its aspects. The result was his principal book, On War, a major work on the philosophy of war. (134, 39, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: In military academies, schools, and universities worldwide, Clausewitz's Vom Kriege is often (usually in translation) mandatory reading. (133, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Burg's Roland saga statue.The town is notable as both the birthplace and the final resting place of General Carl von Clausewitz. (161, 122, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Austerlitz After Italian and Swiss expedition,Russia has not fought against France for several years The Austrians have been defeated by the French in Ulm, now we must unite to defeat Napoleon.Also Good news,the French Emperor requested a personal interview,our Prince Peter Dolgorukov can prove that the French army is weak,and Napoleon is in anxiety and hesitation (26, 33, 0) ***Gorgon*** Message: Chateaubriand grew up here --his family's castle (the chateau de Combourg) in Combourg, Saint-Malo.So do you wanna visit him or just come here to turn us into Chateaubriand steak? (151, 142, 0) ***Dungeon*** Name: Hofburg Palace Timed events: Name: e179301 Message: In early 1793, "Alsatian traitor"Armand von Nordmann defected to the Austrians with two squadrons of his regiment. Name: eTheater in der Josefstadt Message: Theater in der Josefstadt in Vienna in the eighth district of Josefstadt founded in 1788,now starts operations Name: ecafe Message: The Cafe Frauenhuber was recently established in Vienna in what had been a medieval bathhouse. Name: eCosì_fan_tutte Message: On 26 January 1790,Mozart's opera "Cosi fan tutti" premiered in Vienna.It is usually translated into English as "Women are like that". Name: eDay_of_DaggersMarch 13,1791 Message: The French nobles arrested in Day_of_Daggers were released on March 13,1791, some of them went into exile in Austria Name: eFeb71792 Message: On Feb 7,1792,Cimarosa's opera "Il Matrimonio Segreto," premiered in Vienna. Name: eRoyal-Allemand regiment Message: On May 6 ,1792,The Royal-Allemand regiment (Regiment de Royal-Allemand cavalerie), composed of German mercenaries, deserts the French army and joins the Austrian-Prussian coalition. Name: The Hussar regiments of Saxe Message: May 12: The Hussar regiments of Saxe and Bercheny desert the French Army and join the coalition. Name: ehaydn Message: On 1795 Aug 20 Joseph Haydn returned to Vienna from England.Haydn became a public figure in Vienna, took up the position of Kapellmeister of the Esterházy musical,and frequently appeared before the public, often leading performances of The Creation and The Seasons for charity benefits. Name: eGott erhalte Franz den Kaiser Message: On Feb 12,1797,Haydn wrote a patriotic "Emperor's Hymn" Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser, ("God Save Emperor Francis") and premiered in Vienna.This achieved great success and became "the enduring emblem of Austrian identity right up to the First World War" Name: ehaydn creation Message: On Mar 19,1799,Joseph Haydn’s "Die Schopfung," premiered in Vienna.The oratorio depicts and celebrates the creation of the world as described in the Book of Genesis. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 200 105’35' 20’15 10'10 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 300 150'45 30’25 20'20 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 800 410’125 90'70 45’40 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1000 440’180 120'110 65’50 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2500 920’520 370'330 155’120 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3000 1180’560 420'360 185’160 135 Name: eAlbert_Casimir and Albertina Message: Duke Albert of Saxen-Teschen had flee from Brussels to Vienna in 1793, due to the French Revolution . He was noted as an art collector and founded the Albertina in Vienna,The building was later taken over by him who used it as his residence.--It is a museum in the Innere Stadt (First District) of Vienna, Austria.one of the largest and finest collections of old master prints and drawings in the world. Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: 'Let others wage war: thou, happy Austria, marry’. Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: We went to Austria to train and it was so peaceful. And I love coffee and the coffee was great Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: I am thrice homeless, as a native of Bohemia in Austria, as an Austrian among Germans, and as a Jew throughout the world. Everywhere an intruder, never welcomed. Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: They are miserly, the princes of Austria, you need not grieve about it; they may not donate anything, but they allow themselves tobe fleeced, the good lords. Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: “Schwert der Demokratie!” Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: "Long live Christ, the king! Long live Austria!" Name: AI主城满建 Message: (135, 64, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1813 Radetzky was Schwarzenberg's chief of staff and had considerable influence on the councils of the Allied sovereigns and generals. Langenau, the quartermaster-general of the Grand Army, found Radetzky an indispensable assistant, and he had a considerable share in planning the Leipzig campaign. (223, 35, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In the war of 1812 he commanded the right wing of the Russian Army in the First and Second battle of Polotsk. This fighting decided the fate of Saint Petersburg and earned Wittgenstein the title of "Saviour of Saint-Petersburg". Emperor Alexander I of Russia awarded him the Order of St. George. (119, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: University of Gottingen--to promote the ideals of the Enlightenment (118, 46, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Gauss studied in University of Gottingen from 1795 to 1798.While at university, Gauss independently rediscovered several important theorems. As the story is most often told, these were the numbers from 1 to 100. The young Gauss reputedly produced the correct answer within seconds.Can you answer it too?1+2+...+99+100=?? What? It took you so long to solve such a simple problem? (117, 46, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Well, since you have spent so long, you must be still not sure whether your answer is correct, let Gauss tell you the answer and how to calculate it. Well, since you have spent so long, you must be still not sure whether your answer is correct, let Gauss tell you the answer and how to calculate it. Gauss's presumed method was to realize that pairwise addition of terms from opposite ends of the list yielded identical intermediate sums: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, and so on, for a total sum of 50 × 101 = 5050 (190, 69, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Lieutenant-General Ivan Semenovich Dorokhov and his horsemen join you (193, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the war of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a distinguished part in the Battle of Pultusk (December 1806) (192, 71, 0) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Pultusk (51, 0, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1790, Humboldt traveled again to Mainz to embark with Forster on a journey to England, Humboldt's first sea voyage In England, he met Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society, who had traveled with Captain Cook; Banks showed Humboldt his huge herbarium, with specimens of the South Sea tropics. The scientific friendship between Banks and Humboldt lasted until Banks's death in 1820, and the two shared botanical specimens for study. Banks also mobilized his scientific contacts in later years to aid Humboldt's work (123, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Humboldt often returned to Jena in the 1790s An introduction was arranged by Humboldt's elder brother, who lived in the university town of Jena, not far from Goethe.Goethe and Humboldt soon became close friends. (151, 140, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1792 and 1797, Humboldt was in Vienna; in 1795 he made a geological and botanical tour through Switzerland and Italy. Although this service to the state was regarded by him as only an apprenticeship to the service of science, he fulfilled its duties with such conspicuous ability that not only did he rise rapidly to the highest post in his department, but he was also entrusted with several important diplomatic missions. (86, 138, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1795 Humboldt made a geological and botanical tour through Switzerland (95, 203, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1795 Humboldt made a geological and botanical tour through Italy and Switzerland (55, 89, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After Humboldt's Latin American expedition, in the spring of 1808, he settled in Paris Meet Andres Manuel del Río at Guanajuato City first In Paris he found not only scientific sympathy, but the social stimulus which his vigorous and healthy mind eagerly craved (55, 90, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Measure the meridian from Dunkirk to Rodez in the south of France. The gathered data of meridian were presented to an international conference of savants in Paris French Academy of Sciences decided to reuse you (56, 89, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In the spring of 1808, Humboldt settled in Paris.In Paris he found not only scientific sympathy, but the social stimulus which his vigorous and healthy mind eagerly craved. His purpose for being located there was to secure the scientific cooperation required for bringing his great work through the press. This colossal task, which he at first hoped would occupy but two years, eventually cost him twenty-one, and even then it remained incomplete. (251, 1, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Suvorov,the Emperor had called back your nephew from Konchanskoe village Andrey Ivanovich Gorcahkov would have a brilliant begining of his military career under your command (59, 137, 0) ***Enchanter*** Message: The Coppet group-- broadly continued the activities of Madame de Sta?l's previous salons, had a considerable influence on the development of nineteenth century liberalism and romanticism (134, 60, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Ode to Joy "Ode to Joy" (German: "An die Freude" ) is an ode written in the summer of 1785 by German poet, playwright, and historian Friedrich Schiller and published the following year in Thalia.chiller wrote the first version of the poem when he was staying in Gohlis, Leipzig. Joy, beautiful spark of Divinity [or: of gods], Daughter of Elysium, We enter, drunk with fire, Heavenly one, thy sanctuary! Thy magic binds again What custom strictly divided;* All people become brothers,* Where thy gentle wing abides. Whoever has succeeded in the great attempt, To be a friend's friend, Whoever has won a lovely woman, Add his to the jubilation! Yes, and also whoever has just one soul To call his own in this world! And he who never managed it should slink Weeping from this union! All creatures drink of joy At nature's breasts. All the Just, all the Evil Follow her trail of roses. Kisses she gave us and grapevines, A friend, proven in death. Salaciousness was given to the worm And the cherub stands before God. Gladly, as His suns fly through the heavens' grand plan Go on, brothers, your way, Joyful, like a hero to victory. Be embraced, Millions! This kiss to all the world! Brothers, above the starry canopy There must dwell a loving Father. Are you collapsing, millions? Do you sense the creator, world? Seek him above the starry canopy! Above stars must He dwell. (122, 65, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Humboldt contributed (7 June 1795) to Schiller's new periodical, Die Horen, a philosophical allegory entitled Die Lebenskraft, oder der rhodische Genius (The Life Force, or the Rhodian Genius). In this short piece, the only literary story Humboldt ever authored, he tried to summarize the often contradictory results of the thousands of Galvanic experiments he had undertaken. (190, 22, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Prussian Reform Movement To become a great power again, it initiated reforms from 1807 onwards, based on Enlightenment ideas and in line with reforms in other European nations. They led to the reorganization of Prussia's government and administration and changes in its agricultural trade regulations, including the abolition of serfdom and allowing peasants to become landowners. In industry, the reforms aimed to encourage competition by suppressing the monopoly of guilds. The administration was decentralised and the nobility's power reduced. There were also parallel military reforms led by Gerhard von Scharnhorst, August Neidhardt von Gneisenau and Hermann von Boyen Prussia had to put its foundations in "the three-faced primacy of arms, knowledge and the constitution". (189, 22, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Stein was now for a time virtually dictator of the reduced and nearly-bankrupt Prussian state. The circumstances of the time and his own convictions, gained from study and experience, led him to press on drastic reforms in a way that could not otherwise have been followed. First came the Edict of Emancipation, issued at Memel on 9 October 1807, which abolished the institution of serfdom throughout Prussia from 8 October 1810. The freeing of the peasants marked the start of the Prussian reforms. The kingdom's modernisation began by modernising its base, that is, its peasants and its agriculture. At the start of the 19th century, 80% of the German population lived in the countryside.The edict of 9 October 1807, one of the central reforms, liberated the peasants and was signed only five days after Stein's appointment on von Sch?n's suggestion. The October edict began the process of abolishing serfdom and its hereditary character. The first peasants to be freed were those working on the domains in the Reichsritter and on 11 November 1810 at the latest, all the Prussian serfs were declared free: On St Martin's Day 1810 all servitude ended throughout our states. After St Martin's Day 1810, there would be nothing but free people as was already the case over our domains in our provinces[...]. However, though serfdom was abolished, corvees were not - the October edict said nothing on corvees. (198, 96, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vistula river (196, 93, 0) ***Silver Pegasus*** Message: You found the Polish flag bearer in this battle (196, 96, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Kosciuszko Uprising-Battle of Maciejowice Finish Battle of Valmy first Kosciuszko Uprising-Battle of Maciejowice (54, 90, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist Fran?ois Arago showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery of Danish physicist Hans Christian ?rsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current. The most important of these was the principle that came to be called Ampère's law, which states that the mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying wire is proportional to their lengths and to the intensities of their currents. (234, 138, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tulcin-the chief centre of the Southern Society of the Decembrists (123, 95, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In November 1808, Hegel was again through Niethammer, appointed headmaster of a gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post he held until 1816 While in Nuremberg, Hegel adapted his recently published Phenomenology of Spirit for use in the classroom Part of his remit was to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences", Hegel developed the idea of an encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences, falling into three parts: logic, philosophy of nature and philosophy of spirit. (119, 228, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: From 1833 onwards Somerville and her husband spent most of their time in Italy. Somerville maintained correspondence with a large number of leading scientists and remained engaged in current debates on facts and theories Her book Physical Geography was published in 1848 and was the first English textbook on the subject. Physical Geography starts with describing the overall structure of planet earth, and a brief allusion to the location of the earth within the solar system. Subsequently, the book focuses on terrestrial topics, such as the most basic features of land and water, and formations such as mountains, volcanoes, oceans, rivers and lakes. Somerville goes on to discuss the elements that govern temperature, such as light, electricity, storms, the aurora and magnetism. Eventually the book turns to vegetation, birds and mammals, and their geographical distribution on the planet in the Arctic, Europe, Asia, Africa, America and the Antarctic. (118, 66, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Erfurt (120, 66, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Amalia,Weimar--Mother lodge to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Masonic lodge Amalia,Weimar--Mother lodge to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Goethe was a {Freemason}, joining the lodge Amalia in Weimar in 1780, and frequently alluded to Masonic themes of universal brotherhood in his work. (123, 66, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe met Humboldt at the family home when Alexander was a boy, but Goethe was now interested in meeting the young scientist to discuss metamorphism of plants. An introduction was arranged by Humboldt's brother, who lived in the university town of Jena, not far from Goethe. Goethe had developed his own extensive theories on comparative anatomy. Working before Darwin, he believed that animals had an internal force, an urform, that gave them a basic shape and then they were further adapted to their environment by an external force. Humboldt urged him to publish his theories. Together, the two discussed and expanded these ideas. Goethe and Humboldt soon became close friends Johann Wolfgang von Goethe'sconversations and various shared undertakings throughout the 1790s with Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Gottfried Herder, Alexander von Humboldt, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and August and Friedrich Schlegel have come to be collectively termed Weimar Classicism. (123, 64, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Prussian main force led by Duke of Brunswick (124, 65, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Jena (122, 66, 0) ***Mage*** Message: “Oh,my younger brother Alexander,how are you?"Wilhelm von Humboldt says. (75, 149, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Simplon Pass (75, 150, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Wordsworth and Jones began their hike across the Simplon on the morning of August 17, 1790. (92, 137, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In 1790 Wordsworth went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy. William Wordsworth is perhaps the romantic poet most often described as a "nature" writer. His long poems The Prelude and The Excursion trace the growth of the mind amid the powerful influences of the natural world -- mountains, lakes, forests, and sky -- and suggest how the operations of the mind in nature produce many of the most valuable aspects of each person: memory, imagination, and sympathy. (92, 136, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (76, 23, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: San Martín took his daughter Mercedes Tomasa, who was living with her mother's family, and sailed to Europe. After a failed attempt to settle in France, he moved to Britain and then to the capital of present-day Belgium, Brussels, where he settled. San Martín continued to write letters and keep in touch with the news from South America. (75, 23, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Meet Bolívar in Guayaquil conference Meet Bolívar in Guayaquil conference San Martín resigned as Protector of Peru a few days later after the Guayaquil conference (74, 23, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Defeat the last attempt of Ferdinand VII of Spain to reconquer Spanish America in the battle of Tampico (Mexico). Defeat the last attempt of Ferdinand VII of Spain to reconquer Spanish America in the battle of Tampico (Mexico). Spain renounces its domains in continental Americas and authorizes the government to conclude treaties with all the states of Spanish America. (9, 143, 0) ***Castle*** Name: Bordeaux Timed events: Name: e17980905 Message: After the day of September 5,1798: The French legislature requires all French men between twenty and twenty-five to perform military service. Name: e18010715 Message: Full rights of worship now restored to the church, not only in the Vendee, but in the whole of France, and church bells rang again.The Concordat signed on 15th July 1801 between Napoleon Bonaparte and the Pope made these rights official. In the Concordat the French Government acknowledged "Catholicism as the religion of the great majority of the French." In the end the Vendeens won the right to practice their faith. Name: e18131009 Message: Marie-Louise (conscript):Empress Marie-Louise, who issued decrees dated 9 October 1813 ordering the conscription of 280,000 men. (9, 144, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city is captured by the Federalistes Capture Marseille first The federalistes Surrendered the city to you (11, 145, 0) ***Event*** Message: Port de la Lune (52, 209, 0) ***Archer*** Message: "Vive Federalistes,Vive Girondists!" (53, 210, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city is captured by the Federalistes Defeat the federalistes of Nimes first Some federalistes have abandoned the city, now we can regain it (53, 209, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Convention votes to arrest Marat for using his newspaper L'Ami du peuple to incite violence and murder, and demand to suspend the Convention. Marat goes into hiding. The position of the Federalistes in Convention is defended now (90, 1, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland Win Battle of Nile first The campaign had two strategic objectives: to neutralize the Batavian fleet and to promote an uprising by followers of the former stadtholder William V against the Batavian government. (15, 244, 0) ***Nomad*** Message: Those Moors attack on you (183, 176, 0) ***Gorgon*** Message: "Don't eat me,please!" (148, 106, 0) ***Sign*** Message: National Gallery Prague (204, 43, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Friedland first Win Battle of Friedland first Napoleon entered Vilnius unopposed on June 27, 1812, and was warmly greeted by the Lithuanians as a liberating hero. (206, 43, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win The First Battle of Svensksund Win The First Battle of Svensksund We in Russia have gained an advantage in the Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790), and Vilno is ready for us to take power at any time (239, 110, 0) ***Event*** Message: Kiev Cossacks attack you (145, 54, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: The French, already falling back under heavy pressure, became disorganized and were utterly routed. (147, 54, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Oudinot with three corps of about 70,000 men advanced on Berlin. (120, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt,and keep chasing Prussian army French army entered Hamburg (75, 26, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Has not yet achieved results on the Northern Front Defeat the Austrian army French army marches into Brussels (65, 10, 0) ***Archer*** Message: French army under General Jean Nicolas Houchard (75, 25, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Siege of Valenciennes (1793) Win Siege of Valenciennes (1793) The Allied army recovered much of the Austrian Netherlands from the French army (62, 165, 0) ***Equestrian's Gloves*** Message: Grenoble glove industry (99, 29, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ruhr river (100, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gerichtslinde (101, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vehmic court,Dortmund (183, 29, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Tugendbund, or League of Virtue was a quasi-Masonic secret society founded in June 1808, in order to revive the national spirit of Prussians after their defeat by Napoleon. It was established after the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, in the spring of 1808 at Koningsberg. The three masonic lodges of Koningsberg who established Tugendbund, officially named it "Scientific society for the exercise of morality" (Sittlich Wissenschaftlicher-Verein). Members of Tugendbund were mostly liberal nobles, representatives of the intelligentsia and officials. Society was established on a network of groups dedicated to cultivating patriotic feelings, with ultimate goal the liberation of German territory from French occupation. This was the reason that promoted practical reforms and moral improvement through education. Although it was open to all professions and religions, it never became a mass organization. By August 1809 Tugendbund had 748 members, mostly senior bureaucrats, academics and clergy. Traders, students and artisans were represented, too, although in a smaller proportion.The overall society's network was made up from groups of East Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg and Silesia (31, 37, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (31, 38, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (32, 37, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (31, 39, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (20, 86, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (20, 87, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (21, 86, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (20, 88, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (17, 125, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (17, 126, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (18, 125, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (17, 127, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (31, 185, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (31, 186, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (32, 185, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (31, 187, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (65, 113, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (65, 114, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (66, 113, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (72, 45, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (72, 46, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (73, 45, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (72, 47, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (52, 159, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. A first-year aspiring compagnon, known as a stagiaire (apprentice), works full-time work in the trade on weekdays and lives in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the siège (seat or lodge) of compagnons. Those who want to become compagnons apply for the adoption ceremony. (52, 158, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. An aspirant works full-time on weekdays and stays in the compagnon house. Dinner is eaten together at the house. The aspirant stays or tours in several towns over the next three to five years, working under compagnons, to learn the trade. (53, 158, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). Next the stagiaire undertakes a travail d'adoption, a project that must be submitted to become an aspirant (aspiring/one who aspires). The aspirant receives a sash and a ceremonial walking staff representing the itinerant nature of the organisation. The ceremony is private, and includes only compagnons and aspirants. (30, 38, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (19, 87, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (16, 126, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (30, 186, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (53, 160, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (54, 159, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (64, 114, 0) ***Genie*** Message: mère (mother) of this Compagnon house, a woman who looks after the well-being of the residents (65, 115, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (71, 46, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Compagnons du Devoir-- a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the Tour de France, around France and doing apprenticeships with masters. This is unrelated to the Tour de France cycling competition. The word compagnon (companion) is derived from the Old French compaignon, a person with whom one breaks bread. The prerequisite to start a Tour de France is possession of a Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (certificate of professional aptitude). (122, 223, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Master class of Carbonari There were two ways to become a master: through serving as an apprentice for at least six months or by already being a {Freemason} upon entry The aim of the Carbonari was the creation of a constitutional monarchy or a republic; they wanted also to defend the rights of common people against all forms of absolutism. (123, 223, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Apprentice class of Carbonari Apprentice class of Carbonari Carbonari, to achieve their purpose, talked of fomenting armed revolts. (98, 176, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Master class of Carbonari There were two ways to become a master: through serving as an apprentice for at least six months or by already being a {Freemason} upon entry The aim of the Carbonari was the creation of a constitutional monarchy or a republic; they wanted also to defend the rights of common people against all forms of absolutism. (99, 176, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Apprentice class of Carbonari Apprentice class of Carbonari Carbonari, to achieve their purpose, talked of fomenting armed revolts. (113, 199, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Master class of Carbonari There were two ways to become a master: through serving as an apprentice for at least six months or by already being a {Freemason} upon entry The aim of the Carbonari was the creation of a constitutional monarchy or a republic; they wanted also to defend the rights of common people against all forms of absolutism. (114, 199, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Apprentice class of Carbonari Apprentice class of Carbonari Carbonari, to achieve their purpose, talked of fomenting armed revolts. (114, 200, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Carbonari--a secret society .In the north of Italy other groups, such as the Adelfia and the Filadelfia, were associate organizations. (99, 177, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Carbonari--a secret society .In the north of Italy other groups, such as the Adelfia and the Filadelfia, were associate organizations. (97, 177, 0) ***Monk*** Message: Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti and other founders of the secret society Carbonari join you (121, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Carbonari--a secret society most likely emerged as an offshoot of {{Freemason}ry},as part of the spread of liberal ideas from the French Revolution (123, 224, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Carbonari first arose during the resistance to the French occupation, notably under Joachim Murat, the Bonapartist King of Naples. They first became influential in the Kingdom of Naples (under the control of Joachim Murat) and in the Papal States, the most resistant opposition to the Risorgimento (44, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Miller's Word--in imitation of the Mason's Word, its foundation was local groups with initiations, passwords, and secret trade knowledge (43, 0, 0) ***Devil*** Message: the Miller's Word identified members of a trade guild formed to restrict entry into and control the profession of grain milling, as well as to protect its members' interests The Miller's Word introduced an element of deliberate diabolism into its symbolism and ceremonies. Oaths sworn at its initiations apparently derive from oaths supposedly sworn by witches in making pacts with the devil.The word could allegedly set the workings of a mill into motion without the aid of human assistance. (13, 185, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: Traditionally, each sanctuary is limited to 22 members who are described as "technical mystics" (15, 184, 0) ***Event*** Message: Society of the Guardians-- an order within Western esotericism that integrates mystical Christian and Jewish Qabalistic (Kabbalistic) teachings. The Society combines an emphasis on meditation and contemplative practice, ceremonial ritual, and esoteric study with a nature-centered approach to spiritual development. (57, 196, 0) ***Event*** Message: Society of the Guardians-- an order within Western esotericism that integrates mystical Christian and Jewish Qabalistic (Kabbalistic) teachings. The Society combines an emphasis on meditation and contemplative practice, ceremonial ritual, and esoteric study with a nature-centered approach to spiritual development. (58, 196, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: Traditionally, each sanctuary is limited to 22 members who are described as "technical mystics" (114, 58, 0) ***Event*** Message: Society of the Guardians-- an order within Western esotericism that integrates mystical Christian and Jewish Qabalistic (Kabbalistic) teachings. The Society combines an emphasis on meditation and contemplative practice, ceremonial ritual, and esoteric study with a nature-centered approach to spiritual development. (116, 59, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: Traditionally, each sanctuary is limited to 22 members who are described as "technical mystics" (101, 215, 0) ***Event*** Message: Society of the Guardians-- an order within Western esotericism that integrates mystical Christian and Jewish Qabalistic (Kabbalistic) teachings. The Society combines an emphasis on meditation and contemplative practice, ceremonial ritual, and esoteric study with a nature-centered approach to spiritual development. (99, 214, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: Traditionally, each sanctuary is limited to 22 members who are described as "technical mystics" (117, 243, 0) ***Event*** Message: Society of the Guardians-- an order within Western esotericism that integrates mystical Christian and Jewish Qabalistic (Kabbalistic) teachings. The Society combines an emphasis on meditation and contemplative practice, ceremonial ritual, and esoteric study with a nature-centered approach to spiritual development. The Spiritual Franciscans (Fraticelli) fled from Tuscany to Sicily after they were declared heretical by Pope Boniface VIII. (108, 240, 0) ***Event*** Message: Beati Paoli-- allegedly formed to oppose both the church and the state, defending the commoners from infringements posed by the regime.They wore black hooded coats and operated at night from their refuge in the remains of the catacombs and underground channels of Palermo. (72, 11, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Order of the Golden Fleece Founded in: Bruges Established:1430; 591 years ago Motto: Pretium Laborum Non Vile Non Aliud Status:Currently constituted Founder:Philip III, Duke of Burgundy Grand Masters:Felipe VI of Spain Archduke Karl of Austria Grades:Knight Precedence Next (higher):None Next (lower):Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Charles III ,Imperial and Royal Order of Saint George In 1812, the acting government of Spain conferred the Fleece upon the Duke of Wellington, an act confirmed by Ferdinand on his resumption of power, with the approval of Pope Pius VII. Wellington therefore became the first Protestant to be honoured with the Golden Fleece. Not for amusement nor for recreation, But for the purpose that praise shall be given To God, in the very first place, And to the good, glory and high renown. Each collar is fully coated in gold, and is estimated to be worth around 50,000 as of 2018, making it the most expensive chivalrous order. (73, 11, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Order of the Golden Fleece Founded in: Bruges Established:1430; 591 years ago Motto: Pretium Laborum Non Vile Non Aliud Status:Currently constituted Founder:Philip III, Duke of Burgundy Grand Masters:Felipe VI of Spain Archduke Karl of Austria Grades:Knight Precedence Next (higher):None Next (lower):Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Charles III ,Imperial and Royal Order of Saint George Napoleon created by Order of 15 August 1809 the Order of the Three Golden Fleeces, in view of his sovereignty over Austria, Spain and Burgundy. Not for amusement nor for recreation, But for the purpose that praise shall be given To God, in the very first place, And to the good, glory and high renown. Each collar is fully coated in gold, and is estimated to be worth around 50,000 as of 2018, making it the most expensive chivalrous order. (118, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Danube (118, 107, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ingolstadt--The founding place of the Illuminati (119, 107, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Greeks proposed the existence of five basic elements. Of these, four were the physical elements—fire, air, water, and earth—of which the entire world is composed. Alchemists eventually associated four triangular symbols to represent these elements.In traditional Western occult theory, the elements are hierarchical: Spirit, fire, air, water, and earth—with the first elements being more spiritual and perfect and the last elements being more material and base. (60, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Palais-Royal--opened to the public as a shopping and entertainment complex. In this era, the palace once again became the center of Paris’ political and social conspiracies, as well as the location of the most popular coffee shop,the social and business center of 18th century Parisians. Recently, many middle class and lower class often visit here, they are talking about king, queen,the Temple and the Knights Templar This man spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. recently he came to embrace the ideals of the Revolution, becoming a supporter of the Jacobins and joining the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations of secession. (109, 219, 0) ***Event*** Message: Welcome to Tiber Island headquarters--the HQ of Assassins. Pick your weapon in Weapons room and Armory as you like (108, 77, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tauber river (110, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bad Mergentheim --a spa town, also known as the headquarters of the Teutonic Order from 1526 until 1809. (115, 250, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Knights of Order of St. John charge towards you (118, 250, 0) ***Elixir of Life*** Message: The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (Latin: Ordo Fratrum Hospitalis Sancti Ioannis Hierosolymitani), commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (/?h?sp?t?l?r/),was a medieval and early modern Catholic military order. It was headquartered in the Kingdom of Jerusalem until 1291, on the island of Rhodes from 1310 until 1522, in Malta from 1530 until 1798 and at Saint Petersburg from 1799 until 1801. The Hospitallers arose in the early 12th century, during the time of the Cluniac movement (a Benedictine Reform movement), as a group of individuals associated with an Amalfitan hospital in the Muristan district of Jerusalem, dedicated to John the Baptist and founded around 1099 by Gerard Thom to provide care for sick, poor or injured pilgrims coming to the Holy Land. The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta, better known as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM), is a Roman Catholic lay religious order and the world's oldest surviving order of chivalry.Its sovereign status is recognised by membership in numerous international bodies and observer status at the United Nations and others. Today,The Order maintains diplomatic relations with 107 countries, official relations with 6 others and with the European Union, permanent observer missions to the United Nations and its specialised agencies, and delegations or representations to many other international organizations.It issues its own passports, currency, stamps and even vehicle registration plates[citation needed]. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta has a permanent presence in 120 countries, with 12 Grand Priories and Sub-Priories and 47 national Associations, as well as numerous hospitals, medical centres, day care centres, first aid corps, and specialist foundations, which operate in 120 countries. Its 13,500 members and 80,000 volunteers and over 42,000 medical personnel - doctors, nurses and paramedics - are dedicated to the care of the poor, the sick, the elderly, the disabled, the homeless, terminal patients, lepers, and all those who suffer. The Order is especially involved in helping victims of armed conflicts and natural disasters by providing medical assistance, caring for refugees, and distributing medicines and basic equipment for survival. (106, 215, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Order of the Holy Sepulchre--The Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (Latin: Ordo Equestris Sancti Sepulcri Hierosolymitani, OESSH), also called Order of the Holy Sepulchre or Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, is a Catholic order of knighthood under the protection of the Holy See. The pope is the sovereign of the order which, with the five other papal equestrian orders and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, are the only orders of chivalry that are recognised and protected by the Holy See. Knights of the Holy Sepulchre dubbed during this era include Hieronymus von Dorne (circa 1634) and Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand (1806). The order creates canons as well as knights, with the primary mission to "support the Christian presence in the Holy Land".Its headquarters are situated at Palazzo Della Rovere and its official church in Sant'Onofrio al Gianicolo, both in Rome, close to the Vatican City (104, 216, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Third Order of Franciscans Third Order of Franciscans The Franciscan third order, known as the Third Order of Saint Francis, has many men and women members, separated into two main branches: The Secular Franciscan Order, OFS, originally known as the Brothers and Sisters of Penance or Third Order of Penance, try to live the ideals of the movement in their daily lives outside of religious institutes. The members of the Third Order Regular (TOR) live in religious communities under the traditional religious vows. They grew out of the Secular Franciscan Order. (210, 7, 0) ***Event*** Message: Livonian Order HQ ,Cēsis (47, 84, 0) ***Event*** Message: Royal military school,Champ-de-Mars (46, 83, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Royal Military and Hospitaller Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem united On 31 October 1608, Henri IV amalgamated administratively the newly created Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel with the Order of St. Lazarus to form the Ordres Royaux, Militaires & Hospitaliers de Saint Lazare de Jerusalem & de Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel reunis (Royal Military and Hospitaller Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem united). Right through the 17-18th centuries, while enjoying the protection of the French Crown, the Order remained under apostolic authority. The Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel had its own insignia and uniform. It was composed of knights, chaplains or spiritual knights, brothers and novices. The senior Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem was allowed to function being authorized in September 1788 by King Louis XVI to purchase the edifice housing the ecole Militaire. A small number of Hereditary Commanderships were created in the united Order, but the Order was abolished in 1791 during the Revolution This branch became closely linked to the Royal Crown during the 18th century with the serving grand masters then being members of the Royal family. It suffered the consequences of the French Revolution, and went into exile along with its grand master Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, Comte (count) de Provence, king-in-exile Louis XVIII. (190, 81, 0) ***Dendroid Guard*** Message: ”Restore The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth!” (122, 233, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Are you come for buying some silk of Catanzaro? (119, 230, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Camorra--emerged during the chaotic power vacuum between 1799 and 1815,one of the oldest and largest criminal organizations in Italy,called "clans" (52, 74, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Orient de France Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Orient de France Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (51, 74, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Orient de France Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Orient de France You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Orient de France ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (50, 73, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: As per conspiracy theories, the French revolution was planned and executed by the French masons. (51, 75, 0) ***Event*** Message: Le Droit Humain--in mutual amity with the Grand Orient de France (meaning recognition is reciprocal and members can intervisit) (243, 48, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow (246, 46, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (245, 46, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (244, 46, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (245, 49, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Moscow Timed events: Name: eFire_of_Moscow_(1812) Message: The 1812 Fire of Moscow broke out on September 14, 1812 in Moscow on the day when Russian troops and most residents abandoned the city and Napoleon's vanguard troops entered the city following the Battle of Borodino. Search had been made for the fire engines since the previous day, but some of them had been taken away and the rest put out of action...The Poles reported that they had already caught some incendiaries and shot them, ...they had extracted the information that orders had been given by the governor of the city and the police that the whole city should be burnt during the night Name: fire cant be extinguish Message: The raging Moscow fire is difficult to extinguish and will continue for decades Name: eMoscow_Society_of_Naturalists Message: In 1805，Moscow Society of Naturalists founded.From the very beginning of its existence, the society began organizing expeditions and excursions to study the nature of Russia and collect natural history collections. Name: eMaly_Theatre_(Moscow) Message: In 1806 ，Maly Theatre founded.Maly Theatre (Малый театр, literally Small Theatre as opposed to nearby Bolshoi, or Grand, opera theatre) is a theatre in Moscow, Russia, principally associated with the production of plays. Name: eMikhail_Shchepkin_Higher_Theatre_School Message: In 1809 ，Shchepkin Theatre School established.The Mikhail Semyonovich Shchepkin Higher Theatre School (Institute) is a drama school associated with the State Academic Maly Theatre in Moscow. It was established in 1809 by decree of Alexander I of Russia. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 100 54’18' 10’7 5'4 3 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 150 77'23 15’13 10'7 5 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 400 210’63 45'35 22’15 10 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 500 222’90 60'55 33’22 18 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 1250 465’260 185'165 78’55 42 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 1500 595’280 210'180 93’75 67 Name: AI主城满建 Message: (161, 124, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Austerlitz,also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors Our great Tsar Alexander I hoped that he could personally serve as the commander-in-chief of the coalition forces. His Majesty the Tsar ordered us to strike immediately (161, 125, 0) ***Giant*** Message: Jakov Alexeevich Potemkin join you--this is his first big military experience (235, 138, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Decembrist revolt(the Southern Society) Find Jakov Alexeevich Potemkin and finish mutiny in the Semenovsky Regiment The Southern Society, under Pestel's influence, was more radical and wanted to abolish the monarchy, establish a republic, similar to the Union of Salvation, and contrary to the Union of Salvation plans, to redistribute land, taking half into state ownership and dividing the rest among the peasants. (236, 139, 0) ***Behemoth*** Message: Revolutionary and ideologue of the Decembrists Pavel Pestel join you (236, 138, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Sergey Muravyov-Apostol ,leading the Chernigov Regiment revolt,marched from Trylisy north-east to Vasylkiv and reached one thousand men in strength. (234, 139, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Pavel Pestel identified reasons for reform: The desirability of granting freedom to the serfs was considered from the very beginning; for that purpose, a majority of the nobility was to be invited in order to petition the Emperor about it. This was later thought of on many occasions, but we soon came to realize that the nobility could not be persuaded. And as time went on we became even more convinced, when the Ukrainian nobility absolutely rejected a similar project of their military governor Meanwhile, the experiences of the Napoleonic Wars and realization of the suffering of peasant soldiers resulted in Decembrist officers and sympathizers being attracted to reform changes in society.They displayed their contempt of court by rejecting the court lifestyle, wearing their cavalry swords at balls (to indicate their unwillingness to dance), and committing themselves to academic study. These new practices captured the spirit of the times as a willingness by the Decembrists to embrace both the peasant (i.e., the fundamental Russian people) and ongoing reform movements from intellectuals abroad. Historians have noted that the United States Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution may also have influenced Decembrists, as it did other nations.The constitution written by Nikita Muravyov was highly similar to the United States Constitution. But the Decembrists were against slavery in the United States. They worked to free any slaves and serfs from all countries in Russia immediately. (241, 52, 0) ***Event*** Message: The main force of the Russian army has caught up to you (234, 55, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dorogobuzh (234, 50, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Vyazma Napoleon had grown dissatisfied with Davout's management of rearguard activities，Marshal Ney, you will command the rearguard. Ney had to "continue his retreating movement before dawn in order not to risk the loss of his troops." (193, 7, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ventspils was destroyed in 1711 by a plague (133, 15, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (145, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes" Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes" Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (146, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes" Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes" You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes",congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (147, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes" Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand National Mother Lodge, "The Three Globes" Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (146, 50, 0) ***Enchanter*** Message: Known members Prussian statesman Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Younger join you.He belonged to the circle of Prussian reformers, and supported many liberal policies. (101, 121, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The all-white Mehlsack (Flour Sacks),Ravensburg (108, 69, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Frankfurt Illuminati lodge Class III of Frankfurt Illuminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (107, 69, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Frankfurt Illuminati lodge Class I of Frankfurt Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (109, 69, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Frankfurt Illuminati lodge Class II of Frankfurt Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (107, 70, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (108, 71, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Frankfurt Timed events: Name: e玩家增兵Landwehr Message: The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a royal edict of 17 March 1813, which called up all men capable of bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and not serving in the regular army, for the defense of the country. After the peace of 1815 this force was made an integral part of the Prussian Army, each brigade being composed of one line and one Landwehr regiment. Name: eorchestra) Message: In 1808 ,Frankfurter Opern- und Museumsorchester (orchestra) established Name: elv4 Message: In 1815 ,Stadel founded.The Stadel, officially the Stadelsches Kunstinstitut und Sadtische Galerie, is an art museum in Frankfurt, with one of the most important collections in Germany. The Stadel Museum owns 3,100 paintings, 660 sculptures, more than 4,600 photographs and more than 100,000 drawings and prints. It has around 4,000 m2 of display and a library of 115,000 books. Name: eGrand Duchy of Frankfurt Message: On 16 February 1810 ,City becomes part of Grand Duchy of Frankfurt.The Grand Duchy of Frankfurt was a German satellite state of Napoleonic creation. It came into existence in 1810 through the combination of the former territories of the Archbishopric of Mainz along with the Free City of Frankfurt itself.Although the grand duchy was named after Frankfurt, the city was administered by French commissioners while Dalberg resided in the city of Aschaffenburg. (86, 111, 0) ***Event*** Message: Baroque fortifications in the Black Forest--historical, military earthworks, known as schanzen, that were built in the Black Forest in what is now Germany. They were built in the 17th century to defend the Margraviate of Baden from French invasion. Together with their adjoining defensive lines, the Black Forest fortifications formed a defensive system over 200 kilometres (120 mi) long that ran from north to south. (85, 113, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Black Forest (German: Schwarzwald) --a large forested mountain range in south-west Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg, bounded by the Rhine valley to the west and south. It is the source of the Danube and Neckar rivers. (91, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Fleurus Win Battle of Fleurus The victory in Battle of Fleurus precipitats a full Allied withdrawal from Belgium and allows French forces to push north into the Netherlands. (78, 60, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Forest of Argonne-- a long strip of mountainous and wild woodland in northeastern France, approximately 200 km (120 mi) east of Paris. (85, 36, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Ardennes --also known as the Ardennes Forest or Forest of Ardennes, is a region of extensive forests, rough terrain, rolling hills and ridges. (74, 112, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Belfort Gap (89, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Forest of Haguenau (French: Forêt de Haguenau)-- the largest undivided forest in France. (8, 144, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Bordeaux was largely anti-Bonapartist and the majority supported the Bourbons.The British troops were treated as liberators. Towards the end of the Peninsula War of 1814, the Duke of Wellington sent William Beresford with two divisions and seized Bordeaux, encountering little resistance. Bordeaux was largely anti-Bonapartist and the majority supported the Bourbons.The British troops were treated as liberators. (56, 215, 0) ***Unicorn*** Message: Jean-Baptiste Muiron at your service (49, 212, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: If you want to use the port of Marseille,Win Siege of Toulon first If you want to use the port of Marseille,Win Siege of Toulon first When the important southern naval base of Toulon is secured, other ports in the south will be safe. Now the port of Marseille is open (21, 211, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lignite deposits,Berguedà (39, 229, 0) ***Event*** Message: Menorca--one of the Balearic Islands located in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to Spain.The island had a Jewish population.Menorca was not occupied by the French during the Peninsular War, as it was successfully protected by the Royal Navy, allied to Spain. (85, 129, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Zürich (87, 168, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Welcome to Milan Cathedral.The church is about to be completed, just need a small additional budget (91, 4, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Amsterdam Timed events: Name: eDutch East India Company Message: After the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War (1780-1784) , the Dutch East India Company suffered a financial wreck. But its capital in Asia, consisting of the liquid trading fund and goods continued to be shipped to the Netherlands in Europe Name: e17950119 Message: On January 19, 1795,The Republic of Batavia was established,the first of the "sister-republics" Name: elv3 Message: On 8 May 1808,Royal Institute of Sciences, Literature and Fine Arts founded.he Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (Dutch: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, abbreviated: KNAW) is an organization dedicated to the advancement of science and literature in the Netherlands. The academy is housed in the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam. Name: e1814 Message: In 1814,Amsterdam becomes capital of the Netherlands.In that year Willem Frederik, Prince of Orange and Nassau, was proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the United Netherlands and invested as such on 30 March 1814 in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. (92, 2, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Another group of people who immigrated to Amsterdam from the 16th century to the 19th century was the Armenians. The Armenians were famous traders; their trading network stretched from the far east (Manila, India, Nepal, Iran) All the way to Europe and, most notably, Amsterdam. In response to Dutch generosity, the Armenians integrated into their society very smoothly, and they became part of its society. The Armenians even played a significant role within the Dutch Resistance during WW2. However, nearly all of the Armenian soldiers were executed by the Germans. The Dutch government has commemorated these brave Armenians by erecting a memorial in Zeeland (Middelharnis). A Dutch writer has said in De Amsterdammer, a magazine of the date of August 14, 1887, that: “The story of the Armenian community is a golden page in the history of the city of Amsterdam.” Amsterdam was known for religious and ethnic tolerance, where they welcomed people from all over the world. Hence, it made Amsterdam a hotspot for Armenians.Although Armenian traces in the Netherlands go back to the 4th century, Armenian merchants started appearing on mass in the 12th century, and the highest numbers were in the 17th century. The Armenian traders imported and exported almost everything, selling spices, gold, pearls, diamonds, and silk to the Dutch and buying yellow amber from them, which they sold in Smyrna. Due to religious and ethnic tolerance, the Armenians built their own churches, cultural centers, schools, universities, and printing presses in Amsterdam and the rest of the Netherlands. These churches and cultural centers exist to this day. The Armenians mainly traded Iranian silk, which they had a monopoly over. Iranian silk was very popular in Amsterdam.This silk is very light to wear (110, 221, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Cassano d'Adda Win Battle of Cassano d'Adda 1799 - Napoleon is driven out of Rome and Italy by the Russians and the Austrians (70, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Contact with de Sade Contact with de Sade Something is gonna happen (57, 98, 0) ***Event*** Message: Between the 17th and 19th centuries, Lutetian limestone was extracted by tunneling through hill-sides south of Paris. Lutetian limestone (in French, calcaire lutecien, and formerly calcaire grossier) — also known as “Paris stone” — is a variety of limestone particular to the Paris, France, area. It has been a source of wealth as an economic and versatile building material since ancient Roman times (see Mines of Paris) and has contributed markedly to the unique visual appeal of the “City of Light” (49, 148, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Amphitheatre of the Three Gauls (43, 143, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Loire river (48, 148, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Macon(1814) Win Battle of Leipzig first The Austrian army commander Prince Frederick of Hesse-Homburg soon pressed south toward Lyon. (46, 148, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Place Bellecour--During the French Revolution, an altar dedicated to Liberty was erected on the square on 14 July 1790. (47, 145, 0) ***Dwarf*** Message: The northern hill of lyon is La Croix-Rousse, known as "the hill that works" because it is traditionally home to many small silk workshops (10, 157, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mont-de-Marsan (14, 150, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Garonne river (19, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Guernsey loophole towers--Royal Guernsey Militia guard the island! (242, 236, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sultan Ahmed Mosque (154, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eble river (207, 42, 0) ***Event*** Message: Gediminas' Tower (205, 42, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Vilnius Timed events: Name: e1802Benigsen Message: In 1802 Benigsen was promoted to the rank of general of cavalry but at the same time he was sent to "the exile of honour" to the city of Vilno there he got a military-administrative post Name: eVilnius_uprising_(1794) Message: The Vilnius Uprising of 1794 began on April 22, 1794, during which Polish[citation needed] and Lithuanian forces led by Jakub Jasiński fought Russian forces occupying the city during the Ko?ciuszko Uprising. The Russians were expelled from Vilnius.Vilnius townspeople also actively participated in the city's defense from the Russians, some even by throwing stones at them Name: e1799 Message: In1799,Town Hall of Vilno rebuilt. Name: eVilnian_National_Guard Message: In 1812,Vilnian National Guard formed. Vilnian National Guard (Polish: Gwardia Narodowa Wileńska) was a paramilitary unit formed in the city of Vilna (modern Vilnius, Lithuania) during the French invasion of Russia in 1812. Among the duties of the unit were maintaining law and order in the city, but also guarding state and military buildings. Following the renewal of the Polish-Lithuanian Union the command over the unit was passed to experienced Polish officers from the Duchy of Warsaw, often veterans of the Old Guard. Name: emagic Message: In 1803 Alexander I re-established the Polish-language University in Vilno. (240, 109, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (161, 1, 0) ***Event*** Message: Armfelt remained absolutely faithful to King Gustav when nearly the whole of the Swedish nobility fell away from him (184, 1, 0) ***Event*** Message: Royal Swedish Opera--"The Gustavian Opera" (154, 5, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dano-Swedish War of 1808-1809 Finish Finnish War First The Dano-Swedish War of 1808-1809 was a war between Denmark-Norway and Sweden due to Denmark-Norway's alliance with France and Sweden's alliance with the United Kingdom during the Napoleonic Wars. (155, 4, 0) ***Event*** Message: A night we will never forget!Tonight,Danish stood up where teammate fall-- a 4-1 win over Russia to advance ,Denmark created history after two subsequent lossest. That was for Christian Eriksen. Jun 21, 2021 (153, 4, 0) ***Tower*** Name: Copenhagen Timed events: Name: eRoyal_Greenland_Trading_Department Message: Since founded in Copenhagen in 1774,The Royal Greenland Trading Department harged with administering the realm's settlements and trade in Greenland.It was expanded to a monopoly on all trade in Greenland whatsoever between the 60th and 73rd parallels north,including trade in cryolite and whaling Name: eDanish_Asia_Company Message: After taken over by the Danish government in 1772 ,the Danish Asia Company keep trade on the Danish East Indies and China (148, 52, 0) ***Event*** Message: Brandenburg Gate (123, 11, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Buchholz (121, 14, 0) ***Black Knight*** Message: Hanseatic Legion attack on you (106, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati of Frankfurt meet Adam Weishaupt,the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati at Ingolstadt Illuminati of Frankfurt established (110, 71, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Frankfurt Cathedral--The Kaiserdom (109, 70, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Romer,Frankfurt (120, 116, 0) ***Event*** Message: Munich is situated in the Northern Alpine Foreland. The northern part of this sandy plateau includes a highly fertile flint area (90, 4, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland Finish Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland The British public and Parliament were well pleased with the conduct of the British troops. (177, 148, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nyitra (208, 129, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lemburg (202, 203, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Temesvár--at the forefront of Western Christendom's battle against the Muslim Ottoman Turks. (242, 112, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cherkasy--A center of the Cossacks (147, 15, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Stralsund--a major Swedish forts in the Duchy of Pomerania (107, 239, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palermo (245, 0, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Peter and Paul Fortress -- the original citadel of St. Petersburg, Russia, founded by Peter the Great in 1703 and built to Domenico Trezzini's designs from 1706 to 1740 as a Star fortress. On December,12,1812 in Vilno Potemkin was appointed the commander of the one of the two oldest regiments of the Russian army - the Life-Guard Semenovsky regiment. This regiment consisted of tall, strong and beautiful soldiers and also had the very skilled, intellectual and humane officers, many of them became Decemrists afterwards. On 16 October 1820, the senior company of the Semyonovsky regiment, at the initiative of its former commander Jakov Alexeevich Potemkin, forwarded a petition seeking to cancel the harsh regime instituted under Russian statesman Aleksey Arakcheyev and to change the regiment's commander Schwartz. The company was brought to a riding academy, arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. The remainder of the regiment interceded in favour of their comrades, but were surrounded by the garrison of Saint Petersburg and also sent to the Peter and Paul Fortress. (249, 1, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Paul's premonitions of assassination were well founded. After Battle of Cassano d'Adda,the Russo-Austrian alliance had more or less fallen apart,Paul's policies greatly annoyed the noble class and induced his enemies to work out a plan of action. On 12 March 1801,a band of dismissed officers charged into Paul's bedroom, flushed with drink after dining together, and found the emperor hiding behind some drapes in the corner. The conspirators pulled him out, forced him to the table, and tried to compel him to sign his abdication. Paul offered some resistance, and Nikolay Zubov struck him with a sword, after which the assassins strangled and trampled him to death. Paul's successor on the Russian throne, his 23-year-old son Alexander, was actually in the palace at the time of the killing; he had "given his consent to the overthrow of Paul, but had not supposed that this would be carried out by means of assassination". General Nikolay Zubov announced his accession to the heir, accompanied by the admonition, "Time to grow up! Go and rule!" It was a wicked and wild wind Blew down the doors to let me in Shattered windows and the sound of drums People couldn't believe what I'd become (248, 0, 0) ***Giant*** Message: The assassins included General Bennigsen, a Hanoverian in the Russian service, and General Yashvil, a Georgian. (247, 2, 0) ***Tower*** Name: St.Petersburg Timed events: Name: eKirov_Plant Message: Kirov Plant (factory) --a major Russian mechanical-engineering manufacturing plant in St. Petersburg, Russia,established Name: eSt._Vladimir Message: The entire Neoclassical edifice of The Prince St. Vladimir's Cathedral , Saint Petersburg was completed to Ivan Starov's designs in later 1789 and dedicated to St. Vladimir. Name: eTauride_Palace Message: Shortly before his death, on 28 April 1791, Potemkin used the Tauride Palace to host unprecedented festivities and illuminations with the purpose of winning the Empress's waning affections. The 13-bay front of the Tauride Palace has a Tuscan portico and is topped by a shallow dome. A square vestibule leads to an octagonal hall, with the huge "Catherine Hall" beyond. This had eighteen Ionic Greek columns on either side and opens into a large, enclosed winter garden with a central circular colonnade. Considered the grandest nobleman's residence of 18th-century Russia, Tauride Palace served as a model for innumerable manors scattered across the Russian Empire. Name: eNational_Library_of_Russia Message: The Imperial Public Library was established in 1795 by Catherine the Great in Saint Petersburg, it is not only the oldest public library in the nation, but also the first national library in the country. Name: eRussian-American_Company Message: On 8 July 1799,the Russian-American Company was founded in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire.It had the mission of establishing new settlements in Russian America, conducting trade with natives, and carrying out an expanded colonization program. Name: etitan Message: In 1810, Alexander I established the first engineering Higher education, the Saint Petersburg Main military engineering School in Saint Petersburg. The Saint Petersburg Military Engineering-Technical University (Nikolaevsky) (Russian: Санкт-Петербургский Военный инженерно-технический университет, VITU), previously known as the Saint Petersburg Nikolaevsky Engineering Academy.The university is situated in the former barracks of the Cavalier-Guard Regiment where the university was founded. It provides military university trained officers for all the Engineering Troops of Russia. Latter the Military Engineering-Technical University directly took part in World War II. The graduating students of the university fought heroically at all fronts of the war. Name: eFriendly Society of Aficionados of Elegance Message: On July 15, 1801,Friendly Society of Aficionados of Elegance was founded by a group of secondary school graduates from the gymnasium of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg .The Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Science, and the Arts (Russian: Вольное общество любителей словесности, наук и художеств) was a Russian literary and political society active in the early 19th Century. According to Nikolai Grech, the founders of the Society "were prepared for a strenuous and exacting study of literature". Born, Popugaev, and the others were to demonstrate the erudition obtained from their studies of science and the humanities at the gymnasium. All the members were fluent in French, and some in German, English, and Italian. Dmitriev worked in the field of astronomy, Volkov later in chemistry, and Krasovsky in physics and mineralogy; Popugaev was also learned in science. Name: eRussian Naval Museum Message: In 1805 ， Russian Naval Museum established.Central Naval Museum (Russian: Центральный военно-морской музей) is a naval museum in St Petersburg, Russia. It is one of the first museums in Russia and one of the world’s largest naval museums, with a large collection of artefacts, models and paintings reflecting the development of Russian naval traditions and the history of the Russian Navy. The museum’s permanent display includes such relics as the Botik of Peter the Great, Catherine II’s marine throne, trophies captured in sea battles, and the personal belongings of prominent Russian and Soviet naval commanders. Name: eSaint_Petersburg_Philharmonia Message: In 1802，Saint Petersburg Philharmonia formed. Name: eKazan_Cathedral,_Saint_Petersburg Message: In 1811 ，Kazan Cathedral built in Saint Petersburg.Kazan Cathedral or Kazanskiy Kafedralniy Sobor (Russian: Каза?нский кафедра?льный собо?р), also known as the Cathedral of Our Lady of Kazan, is a cathedral of the Russian Orthodox Church on the Nevsky Prospekt in Saint Petersburg. It is dedicated to Our Lady of Kazan, one of the most venerated icons in Russia. Name: ecastle Message: In 1801，Saint Michael's Castle built.Saint Michael's Castle (Russian: Миха?йловский за?мок, Mikhailovsky zamok), also called the Mikhailovsky Castle or the Engineers' Castle (Russian: Инженерный замок, Inzhenerny zamok), is a former royal residence in the historic centre of Saint Petersburg, Russia. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 200 107’35' 20’15 10'8 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 300 155'45 30’25 20'15 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 800 420’125 90'70 45’30 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1000 445’180 120'110 65’45 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2500 930’520 370'330 155’110 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3000 1190’560 420'360 185’150 135 Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: When the rich make war it's the poor that die. Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: “The strongest of all warriors are these two — Time and Patience.” Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: "Ula!" Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: "For Faith, Tsar and Fatherland!" Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: “If everyone made war only according to his own convictions, there would be no war.” Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: “Union of Salvation!" Name: AI主城满建 Message: (117, 118, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Munich Illuminati lodge Class I of Munich Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (44, 80, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Loire river (105, 74, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Main river (78, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Moselle river (63, 163, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Isère river (81, 65, 0) ***Dread Knight*** Message: The Coalition army of Austrian and Prussian soldiers, and of French emigres, led by the Duke of Brunswick crosses the northern and eastern borders into France.The enemy cavalry charged from the woods (80, 66, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Verdun (1792) Storming of the Tuileries is clearly the casus belli Battle of Verdun (1792) (54, 67, 0) ***Castle*** Name: Palace d'tuile Timed events: Name: e17891101 Message: The Breton Club is reconstituted in Paris at the Saint-Honore monastery of Doninicans in November 1789--as The Jacobins club, under the name Society of Friends of the Constitution Name: e17900228 Message: The Assembly abolishes the requirement that army officers be members of the nobility. Now many soldiers who are not nobles start to promote their ranks Name: e17901127 Message: The Assembly decrees that all members of the clergy must take an oath to the Nation, the Law and the King. Name: e17900904 Message: September 4,1790,Necker, the finance minister, is dismissed. The National Assembly takes charge of the public treasury. Name: e17911228 Message: December 28,1791, The Assembly votes to summon a mass army of volunteers to defend the borders of France Name: e17920123 Message: 23 January,1792,The slave uprising in Haiti causes severe shortages of sugar and coffee in Paris Name: e17920430 Message: April 30,1792,The government issues three hundred million assignats to finance the war. Name: e17920809 Message: August 9: Georges Danton, a deputy city prosecutor, and his Cordeliers allies take over the Paris city government and establish the Revolutionary Paris commune. They take possession of the H?tel de Ville. They increase the number of Commune deputies to 288. The Assembly recognizes them as the legal government of Paris on August 10. Name: e17920922 Message: September 22,1792, The Convention proclaims the abolition of royalty and the First French Republic Name: e17930823 Message: After the day of August 23,1793, Levee en masse voted by the Convention. All able-bodied non-married men between ages 18 and 25 are required to serve in the army. Name: e17950624 Message: eclosion de la Deuxième Guerre de Vendee,Un mois seulement après la dernière fois Name: e17951031 Message: October 31，1795: The first Directory is elected by the legislature Name: e17980905 Message: After the day of September 5,1798: The French legislature requires all French men between twenty and twenty-five to perform military service. Name: e17991224 Message: December 24,1799: The Councils, now firmly under the control of Bonaparte, adopt the Constitution of the Year VIII. The new Consulate is formally established, with Bonaparte as First Consul, Cambacerès as Second Consul, and Charles-Francois Lebrun as Third Consul. ---------------End of the French Revolution-------------- Name: e18010715 Message: Full rights of worship now restored to the church, not only in the Vendee, but in the whole of France, and church bells rang again.The Concordat signed on 15th July 1801 between Napoleon Bonaparte and the Pope made these rights official. In the Concordat the French Government acknowledged "Catholicism as the religion of the great majority of the French." In the end the Vendeens won the right to practice their faith. Name: e18131009 Message: Marie-Louise (conscript):Empress Marie-Louise, who issued decrees dated 9 October 1813 ordering the conscription of 280,000 men. Name: eSocietyofUnitedIrishmen Message: Some old members of the Society of United Irishmen or descendants of the original leaders came to France, joined the French army, participated in the Napoleonic Wars, and fought side by side with France Name: eUpperclassBritishvisitors Message: Upper-class British visitors flocked to Paris in the second half of 1802. Name: eWilliam Hazlitt Message: J.M.W. Turner and William Hazlitt arrived at Paris to study in the Louvre Name: eFrench emigres returned Message: A number of French emigres returned to France, under the terms of relaxed restrictions upon them. Name: e17910606 Message: In 1791, the fate of the rundown Cafe Theatre was changed, when stewardship of the building was handed by the French Assassin Council to the Assassin Arno Dorian. Under Dorian's care, the Cafe was restored to its former glory as he renovated and invested money back into the building, bringing back the clientele and prestige that it had lost. Opened in lle Saint-Louis in 1759, the Cafe Theatre was one of Paris' premiere coffee houses for decades. Intellectuals, poets, philosophers and actors flocked to its tables, and the salon was a centre for political debate and discussion. The Cafe was bought by the Assassin Brotherhood to act as an intelligence-gathering network, keeping the Assassins informed about the current situation in Paris. Over the years, other establishments, such as the Cafe Procope, gradually supplanted the Cafe Theatre in prominence. By the 1790, it fell into near-ruin, becoming a rundown bar, more likely to host a second-rate bawdy comedy show than an impassioned debate. Name: e17910304 Message: During the two-week Easter break of 1791, Montansier hired Victor Louis to enlarge the stage and the auditorium of the Theatre du Palais-Royal. The capacity of the house was increased to 1300 spectators, and the height and depth of the stage were doubled Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: AI增兵1-3月220 100’45' 25’25 5'15 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 320 160'60 30’30 5'25 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 820 410’140 90'90 15’55 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1020 440’180 120'120 35’90 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2520 950’430 370'330 55’200 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3020 1180’560 420'400 85’240 135 Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: Vive la France! Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: Those soldiers who are not willing to be a general are not good soldiers. Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: “Vive l'Empereur!” Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: Of the love or hatred God has for the English, I know nothing, but I do know that they will all be thrown out of France, except those who die there. Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: “A soldier will fight long and hard for a bit of colored ribbon.” Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: “Soldiers generally win battle(s); generals get credit for them.” Name: Ai主城满建 Message: (95, 68, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Mainz You need to win Battle of Jemappes firstly. You tried to reinforce the defenders in the city (30, 13, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cherbourg-Octeville--a military port of the French Navy (17, 180, 0) ***Inexhaustible Cart of Ore*** Message: The Cistercians are known to have been skilled metallurgists, and knowledge of their technological advances was transmitted by the order.Iron ore deposits were often donated to the monks along with forges to extract the iron, and within time surpluses were being offered for sale. (16, 180, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Les Feuillants Abbey, Rieumes --From the 16th century it was the centre of the Cistercian reform movement (14, 180, 0) ***Event*** Message: Until the Industrial Revolution, most of the technological advances in Europe were made in the monasteries.their high level of industrial technology facilitated the diffusion of new techniques: "Every monastery had a model factory, often as large as the church and only several feet away, and waterpower drove the machinery of the various industries located on its floor." Waterpower was used for crushing wheat, sieving flour, fulling cloth and tanning - a "level of technological achievement [that] could have been observed in practically all" of the Cistercian monasteries (118, 119, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (117, 120, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati of Munich (Athens) Meet Adam Weishaupt,the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati at Ingolstadt Illuminati of Munich (Athens) established (119, 119, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Munich Illuminati lodge Class II of Munich Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (118, 118, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Munich Illuminati lodge Class III of Munich Illuminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (118, 120, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: I am Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria.I have a prize for those who fly the blue flag. Maximilian's sympathy with France and the ideas of enlightenment at once manifested itself when he acceded to the throne of Bavaria. In the newly organized ministry, Count Max Josef von Montgelas, who, after falling into disfavour with Charles Theodore, had acted for a time as Maximilian Joseph's private secretary, was the most potent influence, wholly "enlightened" and French.Agriculture and commerce were fostered, the laws were ameliorated, a new criminal code drawn up, taxes and imposts equalized without regard to traditional privileges, while a number of religious houses were suppressed and their revenues used for educational and other useful purposes. (119, 120, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The new King of Bavaria was the most important of the princes belonging to the Confederation of the Rhine, and remained Napoleon's ally until the eve of the Battle of Leipzig.From 1805 to 1813, the Bavarian army fought alongside us, always with honor and often with glory. (101, 97, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Stuttgart--Capital of Württemberg Kingdom (118, 122, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: win Battle of Hohenlinden win Battle of Hohenlinden Good luck! (117, 122, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Würzburg Win Battle of Würzburg Charles forced Jourdan's army back to the Rhine. With his colleague in retreat, Moreau was isolated and compelled to abandon southern Germany. (118, 76, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine-- Grand Duchy of Würzburg Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine Ferdinand's state was briefly known as the Electorate of Würzburg (Kurfürstentum Würzburg), but it was elevated to the status of a Grand Duchy after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire on 6 August 1806. It joined the Confederation of the Rhine on 30 September 1806. In 1810 it acquired Schweinfurt. (117, 75, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: I am Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Würzburg.I have a prize for those who fly the blue flag. During the French Revolution, Ferdinand became the first monarch to recognize the new French First Republic formally, and he attempted to work peacefully with it (143, 81, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: I am Frederick Augustus I of Saxony.I have a prize for those who fly the blue flag. I found myself in a more difficult situation than many other warring states. The country was still solidly in others' grip and at the same time had become the central arena of the war.Here are the only army I can previde you,no more request on my land please (140, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Kingdom of Saxony Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine Before 1806, Saxony was part of the Holy Roman Empire, a thousand-year-old entity that had become highly decentralised over the centuries. The rulers of the Electorate of Saxony of the House of Wettin had held the title of elector for several centuries. When the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in August 1806 following the defeat of Emperor Francis II by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz, the electorate was raised to the status of an independent kingdom with the support of the First French Empire, then the dominant power in Central Europe. The last elector of Saxony became King Frederick Augustus I. Following the defeat of Saxony's ally Prussia at the Battle of Jena in 1806, Saxony joined the Confederation of the Rhine Saxon cavalry being thought the best among Foreigners in French Service (139, 82, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Humboldt graduated from the Freiberg School of Mines in 1792 and was appointed to a Prussian government position in the Department of Mines as an inspector in Bayreuth and the Fichtel mountains. Humboldt was excellent at his job, with production of gold ore in his first year outstripping the previous eight years. (143, 83, 0) ***Arch Devil*** Message: "I am neither a plunderer nor a brigand, but in any case, my contemporaries and history will not reproach me for having murdered my own father." --Captured French general Vandamme (104, 98, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: King Frederick I of Wurttemberg agree to offer you the Wurttemberg infantry .Wurttemberg division Established.Wirtembergian infantry being thought the best among Foreigners in French Service (106, 98, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Kingdom of Württemberg Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine Württemberg became kingdom according to the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine.In 1805 the King established an academy to provide a more formal foundation for officer training (104, 94, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: "God had created the Prince to demonstrate the utmost extent to which the human skin could be stretched without bursting"--Napoleon "I wondered how so much poison could fit in such a small head as Napoleon's."In return, Frederick In exchange for providing France with a large auxiliary force, Napoleon allowed Frederick to raise Württemberg to a kingdom on 26 December 1805. Friedrick was formally crowned king at Stuttgart on 1 January 1806, and took the regnal name of King Frederick I. Soon after, Württemberg seceded from the Holy Roman Empire and joined Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine,received further territory with 160,000 inhabitants. Later, by the Peace of Vienna of October 1809, about 110,000 more people came under his rule. In return for these favours, Frederick joined French Emperor Napoleon in his campaigns against Prussia, Austria, and Russia. (131, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Regen river (127, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Perpetual Diet of Regensburg (128, 108, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Principality of Regensburg Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine The Principality of Regensburg (German: Fürstentum Regensburg) was a principality of the Holy Roman Empire created in 1803; following the dissolution of the Empire in 1806, it was part of the Confederation of the Rhine until 1810. Its capital was Regensburg. (126, 106, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge The Three Keys，Regensburg --Mother lodge to Mikhail Kutuzov Masonic lodge The Three Keys，Regensburg --Mother lodge to Mikhail Kutuzov Mikhail Kutuzov was initiated in the Lodge Zu den drei Schlusseln, Regensburg in 1779, and later a member of the Lodge Trois Drapeux, Moscow and the Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg. He was initiated in the Seventh Degree of the Swedish system. (127, 107, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: I am Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg.I have a prize for those who fly the blue flag. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Dalberg together with other princes joined the Confederation of the Rhine. He formally resigned the office of Arch-Chancellor in a letter to Emperor Francis II, and was appointed prince-primate of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon. (128, 107, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Dalberg died in 1817 in Regensburg..As a man and prelate he is remembered as amiable, conscientious and large-hearted. Himself a scholar and author, Dalberg was a notable patron of letters, and was the friend of Goethe, Schiller and Wieland. (99, 89, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Grand Duchy of Baden Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine In 1806, Baden joined the Confederation of the Rhine. (98, 88, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: I am Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden,I have a prize for those who fly the blue flag. Changing sides in 1805, he fought for Napoleon, with the result that, by the peace of Pressburg in that year, he obtained the Breisgau and other territories at the expense of the Habsburgs . In 1806, he joined the Confederation of the Rhine, declared himself a sovereign prince, became a grand duke, and received additional territory. The Baden contingent continued to assist France The Baden infantry coat was a long tail, dark blue coat, with square lapels and a V neck collar. (97, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Karlsruhe--"fan city" (98, 34, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Grand Duchy of Berg Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine The Grand Duchy of Berg (German: GroBherzogtum Berg), also known as the Grand Duchy of Berg and Cleves, was a territorial grand duchy established in 1806 by Emperor Napoleon after his victory at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805).On 15 March 1806, the French emperor put Berg under the rule of his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, including territories of the former Prussian Duchy of Cleves east of the Rhine river. On 12 July 1806, Murat joined the Confederation of the Rhine and assumed the title of a grand duke. (96, 32, 0) ***Shield of the Dwarven Lords*** Message: "Look,there is a Cartwheeler of Düsseldorf !" There are several stories surrounding the beginnings of the Düsseldorf Cartwheelers. Probably the most well known version is Battle of Worringen. In the battle of 1288 Count Adolf devastatingly defeated the Archbishop of Cologne. As a consequence of this victory, Düsseldorf obtained Town privileges. inhabitants, especially children, ran joyfully on the streets and performed cartwheels. "Come and get the wheel!" (96, 31, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On 15 March 1806, the French emperor put Berg under the rule of his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, including territories of the former Prussian Duchy of Cleves east of the Rhine river. Murat's arms combined the red lion of Berg with the Cleves arms. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Grand Duchy of Berg provided troops to both the Grande Armee in their campaign into the Russian Empire, and during the campaigns in Spain & Portugal.Berg Light Horse Regiment (Berg Regiment des Leichten Pferdes) — raised on 15 March 1806 by the new Grand Duke of Berg, Marechal d'Empire Joachim Murat, later converted to lancers in 1807, renamed as the Chasseurs à Cheval de Berg in 1809, then renamed as the Lancers of Berg on 17 December and assigned to the Imperial Guard (102, 75, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Frankenstein Castle,Darmstadt (100, 73, 0) ***Wyvern*** Message: "Nibelungenlied!"--lindworms (101, 75, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine The Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine (German: Gro?herzogtum Hessen und bei Rhein) was a grand duchy in western Germany that existed from 1806 (the period of German mediatisation) to the end of the German Empire in 1918. The grand duchy originally formed on the basis of the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1806 as the Grand Duchy of Hesse (German: Gro?herzogtum Hessen).Hesse-Darmstadt was a member of Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine during the Napoleonic Wars. (100, 72, 0) ***Elixir of Life*** Message: Dippel's Oil ,which was supposed to be equivalent to the "elixir of life" (100, 74, 0) ***Endless Bag of Gold*** Message: In the 18th century, a gold rush caused some turmoil near Frankenstein Castle. It is believed[who?] that a legend and visions of fortunetellers caused local residents to believe that a treasure was hidden near the castle. (119, 45, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Kingdom of Westphalia Win the War of the Fourth Coalition,sign the Treaty of Tilsit The Kingdom of Westphalia was created in 1807 by merging territories ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia in the Peace of Tilsit, among them the region of the Duchy of Magdeburg west of the Elbe River, the Brunswick-Lüneburg territories of Hanover and Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and the Electorate of Hesse.The state was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine. (115, 43, 0) ***Skeleton*** Message: A significant burden on the Kingdom of Westphalia was the requirement to supply troops and financial support for the Napoleonic wars. Large numbers of Westphalian troops fought in the Russian campaign of 1812.The Westphalian infantry was new and inexperienced. But Many individual soldiers were brave (98, 59, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nassau Castle (98, 60, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Only in August/September 1806 were these acquisitions of Duchy of Nassau confirmed by edict, affirmed by the treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine. This process encountered considerable resistance, led by the Imperial Knights (6, 19, 0) ***Event*** Message: "We'll rant and we'll roar like true British sailors, We'll rant and we'll roar across the salt seas, Until we strike soundings in the channel of old England, From Ushant to Scilly 'tis thirty-five leagues." (59, 13, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aa river (73, 12, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Order of the Golden Fleece Founded in: Bruges Established:1430; 591 years ago Motto: Pretium Laborum Non Vile Non Aliud Status:Currently constituted Founder:Philip III, Duke of Burgundy Grand Masters:Felipe VI of Spain Archduke Karl of Austria Grades:Knight Precedence Next (higher):None Next (lower):Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Charles III ,Imperial and Royal Order of Saint George Sovereignty of the Austrian branch remains with the head of the House of Habsburg Not for amusement nor for recreation, But for the purpose that praise shall be given To God, in the very first place, And to the good, glory and high renown. Each collar is fully coated in gold, and is estimated to be worth around 50,000 as of 2018, making it the most expensive chivalrous order. (74, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bruges (76, 8, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (72, 20, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ghent (100, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Overijsselse Vecht (95, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: IJssel river (96, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brethren of the Common Life,Zwolle (103, 7, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The Yde Girl,Assen (87, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rotterdam--Rotown,Sterker door strijd (Stronger through struggle) (102, 17, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Enschede--Brandstichters (119, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wümme river (112, 7, 0) ***Unicorn*** Message: "Duchy of Oldenburg are willing to donate valuable horses just as what AnthonyGünther did during the Thirty Years' War " (110, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Emden--Supply base of the British (118, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bremerhaven (125, 14, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lüneburg (125, 15, 0) ***Skeleton*** Message: "Lüneburg's salt belong to us!" (115, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wilhelmshaven (114, 11, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bremen (131, 10, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Hanseatic Legion-- a military unit, first formed of a group of citizens from Hamburg. They had met in 1813 on the instigation of General Friedrich Karl von Tettenborn, in order to fight in the War of the Sixth Coalition. This association of volunteers was joined immediately by volunteers from Hamburg's Hanseatic sister cities Bremen and Lübeck. The Legion should not be confused with the Hamburger Bürgermilit?r (Hamburg Citizen Militia). During their time of coexistence, the militia restricted itself to ejecting the French garrisons stationed in Hamburg and the other two Hanseatic cities, whereas the Legion also participated in the rest of the campaign under Russian overall command. “Gott mit uns”(=God with us) (250, 13, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Volkhov river (235, 5, 0) ***Sign*** Message: _Kirov_Military_Medical_Academy (231, 7, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gdov (228, 9, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle on the Ice.the crusader forces likely numbered around 2,600, including 800 Danish and German knights, 100 Teutonic knights, 300 Danes, 400 Germans, and 1,000 Estonian infantry. (250, 0, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neva river (235, 1, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alexander Garden (Saint Petersburg) (240, 3, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Saint Petersburg Foundling Hospital established (69, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Belfry El Catiau,Mons (69, 20, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kortrijk (78, 21, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rupel river (83, 32, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: Inhabitants of Liege, you are a free people! A people is free when it only obeys the laws that it gives itself by the consent of all the individuals of which it is composed or by [the consent] of those representatives elected and authorised by them - so a people is only free when sovereignty, legislative power, resides in the whole nation. The head clerk of the nation, its head and not its master, is the organ of the national will. A member of sovereignty when he makes laws, he is only delegated to execute them. He has them promulgated when all consent - but he is only the organ and not the interpreter - he cannot publish or change them - he cannot even put them into execution beyond the prescribed norms--Jean-Nicolas Bassenge (83, 31, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: “We will destruct the Cathedral of Saint-Lambert!" --Revolutionaries (82, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Liège Revolution The Liège Revolution mirrored the French Revolution or even formed part of it. Both revolutions began in 1789 The French National Convention endorses the Liège principality's incorporation into France (127, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gifhorn wind mill (158, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ina river (172, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: French Danzig garrison (72, 36, 0) ***Sign*** Message: La Belle Alliance (72, 35, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: There is a story that he made his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo: The Sunday Times reported in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823, that during the battle Ricardo "netted upwards of a million sterling", a huge sum at the time (159, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kolobrzeg (212, 34, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Utena (236, 21, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lovat river (243, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Rzhev (218, 30, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Daugavpils fortress (91, 6, 0) ***Zealot*** Message: The Dutch people are ready to welcome the Liberator army of the French Republic! Please help us established a Batavia Republic, a truly revolutionary Dutch Republic! (90, 6, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Jean Baptiste Eble was put in command of the Dutch Pontoon bridge builders (pontonniers) for the Grande Armee which Napoleon was assembling for his invasion of Russia. Eble discovered he had inherited a rag-tag collection of boatmen, yet in less than a year he had turned them into a disciplined, highly trained and skilled force who would soon prove indispensable. Besides training, Eble also issued his pontonniers specialized tools and equipment, the most notable of which were the mobile wagon-mounted forges, that could quickly make any needed but unavailable metal parts or items. (6, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Belle-ile-en-Mer (4, 44, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Belle-ile-en-Mer. The island was held by British troops from 1761, following its capture by an expedition sent out from England, to 1763, when it was returned to France in exchange for Menorca as part of the Peace of Paris. Because of the upheaval from the conflict, half the population had moved back to the mainland and the abandoned lands were offered to the deported Acadians who settled here in 1766. (11, 41, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vannes (29, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Laval-- produce a specific kind of linen, the pontivy, for the French army. Win siege of Angers Laval-- produce a specific kind of linen, the pontivy, for the French army. (28, 55, 0) ***Halfling*** Message: The War in the Vendee, which opposed French revolutionaries and Royalist Catholics during the last decade of the 18th century, started in the departement of Vendee, located south of the Loire, but it quickly spread in Brittany, Anjou and Maine, which were Catholic strongholds. Laval, which had been under the control of the revolutionaries since 1789, was seized by the Royalists 22 October 1793. The town was on their itinerary to the English Channel, where they were waiting for reinforcement. The Royalists came back to Laval 25 December 1793 after they lost a siege in Angers. (66, 46, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Laon Win Battle of Leipzig first An Allied coalition attempted to complete the destruction of Napoleon's French Empire in 1814. France had been defeated in Russia in 1812 and in Central Europe in 1813. Napoleon's French Empire was now fighting for its survival. (65, 46, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Blücher opted to face Napoleon at Laon because it was the site of a strategically important road junction, and because of its highly defensible position. (64, 46, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (87, 44, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Haute Sure Lake (86, 44, 0) ***Event*** Message: (86, 54, 0) ***Sign*** Message: "The best fortress in the world, except Gibraltar", the 'Gibraltar of the North'--Luxembourg (75, 39, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Charleroi (109, 53, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Schwalmstadt (79, 47, 0) ***Event*** Message: France's royal armaments factory Charleville musket (112, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Balve Cave,Sauerland (114, 53, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eschwege (126, 53, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nordhausen (120, 53, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Heilbad Heiligenstadt--salt water spa (174, 51, 0) ***Event*** Message: Bydgoszcz uprising (216, 50, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Maladzyechna it has been a settlement since 1388 when it was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.In early November 1812 Napoleon Bonaparte gave his last orders to his marshals here, after which he left for Vilnius. (223, 53, 0) ***Event*** Message: In 1812, Borisov became a crucial location when Napoleon's troops crossed the Berezina river. The French feinted a crossing at the town itself, but successfully escaped the pursuing armies by building two wooden bridges north of the city, at Studianka. This event is reenacted by military locals during town festivals. (234, 47, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Smolensk-Moscow Upland (233, 49, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Cossack and russian troops led by General Mikhail Miloradovich attack on you (235, 43, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Russian flanks have caught up to you (222, 43, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: The French army burned and looted in Lyepyel, they razed all the buildings to the ground (240, 44, 0) ***Event*** Message: Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, Volokolamsk (248, 50, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Moskva River (251, 39, 0) ***Event*** Message: Dmitrov (49, 61, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Cavalry depending on the terrain to dismount and fight is also a necessary training content Cavalry depending on the terrain to dismount and fight is also a necessary training content (47, 61, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Training cuirassiers requires good horses and good knights Training cuirassiers requires good horses and good knights (46, 61, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Training cuirassiers requires good horses and good knights Training cuirassiers requires good horses and good knights (48, 61, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Training cuirassiers requires good horses and good knights Training cuirassiers requires good horses and good knights (49, 60, 0) ***Crusader*** Message: Longue vie á l “empereur (54, 65, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Louis XVI Declaration de Louis XVI à tous les Francais, à sa sortie de Paris 20 juin 1791 Tant que le Roi a pu esperer voir rena?tre l'ordre et le bonheur du royaume par les moyens employes par l'Assemblee nationale, et par sa residence auprès de cette Assemblee dans la capitale du Royaume, aucun sacrifice personnel ne lui a co?te; il n'aurait pas même argue de la nullite dont le defaut absolu de liberte entache toutes les demarches qu'il a faites depuis le mois d'octobre 1789, si cet espoir e?t ete rempli. Mais aujourd'hui que la seule recompense de tant de sacrifices est de voir la destruction de la royaute, de voir tous les pouvoirs meconnus, les proprietes violees, la s?rete des personnes mise partout en danger, les crimes rester impunis, et une anarchie complète s'etablir au-dessus des lois, sans que l'apparence d'autorite que lui donne la nouvelle Constitution soit suffisante pour reparer un seul des maux qui affligent le royaume, le Roi, après avoir solennellement proteste contre tous les actes emanes de lui pendant sa captivite, croit devoir mettre sous les yeux des Fran?ais et de tout l'Univers le tableau de sa conduite, et celui du Gouvernement qui s'est etabli dans le royaume. ...... (135, 56, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Halle--Always loyal to the Prussian king (145, 65, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Black Elster river (174, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Notec river (196, 63, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Narew river (222, 66, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Svislach river (227, 69, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Babruysk fortress (232, 65, 0) ***Event*** Message: Mogilev (243, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bryansk fortress (238, 62, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Yelnya--an important center of the Partisan (military) movement during the French invasion of Russia (23, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Thouet river (50, 72, 0) ***Enchanter*** Message: Democracy - The Grand Orient is committed to the ideals of the Republic. Laicity - The church should restrict its pronouncements to the purely spiritual, and should under no circumstances be allowed to influence the law. Social Solidarity - The state must make provisions for the economically disadvantaged. Citizenship - Liberty, equality and fraternity promoted through respect, tolerance and freedom of conscience. Environment - Humanity has the responsibility to protect the environment for future generations. Human Dignity - All humankind should be guaranteed food, shelter and care. Human Rights - Liberte, egalite, Fraternite! We will spread the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment in the years of revolution and strive for the progress of all mankind.The French {{Freemason}ry} is about to be reborn after the revolution, Be my mirror, my sword and shield My missionaries in a foreign field,are you ready to take the oath and become a member (50, 74, 0) ***Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment*** Message: Marquis de Condorcet took a leading role when the French Revolution swept France in 1789, hoping for a rationalist reconstruction of society, and championed many liberal causes. His ideas, including support for a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutional government, and equal rights for women and people of all races, have been said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, and Enlightenment rationalism. (50, 83, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Les Invalides (110, 88, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Heilbronn (84, 93, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Luneville Win Battle of Hohenlinden and Battle of Marengo Treaty of Luneville (83, 90, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Nancy affair.Non inultus premor, lit. 'I am not injured unavenged' Is King Louis XVI willing to come from the palace to take part in Festival of the Federation?What, is he still in the Palace of Versailles?You should forcibly bring him from his guard back to the people in Paris! The Nancy Mutiny occurred at a time when unrest was spreading amongst the regular regiments of the French Army, following the Storming of the Bastille, the mutiny of the gardes-francaises (French Guards) and the forced relocation of the royal family from Versailles to Paris in 1789. (82, 90, 0) ***Royal Griffin*** Message: General Francois Claude de Bouille, army commander at Metz, accordingly led 4,500 regular soldiers and national guardsmen to Nancy on 18 August. De Bouille, a committed royalist, was later to be a leading force in Louis XVI's attempted flight to Varennes. (81, 90, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: The mutiny was of particular significance in that it illustrated the degree to which the discipline and reliability of the Royal Army had been undermined by thirteen months of revolutionary turmoil.While the officers of the army were still predominantly royalist, the rank and file were becoming increasingly influenced by the revolutionary turmoil around them.From then on, the soldiers of the Royal Army began to favor the revolutionary people and the Republic (138, 89, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Green House,Cheb (121, 90, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Erlangen (125, 79, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ehrenburg Palace,Coburg (138, 76, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: Saxon Peasants' Revolt (139, 75, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Wechselburg (140, 75, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: 2,000 peasants, armed with flails, clubs and axes, forced the release of imprisoned rebels. (139, 74, 0) ***Peasant*** Message: The main demands of the peasants were the abolition of hunting privileges, the abolition of socage, the prohibition of the conversion of contributions in kind into financial interest by the lords or Saxon district offices. (182, 40, 0) ***Shield of the Yawning Dead*** Message: "Helfen, Wehren, Heilen" ("Help, Defend, Heal") (184, 40, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Elblag--Once as the official seat of the Teutonic Order Masters. (140, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chomutov--came into the possession of the Teutonic Order. (176, 74, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Konin (212, 80, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Yaselda river (212, 85, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Dnieper-Bug Canal(Date completed:1784) (240, 76, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sozh river (249, 81, 0) ***Wolf Rider*** Message: Cossacks charge at you (246, 75, 0) ***Wolf Rider*** Message: Cossacks charge at you (218, 89, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pinsk (186, 91, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lódz-- The Promised Land (14, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The citadel of Saint-Martin,lle de Re (16, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lantern Tower,La Rochelle--used both as a lighthouse and a prison. (18, 103, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Vauclair castle,La Rochelle (36, 99, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Indre river (31, 92, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Creuse river (242, 247, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Let's swim across the Dardanelles and help Greece to fight the Ottoman Empire !"--Lord Byron (234, 250, 0) ***Angel Wings*** Message: When you entered the Sanctuary of the Great Gods ,which surrouded by Samothrace's Considerable remains of the ancient walls built in massive Cyclopean style,you saw a winged sculpture Rendered in grey and white Thasian and Parian marble ,it is that famous Winged Victory of Samothrace (36, 91, 0) ***Wizard's Well*** Message: "Wanna have pastry in "high art" of French cooking style?"Marie Antoine Carêm, celebrity Chef of Chateau de Valencay (42, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Yèvre river (42, 104, 0) ***Event*** Message: Bourges (54, 94, 0) ***Nomad*** Message: I am at your service,sire.--Roustam Raza (56, 94, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On 20 June 1812, Pope Pius VII arrived at the chateau of Fontainebleau, after a secret transfer from Savona, accompanied by his personal physician, Balthazard Claraz. In poor health, the Pope was the prisoner of Napoleon, and he remained in his genteel prison at Fontainebleau for nineteen months. From June 1812 until 23 January 1814, the Pope never left his apartments. (55, 95, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Fontainebleau--This hamlet was endowed with a royal hunting lodge and a chapel by Louis VII in the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Louis IX, also called Saint Louis, who held Fontainebleau in high esteem and referred to it as "his wilderness", had a country house and a hospital constructed there. The connection between the town of Fontainebleau and the French monarchy was reinforced with the transformation of the royal country house into a true royal palace, the Palace of Fontainebleau. It was Napoleon Bonaparte, who became Emperor Napoleon I, who was responsible for the recovery of the Fontainebleau palace after the French Revolution. He too fell under the spell of the “true home of kings, the house of centuries”. In May 1804, the First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte was declared Emperor of the French by enthusiastic decision of the Senate. On June 28, 1804, the thirty-five-year-old Emperor came to visit the Fontainebleau castle a second time in the company of the architect Pierre-Fran?ois-Leonard Fontaine to whom he indicated the first work to be done to transform the building into a second country residence. (after Saint-Cloud). The palace was then in an impressive state of disrepair. The Revolution had stripped it of its windows, its mirrors, the leadenings of its roofs. Inside, the castle was emptied of its furniture. Only two consoles of the Council chamber remained on site, as well as the crown and the backsplash of the queen's bed ... "We will do something with this ruin," decreed the Emperor. (53, 94, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, a secret agreement between France and Spain concerning the Louisiana territory in North America, was concluded here. Also, preliminary negotiations, held before the 1763 Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Seven Years' War, were at Fontainebleau. (84, 97, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ill river (91, 99, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ettenheim (94, 94, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Baden-Baden,"Great Spa Towns of Europe" (94, 108, 0) ***Event*** Message: Ebingen (157, 105, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pardubice (159, 97, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hradec (the Castle),Hradec Králove (64, 121, 0) ***Event*** Message: Besancon (90, 124, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Frauenfeld Two Austrian armies under General Friedrich von Hotze (1739-1799) and Archduke Charles (1771-1847) pursued them. They sought to unite these two armies as quickly as possible. On 22 May 1799, the vanguard of the Archduke's army reached Frauenfeld, where they stopped in order to meet up with the vanguard of General Hotze's army, which occurred on 24 May. At last, it is Charles. Do you wish to pass? (89, 123, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: After the advance troops of the Austrians had already linked up, General Massena who was stationed at Winterthur decided to make an attempt to prevent the enemy's main forces from linking together. At this point he posted four French and two Helvetian Battalions, a company of Helvetian sharpshooters, five squadrons of Hussars and eight cannons under General Charles Nicolas Oudinot (1767-1847) and General Augustin Keller [de] (1754-1799) to meet the enemy at Frauenfeld. (109, 116, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Augsburg (107, 131, 0) ***Event*** Message: Mount Zugspitz(2,963m) (95, 126, 0) ***Event*** Message: Konstanz (99, 125, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lindau Lighthouse (97, 128, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Constance (113, 120, 0) ***Ocean Bottle*** Message: Ammersee (146, 122, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ceske Budějovice (159, 124, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brno (170, 117, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Moravian Gate (179, 110, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Katowice (222, 108, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Horyn river (249, 125, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ekaterinoslav (215, 124, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brody (67, 128, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neuchatel (66, 129, 0) ***Ocean Bottle*** Message: Lake Neuchatel (66, 139, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Geneva (60, 139, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Coppet group,Coppet The Coppet group (Groupe de Coppet), also known as the Coppet circle, was an informal intellectual and literary gathering centred on Germaine de Sta?l during the time period between the establishment of the Napoleonic First Empire (1804) and the Bourbon Restoration of 1814-1815. The name comes from Coppet Castle in Switzerland. The group, which broadly continued the activities of Madame de Sta?l's previous salons, had a considerable influence on the development of nineteenth century liberalism and romanticism.Stendhal referred to the Coppet guests as "the Estates General of European opinion." Germaine de Stael back to Coppet. Her house became, according to Stendhal, "the general headquarters of European thought" and was a debating club hostile to Napoleon, "turning conquered Europe into a parody of a feudal empire, with his own relatives in the roles of vassal states".Madame Recamier, also banned by Napoleon, Prince Augustus of Prussia, Charles Victor de Bonstetten, and Chateaubriand all belonged to the "Coppet group". Each day the table was laid for about thirty guests. Talking seemed to be everybody's chief activity. (59, 136, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: elisabeth Vigee Le Brun went to Switzerland again in 1808.In Geneva, she was made an honorary member of the Societe pour l'Avancement des Beaux-Arts. She stayed at Coppet with Madame de Sta?l, who appears as the title character in Corinne, ou l'Italie (1807). As a member of Coppet_group,Le Brun devoloped good personal friendship with de Stael (59, 138, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Around the core group which consisted of the hosts at Coppet Castle,the Necker family,Germaine de Sta?l,there was a stream of international men and women visitors of influence. These included:...Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand... Chateaubriand became a major figure in politics as well as literature (92, 138, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chur--where the roads from several major Alpine transit routes come together and continue down the Rhine. (102, 139, 0) ***Event*** Message: Landeck (131, 139, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The saltworks,Traunstein (127, 135, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bayrisches Meer (93, 152, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Como (121, 143, 0) ***Event*** Message: Kufstein Fortress (164, 155, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Battle of Raab or Battle of Gyor Napoleon referred to the battle as "a granddaughter of Marengo and Friedland", as it fell on the anniversary of those two battles The battle was fought near Gy?r (Raab), Kingdom of Hungary, and ended in a Franco-Italian victory. The victory prevented Archduke John of Austria from bringing any significant force to the Battle of Wagram, while Prince Eugène de Beauharnais's force was able to link up with Emperor Napoleon at Vienna in time to fight at Wagram. (198, 149, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Miskolc--During the war of independence against Habsburg rule , Prince Francis II Rákóczi put his headquarters here (200, 150, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bódva river (225, 157, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Chernivtsi--with black city walls (237, 153, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Soroca (7, 170, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pau--"Pau has the world's most beautiful view of the earth just as Naples has the most beautiful view of the sea." (22, 187, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ariège river (23, 179, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Toulouse--Per Tolosa totjorn mai (Occitan for '"For Toulouse, always more"') (38, 174, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gorges du Tarn (94, 165, 0) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Cassano (1799) (120, 166, 0) ***Gold*** Message: Belluno Treasure (229, 164, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Suceava--a 'miniature Austria' (240, 164, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Chisinau The town played an important part in the war between Russia and Ottoman Empire, as the main staging area of the Russian invasion. In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812), the eastern half of Moldavia was ceded by the Ottomans to the Russian Empire. The newly acquired territories became known as Bessarabia. (247, 165, 0) ***Mage*** Message: Armand-Emmanuel de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de Richelieu at your service! (11, 196, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Aínsa Besides the surrounding mountain landscape, the 12th-century Iglesia parroquial de Santa María church and the 11th-century castle are the main sights of the town. It is located south of the Pyrenees, in a geologically interesting setting at the north of Huesca. (144, 195, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kocevje (143, 195, 0) ***Event*** Message: "We don't agree the new war tax and Treaty of Sch?nbrunn,we are Gottscheers !" (128, 184, 0) ***Event*** Message: Udine (159, 197, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cesma river (152, 183, 0) ***Fire Elemental*** Message: Fire of 1776 (151, 182, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Varazdin (4, 208, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ebro river (9, 214, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fraga (20, 105, 0) ***Event*** Message: La Rochelle --once was the Templars' largest base on the Atlantic Ocean,and where they stationed their main fleet. (9, 207, 0) ***Armor of Wonder*** Message: "A Templar Knight is truly a fearless knight, and secure on every side, for his soul is protected by the armour of faith, just as his body is protected by the armour of steel. He is thus doubly armed, and need fear neither demons nor men." -Bernard of Clairvaux, c.?1135, De Laude Novae Militae - In Praise of the New Knighthood (11, 207, 0) ***Sign*** Message: El Castillo Templario (The Castle of the Knights Templar),Monzón (10, 207, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Monzón was a stronghold of the Knights Templar because of its strategic location between the Segre and Cinca valleys，When the Pope Clement V extinguishes the Knights Templar, some parcels like Monzón resisted, and it was not until 1309 when it was conquered. These Knights are looking after a relic of Knights Templar (29, 216, 0) ***Event*** Message: Third siege of Girona.The battle became legendary over the course of Spain's War of Independence (66, 207, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nice--Nicea civitas fidelissima (Latin: Nice, most loyal city) (148, 208, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Korana river (166, 215, 0) ***Event*** Message: Banja Luka (245, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Constanta--a war-stricken cultural wasteland and the remotest margin (201, 207, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Temes river (216, 209, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Targu Jiu (186, 213, 0) ***Endless Sack of Gold*** Message: You found Ionian jewellery dating to 500BC was excavated in the city. (185, 213, 0) ***Event*** Message: Sremska Mitrovica (185, 199, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Subotica--part of the military border zone Theiss-Mieresch established by the Habsburg Monarchy. (3, 223, 0) ***Black Knight*** Message: "The Regiment of the Orders"，the last 200 knights of the new order (1775) of Order of Calatrava (3, 222, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Santa María la Mayor,Alcaniz (145, 221, 0) ***Cyclops King*** Message: Previous research linked people from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Netherlands, Croatia, and Montenegro to the Upper Paleolithic Gravettian culture, who dwelled across Europe between 21,000 and 33,000 years ago. (145, 222, 0) ***Titan*** Message: Because height in the Dinaric Alps peaks behind mountain ranges which historically served as a barrier to genetic flow, tThe coast of giants could be explained by the increasing proportion of admixture from continental Europe. (146, 223, 0) ***Giant*** Message: people from Dalmatia currently belong to the tallest in the world (146, 224, 0) ***Cyclops*** Message: Dark, brachycephalic, tall race, called Adriatic or Dinaric, because its purest representatives are met with along the coast of the Northern Adriatic and especially in Bosnia, Dalmatia, and Croatia (208, 181, 0) ***Vampire Lord*** Message: "It belong to me now!"--A unknow vampire. (193, 225, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kragujevac--revolution center (193, 224, 0) ***Vampire*** Message: Vampirism occurred in Kragujevac， the Serbian word vampir entered German and later other world languages (195, 225, 0) ***Magog*** Message: Ottoman army fired on you (194, 224, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: As the Ottomans retook the town in 1739, and lost it again in 1789 to the same enemy, the town was ripe for new rule—this time under Serbian rebels. (195, 224, 0) ***Pendant of Free Will*** Message: As a settlement central to the Sanjak of Smederevo under Ottoman rule, Kragujevac was of utmost strategic importance to its agitating, largely rural Serb inhabitants. Therefore, it became a centre of the Serbian Revolution, a national awakening of Serbs led by their vojvoda, Karadorde. (224, 228, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pleven (214, 228, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lom (229, 231, 0) ***Event*** Message: Shipka Pass (171, 240, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neretva river (249, 244, 0) ***Event*** Message: Bursa--a major centre for refugees from various ethnic backgrounds (250, 250, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zagan Pasha Mosque,Balikesir (217, 249, 0) ***Event*** Message: Blagoevgrad (120, 239, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Strait of Messina If your flag is blue,Win Siege of Gaeta (1806) to finish Invasion of Naples (1806) first It's time to conquer Strait of Messina (239, 52, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Borodino(Russian part) Win Finnish War first Kutuzov understood that Barclay's decision to retreat had been correct, but the Tsar, the Russian troops and Russia could not accept further retreat. A battle had to occur in order to preserve the morale of the soldiers and the nation. (236, 53, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The military skills and courage of Raevsky became apparent show best of all in the war of 1812. In the Borodino battle the 7-th Corps of Raevsky defended the redoubt that was attacked by the big French forces. This redoubt was called "The Battery of Raevsky". (238, 49, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gzhatsk (236, 51, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Borodino(French part) Sign Treaty of Schonbrunn first Finnaly,70 miles west of Moscow,near the village of Borodino,the Russians had turned to offer battle. At 2am on 7 September, Napoleon dictated his famous proclamation, to be read to the troops at about 6am: “Soldiers! Here is the battle that you have so much desired. From now on victory depends on you: it is necessary to us. It will give you abundance, good winter quarters, and a prompt return to the fatherland. Conduct yourselves as at Austerlitz, at Friedland, at Vitebsk, at Smolensk, and let the most distant posterity point with pride to your conduct on this day. Let it be said of you, 'He was in that great battle under the walls of Moscow.'” (237, 51, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The battle was a Pyrrhic victory The casualties of the battle were staggering:the Grande Armee lost approximately 28,000 soldiers at least 460 French officers (known by name) were killed in battle.including 49 generals. "Of all my fifty battles,the most terrible was the one I fought at Borodino."--Napoleon The fighting involved around 250,000 troops and left at least 68,000 killed and wounded, making Borodino the deadliest day of the Napoleonic Wars and the bloodiest single day in the history of warfare until the First Battle of the Marne in 1914. (236, 54, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: You driven the French out of the eahworks at bayonet point (237, 61, 0) ***Statue of Legion*** Message: Kutuzov's food supplies and reinforcements were mostly coming up through Kaluga from the fertile and populous southern provinces, his new deployment gave him every opportunity to feed his men and horses and rebuild their strength. He refused to attack; he was happy for Napoleon to stay in Moscow for as long as possible, avoiding complicated movements and manoeuvres.We will fight the French with a guerilla warfare (239, 56, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kaluga (66, 37, 0) ***Zombie*** Message: You were attacked by a column of the British and Austrian coalition forces led by Duke of York (67, 38, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Famars(French part) We lost our advantage in the battle of Neerwinden Can you defeat the Hannover Austrian Allied Forces here? (68, 33, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Valenciennes (1793) We lost our advantage in the Battle of Famars Try to rescue the city from the army of Duke of York and Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (61, 14, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Hondschoote You need to win Battle of Jemappes firstly. We need win this battle and reinforce Dunkirk (63, 12, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dunkirk need reinforcement Duke of York's amry is attacking us Siege of Dunkirk (70, 40, 0) ***Harpy*** Message: This battle will bring the battle of the Northern Front to a deadlock. (71, 40, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Siege of Dunkirk Win Siege of Dunkirk 3/3.The conditions of the Battle of Wattignies are now formed. (53, 215, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "There is only possible plan-Bonaparte's" -Genral Dugommier to the Minister of War We need more cannons to deal with British warships La batterie des hommes sans peur has been built! (54, 214, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Antoine Saliceti,a Corsican deputy of Natioanl Convention In Paris,recommended Napoleon Bonaparte to the front of Toulon (66, 34, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Famars win Battle of Neerwinden Battle of Famars (64, 35, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Famars(British part) Win Battle of Camden of American Revolutionary War Newly arrived Anglo-Hanoverian contingent commanded by the 26-year-old Frederick, Duke of York; it was decided they would spearhead the main attack. This is perhaps surprising, as for many of the British troops it would be their first taste of action against Republican France. (65, 34, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Famars (64, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Valenciennes (1793) (66, 10, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Hondschoote (87, 1, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: We succeeded in capturing a significant proportion of the Batavian fleet. (76, 58, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Frech army led by Generals Francois Kellermann and Charles Dumouriez (74, 197, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French army led by Andre_Massena attack on you (75, 198, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Saorgio Win Battle of Wattignies in North front Win this battle to defend Piemonte region (119, 80, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Habsburg Monarchy led by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (120, 79, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We lost in Battle of Fleurus Finsh Battle of Fleurus Now we must win and force the French army to withdraw to the west bank of the Rhine (106, 189, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Friedrich Franz Xaver Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and his men join you (106, 188, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French forces under the overall command of Napoleon Bonaparte (105, 187, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the relief of Mantua, Paul Davidovich commanded the Left-Center (III) Column During the relief of Mantua, Paul Davidovich commanded the Left-Center (III) Column (208, 85, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Brzesc Litewski (208, 84, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Mir (1792) Win Battle of Mir (1792) Defeat the local garrison and take Brest,force King Poniatowski decide to sue for peace (196, 94, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Polish army led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko (91, 167, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Defeat Jean Moreau's French army (93, 167, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Cassano d'Adda Deal with Kosciuszko Uprising ,capture Warsaw and make the third partition of Poland Now we will fight the French.Battle of Cassano d'Adda (93, 169, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sign Treaty of Campo Formio Sign Treaty of Campo Formio From October 1797 until March 1799 France and Austria, the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio, avoided armed conflict but remained suspicious of each other and several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. (92, 168, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Deal with Denisko uprising first Deal with Denisko uprising first Battle of Cassano d'Adda (88, 168, 0) ***Castle*** Name: Milan Timed events: Name: eMilan_Conservatory Message: In 1807 ， Milan Conservatory established.he conservatory was established by a royal decree of 1807 in Milan, capital of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Name: e Cisalpine Republic. Message: In 1796 ， Milan declared capital of Cisalpine Republic. The Cisalpine Republic was for many years under the dominion of the House of Austria. The French Republic succeeded it by right of conquest. It now renounces this right, and the Cisalpine Republic is free and independent. Recognized by France and by the Emperor, it will soon be equally acknowledged by the rest of Europe. The Executive Directory of the French Republic, not content with employing its influence, and the victories of the Republican armies, to secure the political existence of the Cisalpine Republic, extends its care still further; and convinced that, if liberty be the first of blessings, the revolution which attends it is the greatest of evils, it has given to the Cisalpine people their peculiar Constitution, resulting from the wisdom of the most enlightened nation. From a military regime, the Cisalpine people pass to a constitutional one. That this transition should experience no shock, nor be exposed to anarchy, the Executive Directory though proper to nominate, for the present, the members of the government and the legislative body, so that the people should, after the lapse of one year, have the election to the vacant places, in conformity to the Constitution. For a great number of years, there existed no republic in Italy. The sacred fire of liberty was extinguished, and the finest part of Europe was under the yoke of strangers. It belongs to the Cisalpine Republic to show to the world by its wisdom, its energy, and the good organization of its armies, that modern Italy is not degenerated, and is still worthy of liberty. (Signed) Buonaparte. —?Proclamation of General Buonaparte (later became the Preamble to the Constitution of the Cisalpine Republic), Montebello, 11 Messidor, year V (29 June 1797). Name: eItalian Republic Message: In 1802 ,Milan becomes capital of the Napoleonic Italian Republic. The Italian Republic was the successor of the Cisalpine Republic, which changed its constitution to allow the French First Consul Napoleon to become its president. The flag of the Italian Republic maintained the three Italian-Milanese national colours, but with a new, less revolutionary, pattern. (90, 168, 0) ***Crusader*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (26, 204, 0) ***Pikeman*** Message: Battle of Truillas (28, 211, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Bascara (1795) win Battle of Truillas Battle of Bascara (1795) (78, 176, 0) ***Vampire's Cowl*** Message: The Shroud of Turin (Italian: Sindone di Torino), also known as the Holy Shroudor Santa Sindone), is a length of linen cloth bearing the negative image of a man. Some describe the image as depicting Jesus of Nazareth and believe the fabric is the burial shroud in which he was wrapped after crucifixion.The shroud has been kept in the royal chapel of the Cathedral of Turin, in northern Italy, since 1578. (59, 52, 0) ***Vampire Lord*** Message: "Aha, Arno, my friend, we meet again, let me pay for your wine debt, and then you have to do something for me"--de Sade (57, 52, 0) ***Cape of Velocity*** Message: Martin of Tours (Latin: Sanctus Martinus Turonensis; 316 - 8 November 397) was the third bishop of Tours.While Martin was a soldier in the Roman army and stationed in Gaul (modern-day France), he experienced a vision, which became the most-repeated story about his life. One day as he was approaching the gates of the city of Amiens, he met a scantily clad beggar. He impulsively cut his military cloak in half to share with the man. That night, Martin dreamed of Jesus wearing the half-cloak he had given away. He heard Jesus say to the angels: "Martin, who is still but a catechumen, clothed me with this robe." During the Middle Ages, the supposed relic of St. Martin's miraculous cloak (cappa Sancti Martini) was carried by the king even into battle, and used as a holy relic upon which oaths were sworn. The cloak is first attested to in the royal treasury in 679, when it was conserved at the palatium of Luzarches, a royal villa that was later ceded to the monks of Saint-Denis by Charlemagne, in 798/99.The priest who cared for the cloak in its reliquary was called a cappellanu, and ultimately all priests who served the military were called cappellani. The French translation is chapelains, from which the English word chaplain is derived (56, 51, 0) ***Cape of Velocity*** Message: In another version, when Martin woke, he found his cloak restored to wholeness. The dream confirmed Martin in his piety, and he was baptised at the age of 18 (87, 63, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate (88, 62, 0) ***Recanter's Cloak*** Message: The Seamless Robe of Jesus (also known as the Holy Robe, Holy Tunic, Holy Coat, Honorable Robe, and Chiton of the Lord) is the robe said to have been worn by Jesus during or shortly before his crucifixion. Competing traditions claim that the robe has been preserved to the present day. One tradition places it in the Cathedral of Trier Then the soldiers, when they had crucified Jesus, took his garments (ta himatia) and divided them into four parts, to every soldier a part, and the coat (kai ton chitona). Now the coat was without seam, woven whole from the top down. Therefore, they said among themselves, let us not tear it, but cast lots for it, whose it will become. Thus the saying in Scripture was fulfilled: they divided My raiment (ta imatia) among them, and upon My vesture (epi ton himatismon) did they cast lots. —?John 19:23-24; quoting the Septuagint version of Psalm 21 [22]:18-19 (87, 62, 0) ***Sandals of the Saint*** Message: The Sandals of Jesus Christ were among the most important relics of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. They were donated to Prüm Abbey by Pope Zachary (741-752) and Pope Stephen II (752-757). The sandals are the remains of an ornate fabric shoe (slipper) allegedly from the Merovingian period (5th to 8th centuries),which were given to the Abbey by Rome in the Carolingian period (7th to 9th centuries). In 1574, Prüm became subordinated to Trier. (58, 52, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Welcome to our hiden tavern of Saint-Denis "What are you thinking, young man?"The tavern owner asks. Depressed following elise's death, Arno took a sabbatical in Franciade, the former city of Saint-Denis, drinking away his sorrows in a local tavern. (58, 50, 0) ***Skull Helmet*** Message: You identified The severed head of King Henri IV from the jumbled remains in the mass graves in Paris's Royal Basilica of Saint-Denis. During his two decades as king of France (and 37 years as king of Navarre), Henri IV accumulated many a pleasing epithet, including "Henri the Great," "the good king Henri" and "the Green gallant"—the latter being an homage to his reputed good looks and upstanding character. One of his most famous historic contributions was the 1589 Edict of Nantes, the decree that ended the country's civil war by giving religious freedom to Protestants. But not everyone took a kind view of the monarch's religious tolerance, and he became the target of many assassination attempts. Henri IV was finally murdered in 1610 by a militant Catholic named Fran?ois Ravaillac, who stabbed the king in the royal carriage. (90, 164, 0) ***Crown of the Supreme Magi*** Message: The Iron Crown (Italian: Corona Ferrea; Latin: Corona Ferrea) is a reliquary and may be one of the oldest royal insignia of Christendom. It was made in the Early Middle Ages, consisting of a circlet of gold and jewels fitted around a central silver band, which tradition held to be made of iron beaten out of a nail of the True Cross. In the medieval Kingdom of Italy, the crown came to be seen as a relic from the Kingdom of the Lombards and was used as regalia for the coronation of the Holy Roman Emperors as kings of Italy. It is kept in the Cathedral of Monza, about 15 kilometres (9 miles) north-northeast of Milan (148, 108, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Austerlitz Win Battle of Austerlitz It's time to occupy Prague (149, 108, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Kingdom of Bohemia The Kingdom of Bohemia together with the other lands of the Bohemian Crown, was ruled under a personal union as part of the Habsburg Monarchy (150, 107, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Metropolitan Cathedral of Saints Vitus, Wenceslaus and Adalbert--a Roman Catholic metropolitan cathedral in Prague, the seat of the Archbishop of Prague.This cathedral is a prominent example of Gothic architecture, and is the largest and most important church in the country. The Crown of Saint Wenceslas (Svatováclavská koruna) (German: Wenzelskrone) is a crown forming part of the Bohemian Crown Jewels, made in 1346. Charles IV, king of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, had it made for his coronation, dedicating it to the first patron saint of the country St. Wenceslas and bequeathed it as a state crown for the coronation of (future) Bohemian kings. On the orders of Charles IV the new royal crown was deposited in St. Vitus Cathedral. The St. Wenceslas Crown is made of 21 to 22 carat (88 to 92%) gold and decorated with 91 precious stones and 20 pearls. It has a total of 19 sapphires, 44 spinels, 30 emeralds and 1 red elbaite (variety rubellite), often falsely referred to as ruby. The crown has two hoops and an upstanding cross at the point of intersection. There is no monde; the cross stands directly on the crown. It weighs two and a half kilos. The sapphire cross has an inset cameo in which the scene of the Crucifixion is cut. (91, 33, 0) ***Talisman of Mana*** Message: Consisting of a Byzantine steatite icon of the Virgin and Child mounted in a Gothic ogee-shaped frame, this small pendant belonged to the treasury of Aachen Cathedral until 1804, when it was given to Empress Josephine of France as a gift. By then, it was cherished for its association with Emperor Charlemagne (r. 800-814), who was believed to have worn it in battle. A related tradition, first attested during the early seventeenth century, claims that the pendant was one of three reliquaries found around Charlemagne's neck when the emperor's body was exhumed in 1166 following his canonization. (50, 216, 0) ***Wizard's Well*** Message: Wine Transport Amphoras This Wine Transport Amphora was found in a Mediterranean shipwreck Culture: Graeco-Roman Date Made: 110-80 BC Materials: Ceramic Dimensions: Length: 104cm (156, 105, 0) ***Tome of Fire Magic*** Message: The Codex Gigas ("Giant Book"; Czech: Ob?í kniha) is the largest extant medieval illuminated manuscript in the world, at a length of 92 cm (36 in). Very large illuminated bibles were a typical feature of Romanesque monastic book production,but even within this group, the page-size of the Codex Gigas is noted as exceptional. The manuscript is also known as the Devil's Bible, due to its highly unusual full-page portrait of Satan, and the legend surrounding its creation. The manuscript was created in the early 13th century in the Benedictine monastery of Podla?ice in Bohemia (116, 224, 0) ***Vial of Lifeblood*** Message: The blood of St. Gennaro:The dissolution of blood of St. Gennaro is certainly the most ancient Neapolitan mistery. The blood from solid condition becomes liquid for three times in a year: on 16th December, on the first weekend of May and on 19th September (patron saint’s festival). Believers consider this phenomenon a miracle but if liquefaction doesn’t happen, this event is considered “baleful”. this will be the year of a terrible earthquake… (116, 229, 0) ***Arms of Legion*** Message: AT THE HALFWAY POINT OF the ancient Neapolitan decumanus (east-west corridor) known colloquially as the “Spaccanapoli” sits the imposing fortress-like exterior of the basilica of San Domenico Maggiore. Inside this 13th-century church’s Sacred Relics Chamber are what remains of the left arm of city’s most prominent philosopher, the priest St. Thomas Aquinas.The remains of the left arm of the levitating philosopher-saint are kept in a 13th-century Neapolitan basilica. (66, 26, 0) ***Arms of Legion*** Message: The sacred relic of Saint George was one of the most famous of relics, after the True Cross and Holy Lance, and was the arm of the Saint George (d. 303), ordered killed by the Roman Emperor Diocletian for his failure to renounce his faith in Christ. George, a secondary patron saint of the First Crusade, played a significant role and provided other relics, as the occupation of his tomb at Lydda (now Lod, Israel) marked the first Latin bishop of Jerusalem as well as a service to ask for his intervention. The arm was given to the abbey of Anchin ， Nord department of France.by Robert of Jerusalem (Robert II of Flanders) at some time during the Jerusalem campaign. (106, 218, 0) ***Head of Legion*** Message: The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (Italian: Basilica di Massenzio), sometimes known as the Basilica Nova—meaning "new basilica"—or Basilica of Maxentius, is an ancient building in the Roman Forum, Rome, Italy. It was the largest building in the Forum, and the last Roman basilica built in the city.Colossus of Constantine, originally situated in the west apse of the Basilica.The Colossus of Constantine (Italian: Statua Colossale di Costantino I) was a huge acrolithic statue of the late Roman emperor Constantine the Great (c. 280-337) .An inscription is said to have been engraved below the statue, reading in translation: through this sign of salvation, which is the true symbol of goodness, i rescued your city and freed it from the tyrant's yoke, and through my act of liberation i restored the senate and people of rome to their ancient renown and splendour (245, 234, 0) ***Head of Legion*** Message: Marble head of Emperor Caracalla Title: Marble head of Emperor Caracalla Culture: Roman Date: 212 - 217 AD Provenience: Turkey (Country), Rumeli Hisar, near Istanbul, Turkey Period: Roman Period Materials: Marble Dimensions: H: 27cm; W: 19.5cm; D: 12.5cm (111, 223, 0) ***Head of Legion*** Message: Herm of Herakles and Hermes Title: Herm of Herakles and Hermes Culture: Roman Provenience: Italy, Latium, Minturnae Date Made: 200-299 AD Materials: Marble Dimensions: H 25cm; W: 14.1cm; D: 15.2cm This marble sculpture is a Herm of Herakles and Hermes. A herm is a sculpture with a head above a plain usually squared lower section. The form originated in Ancient Greece and was adopted by the Romans, and revived during the Renaissance in the forms of Term and Atlantes in architectural elements in classical buildings. (38, 34, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (26, 123, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (41, 186, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (2, 211, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (89, 158, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (113, 192, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (128, 125, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (130, 94, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (147, 116, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (166, 45, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (220, 82, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (240, 131, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (195, 137, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (229, 217, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (146, 210, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (208, 247, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (235, 225, 0) ***Skull Helmet*** Message: In early 811, Nikephoros I undertook a massive expedition against Bulgaria, advancing to Marcellae (near Karnobat). At dawn on July 26, the Bulgarians managed to trap the retreating Nikephoros in the V?rbica pass. The Byzantine army was wiped out in the ensuing battle and Nikephoros was killed, while his son Staurakios was carried to safety by the imperial bodyguard after receiving a paralyzing wound to the neck. It is said that Krum had the Emperor's skull lined with silver and used it as a drinking cup. (242, 239, 0) ***Garniture of Interference*** Message: Reliquary Pendant with the Adoration of the Magi Culture: Byzantine (Constantinople) Date: 10th-11th century Material: Silver, gold, niello Dimensions: 0.8 × 2.1 × 3.7 cm Inscribed: reverse: + Η ? ΒΕΒΑΙΑ ? ΣΩΤΗΡΙΑ ? ΚΑΙ ? ΑΠΟΣΤΡΟΦΗ ? ΠΑΝΤΩΝ ? ΤΩΝ ? ΚΑΚΩΝ (Secure deliverance and aversion [from] all evil); edge of lid: + ΤΩΝ ? ΑΓΙΩΝ ? ΚΩΣΜΑ ? ΚΑΙ ? ΔΑΜΙΑΝΩΥ (of Sts. Cosmas and Damian) The healing symbolism of the twin saints suggests that this reliquary was a type of medical amulet, intended to protect the wearer from illness. The hinged loop at the top would have been for suspension, so that the locket could have been worn or held. The locket contains a cavity, closed by a sliding pin, that probably contained relics. (147, 103, 0) ***Titan's Gladius*** Message: In Mythology, Bruncvík was a nobleman and a hero from Czech legends who left his wife to go pursue adventures in foreign lands. Along the way he acquired a magical sword that had the ability of chopping off heads with a simple command: "Blade, heads off". Later he encountered a white lion battling a nine-headed dragon and he helped slay the dragon. The lion then faithfully followed Bruncvík as they traveled together. The white lion is on the lesser coat of arms of Bohemia, one of the three historical kingdoms that make up the current Czech Republic. It is portrayed mid-jump with a forked tail, showing it's teeth and wearing a golden crown. A statue of Bruncvík can be found on the Charle's Bridge in Prague. The legend says the real sword of Bruncvík is hidden inside the bridge itself, sealed off in one of the pillars that support the bridge. The legend says the sword will reappear when the toughest times fall on the 'kingdom' and it will help save the Bohemian people. (103, 214, 0) ***Sword of Judgement*** Message: The sword in the stone can be seen at the Rotonda at Montesiepi, near the ruins of the Abbey of San Galgano. The handle of a sword protrudes from a stone, and is said to be the sword of Galgano. The canonization process to declare Galgano a saint started in 1185, only a few years after his death, and his canonization was the first conducted with a formal process by the Roman Church. (184, 116, 0) ***Sword of Judgement*** Message: Szczerbiec (Polish pronunciation: [??t???r.b??t?s]) is the ceremonial sword used in the coronations of most Polish monarchs from 1320 to 1764. It now is displayed in the treasure vault of the royal Wawel Castle in Kraków, as the only preserved part of the medieval Polish crown jewels. A legend links Szczerbiec with King Boleslaus I the Brave who was said to have chipped the sword by hitting it against the Golden Gate of Kiev during his intervention in the Kievan succession crisis in 1018. (106, 216, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: First Order of Franciscans First Order of Franciscans The First Order or the Order of Friars Minor are commonly called simply the Franciscans. This order is a mendicant religious order of men, some of whom trace their origin to Francis of Assisi.Their official Latin name is the Ordo Fratrum Minorum.St. Francis thus referred to his followers as "Fraticelli", meaning "Little Brothers". Franciscan brothers are informally called friars or the Minorites (105, 216, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Second Order of Franciscans Second Order of Franciscans The Second Order, most commonly called Poor Clares in English-speaking countries, consists of religious sisters. The order is called the Order of St. Clare (OSC), but in the thirteenth century, prior to 1263, this order was referred to as "The Poor Ladies", "The Poor Enclosed Nuns", and "The Order of San Damiano" (105, 215, 0) ***Armageddon's Blade*** Message: The Holy Lance, also known as the Lance of Longinus (named after Saint Longinus), the Spear of Destiny, or the Holy Spear, is the lance that pierced the side of Jesus as he hung on the cross during his crucifixion. A relic described as the Holy Lance in Rome is preserved beneath the dome of Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican. This relic has never since left Rome, and its resting place is at Saint Peter's. (122, 219, 0) ***Vial of Dragon Blood*** Message: The local legend says that Atessa was once two different villages, Ate and Tixa. The two small villages were separated by a marsh or river which was nearly impossible to cross due to the dragon that lived in there. After spending years giving tribute to the dragon in the form of food and livestock, the two villages decided to seek the help of a specialist: Leucio, Bishop of Brindisi and dragon-buster, who had already supposedly already killed a dragon in his city. The man went into the lair by himself and subdued the vile creature with only his glance and willpower, chained the monster for seven days to satisfy folks’ curiosity, then killed it. The dragon’s magical blood was used to cure diseases and to turn the marsh into fertile farmland. After this epic struggle, the two villages merged together and a church was built directly over the dragon’s lair to honor Saint Leucio. (142, 95, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Old?ich Oak (Czech: Old?ich?v dub), also known as the Prince Old?ich Oak, is a Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur) treelocated in the market town of Peruc in the Czech Republic that is estimated to be about 1,000 years old.The tree has a height of 30 m (100 ft) and a trunk circumference of 810 cm (320 in). The tree derives its name from a legend, set in the 11th century, involving Old?ich of Bohemia and Bo?ena, the mother of his only son. According to the legend, Old?ich set out on a hunt and travelled to Peruc. There, he spied a beautiful peasant girl, Bo?ena, by a well (known today as Bo?ena's spring)and was immediately entranced by her. Old?ich abandoned his hunt and took Bo?ena back to Prague, and she eventually gave birth to his son Bretislaus. In the legend, Old?ich's first meeting with Bo?ena took place in sight of the Old?ich Oak. (136, 191, 0) ***Infernal Troglodyte*** Message: "Byci skal" -- Betal Rock Shelter a karst cave (73, 28, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Waterloo After Battle of Leipzig ,Napoleon returned from Elba while the Congress of Vienna was sitting. "One saw officers and men prick their hands to mingle their blood with the liquor and so swear to shed it to the last drop for Napoleon's cause." It was evening when Napoleon reached Paris. The Emperor, seeing his carraige could get no further, got out in the midst of immense crowd (20,000 people at least) pressing around him. The people almost stifled him. Thiebault writes: "Suddenly Napoleon reappeared. The explosion was sudden, irresistible. I thought myself present at the Resurrection of Christ." He was carried up to his appartments without his feet touching the steps of the staircase. Officer Lavalette had his eyes "bathed in tears." The crowd tried to come forward to him, but a wave of officers rushed forward and would have crushed them. The doors, with difficulty, were shut, and the crowd dispersed. Waterloo was the decisive engagement of the Waterloo Campaign and Napoleon's last. According to Wellington, the battle was "the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life". Napoleon abdicated four days later, and coalition forces entered Paris on 7 July. The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile. This ended the First French Empire and set a chronological milestone between serial European wars and decades of relative peace, often referred to as the Pax Britannica. (73, 29, 0) ***Recanter's Cloak*** Message: Wellington’s Cloak--This mud-spattered garment was the very cloak worn by the Duke of Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo and during the campaign of 15-18 June, 1815. The Duke dressed plainly; in manner, as well as in dress, he usually showed a dislike of pomp and fuss. Curiously, his adversary at Waterloo, Napoleon Bonaparte, also dressed fairly simply. The cloak would have given protection to the Duke when it was worn during the tremendous storm during the night of the 17 June, the night before the battle. The cloak is made from a high quality blue woollen fabric, probably broadcloth, and it has a hem at the bottom. There is a silk velvet collar faded to brown, which was probably black originally. The grey coloured loop on the left hand side of the collar would allow the collar to be turned up and buttoned in bad weather. There appears to be a line of stitching along the front edges which held the facings in place. The buttons are of a yellow metal, probably gilded brass. (74, 29, 0) ***Speculum*** Message: This is the telescope used during the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington. A telescope was an important tool for any officer, but doubly so for a general. The telescope would magnify the image (30 times) enabling Wellington to pick out a unit and even an individual amid the confusion of battle. (65, 69, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: After the Peace of Luneville in 1801, Antoine-Henri Jomini went to Paris, where he worked for a military equipment manufacturer. Sign Treaty of Luneville Chief of the staff to Ney--Jomini at your service (93, 249, 0) ***Event*** Message: Uthina Amphitheater (114, 229, 0) ***Event*** Message: Pozzuoli Amphitheater，Pozzuoli，Phlegraean Fields (161, 232, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Marmont's Army of Dalmatia join you (185, 116, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Back in Poland in 1784, Kosciuszko helped organize the Polish Army which was enlarged by provisions contained in the statutes of the Four-Year Seym and participated in the 1792 war against Russia. An armed insurrection broke out in Poland in 1794. Kosciuszko returned to the country and was appointed commander-in-chief of the armed forces with powers of a dictator. On March 24th Kosciuszko took his oath in Cracow: "I swear to the whole Polish nation that I shall not use the power vested in me for private oppression but that I shall exercise this power only in the defense of the whole of the frontiers and to regain the independence of the Nation and to establish universal freedom". Wishing to draw the peasant masses into the fight for liberty, Kosciuszko proclaimed what is called the Po3aniec Universal in which he abolished serfdom, reduced the corvee - or unpaid labour for the lord - and freed peasants who served in the army from this duty. (142, 36, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Neuruppin--the most Prussian of all Prussian towns (176, 185, 0) ***Fire Elemental*** Message: A fire in 1794 hit here- Szekszárd (164, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Poznań Fara,Poznań (49, 82, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (143, 250, 0) ***Azure Dragon*** Message: Trained architec·{Freemason}·General Jean-Baptiste Kleber at your service (132, 187, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On 18 June 1798, Former Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim left Malta for Trieste after Malta fall into Napoleon's hand, here he established a new headquarters for the Order Pro Fide, Pro Utilitate Hominum. For Faith, For Service to Humanity. --Motto of Knights Hospitaller Hompesch published a second manifesto from Trieste on 23 October to abdicated . Dear hero,now you will lead the Knights Hospitaller (86, 94, 0) ***Event*** Message: Fran?ois-etienne-Christophe Kellermann at your service (60, 32, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We urgently need to establish The Revolutionary Tribunals of departments of the Somme and Pas-de-Calais Are you a Jacobin leader? Robespierre appointed Joseph Le Bon as maire of Arras and administrateur of Pas-de-Calais, and on 2 July 1793 gave him seat in the convention. (59, 32, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "We will show great severity in dealing with offences against revolutionaries here.And We will save Cambrai from falling into the hands of the Austrians"--Joseph Le Bon and his men (57, 12, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Help us, Joseph Le Bon is chasing us,he want us executed by guillotine"--North nobles (58, 13, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Jacobins abused their power Girondists must stop all this atrocities (231, 109, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Korosten,Zhytomyr Oblast In 945, Igor of Kiev ruler of the Kievan Rus was killed while collecting tribute from the Drevlians in Iskorosten. Igor's widow, Olga of Kiev,then asked them for a small request: “Give me three pigeons...and three sparrows from each house.” Olga then instructed her army to attach a piece of sulphur bound with small pieces of cloth to each bird. At nightfall, Olga told her soldiers to set the pieces aflame and release the birds. They returned to their nests within the city, which subsequently set the city ablaze. As the Primary Chronicle tells it: “There was not a house that was not consumed, and it was impossible to extinguish the flames, because all the houses caught fire at once.” (107, 143, 0) ***Sharpshooter*** Message: Folk hero, freedom fighter and Austrian patriot Andreas Hofer and his sharpshooters at your command (108, 143, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Tyrolean Rebellion These resistance groups are loyal to the emperor of Austria With the rise of nationalism in the 19th century, the tragic fate of the rebellion and of Andreas Hofer became a national myth especially for the German speaking Tyroleans. (190, 80, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Tsar Alexander, installed Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia in Congress Poland as de facto viceroy (however, he was not the "official viceroy", namestnik of the Kingdom of Poland), with a task of the militarization and discipline of Poland Governor of the Kingdom of Poland now in power here to serve the russian empire (161, 12, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Fredrik Henrik af Chapman was appointed head of the naval shipyard at the main naval base of Karlskrona. Here, he built new ships and organized production series for ships based on prefabrication methods, which meant that he could deliver twenty new ships in just three years, ten ships-of-the-line and ten frigates. Chapman also became a pioneer in the application of mathematical calculations in the relation between rigging, displacement, water resistance, the center of gravity of hulls, stability and tonnage. Provide the funds to finance Chapman's plans to expand the navy with 60- to 70-gun warships of his design Fredrik Henrik af Chapman (9 September 1721 in Gothenburg - 19 August 1808) was a Swedish shipbuilder, scientist and officer in the Swedish navy. He was also manager of the Karlskrona shipyard 1782-1793. Chapman is credited as the world's first person to apply scientific methods to shipbuilding and is considered to be the first naval architect. Chapman was the author of Architectura Navalis Mercatoria (1768) and several other shipbuilding-related works. His Tractat om Skepps-Byggeriet ("Treatise on Shipbuilding") published in 1775 is a pioneering work in modern naval architecture. He was the first shipbuilder in Northern Europe to introduce prefabrication in shipyards and managed to produce several series of ships in record time. (51, 67, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Phantasmagoria (also fantasmagorie, fantasmagoria) was a form of horror theatre that (among other techniques) used one or more magic lanterns to project frightening images, such as skeletons, demons, and ghosts, onto walls, smoke, or semi-transparent screens, typically using rear projection to keep the lantern out of sight. Mobile or portable projectors were used, allowing the projected image to move and change size on the screen, and multiple projecting devices allowed for quick switching of different images. In many shows, the use of spooky decoration, total darkness, (auto-)suggestive verbal presentation, and sound effects were also key elements. Some shows added a variety of sensory stimulation, including smells and electric shocks. Such elements as required fasting, fatigue (late shows), and drugs have been mentioned as methods of making sure spectators would be more convinced of what they saw. The shows started under the guise of actual seances in Germany in the late 18th century and gained popularity through most of Europe (including Britain) throughout the 19th century. French physician, inventor and manufacturer of conjuring apparatus and scientific instruments Edme-Gilles Guyot described several techniques in his 1770 book Nouvelles recreations physiques et mathematiques, including the projection of ghosts on smoke His experiments led to the technique of projecting images onto smoke to create the appearance of ghostly apparitions (51, 68, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Manufacturer of conjuring apparatus and scientific instruments, Guyot was accused of exploiting and revealing the tricks used at the time by magicians and science populizers like Nicolas-Philippe Ledru and Fran?ois Pelletier. He created "magic theatres" for the aristocracy - small boxes that use lanterns and slides to create an animated story. Guyot's work was influential in the development of magic lanterns and their use in phantasmagoria.In 1770 he detailed a method of simultaneously using two different slides in this early projection device. His example was a sea that would become increasingly stormy, throwing around the ships that were sailing on it. He advised that the slides would need to be very carefully painted in order to create a realistic and beautiful animation. His writings on the subject were translated into English and German and were widely circulated around Europe. .In 1779 Guyot described the use of transformation slides in magic lanterns to create simple animations.His developments into the apparent appearance of ghosts, using the projection of a figure into smoke, helped to create the technology and techniques used in phantasmagoria. (82, 212, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Calvi Hood's fleet was delayed by the Siege of Toulon but in February 1794 supplied a small expeditionary force which successfully defeated the French garrison of San Fiorenzo and then a larger force which besieged the town of Bastia. The British force, now led by General Charles Stuart, then turned their attention to the fortress of Calvi, the only remaining French-held fortress in Corsica. (82, 216, 0) ***Rogue*** Message: The housekeeper of Ajaccio's Bonaparte family also serves as Napoleon's secret agent Jean Baptiste Cipriani at your service (82, 217, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The ancestral home of the Bonaparte family "Casa Buonaparte",Ajaccio "The life of Napoleon is an ode to political will. The path of a child from Ajaccio who became the master of Europe shows clearly that a man can change the course of history," said Macron, who is the country's youngest leader since Napoleon and has sought to position himself as a similarly defining figure. "Napoleon is a part of us," French President Emmanuel Macron said on May 5，2021 in a landmark speech marking the 200th anniversary of the emperor's death. (170, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Trachenberg Plan The plan was an amalgam of two prior works: the Trachenberg Protocol and the Reichenbach Plan,authored by the Austrian chief of staff of the Sixth Coalition, Joseph Radetzky von Radetz and Crown Prince of Sweden Charles John (formerly Napoleon's marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte) whose experience with the tactics and methods of the Grande Armee, as well as personal insight on Napoleon, proved invaluable.The combined, modified version of the two prior plans became known as the Trachenberg Plan. The Trachenberg Plan was a campaign strategy created by the Allies in the 1813 German Campaign during the War of the Sixth Coalition, and named for the conference held at the palace of Trachenberg.The plan advocated avoiding direct engagement with French emperor, Napoleon I, which had resulted from fear of the emperor's now legendary prowess in battle. Consequently, the Allies planned to engage and defeat Napoleon's marshals and generals separately, and thus weaken his army while they built up an overwhelming force even he could not defeat. It was decided upon after a series of defeats and near disasters at the hands of Napoleon at Lützen, Bautzen and Dresden. The plan was successful, and at the Battle of Leipzig, where the Allies had a considerable numerical advantage, Napoleon was soundly defeated and driven out of Germany, back to the Rhine. (171, 86, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Trachenberg Plan The plan was an amalgam of two prior works: the Trachenberg Protocol and the Reichenbach Plan,authored by the Austrian chief of staff of the Sixth Coalition, Joseph Radetzky von Radetz and Crown Prince of Sweden Charles John (formerly Napoleon's marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte) whose experience with the tactics and methods of the Grande Armee, as well as personal insight on Napoleon, proved invaluable.The combined, modified version of the two prior plans became known as the Trachenberg Plan. The Trachenberg Plan was a campaign strategy created by the Allies in the 1813 German Campaign during the War of the Sixth Coalition, and named for the conference held at the palace of Trachenberg.The plan advocated avoiding direct engagement with French emperor, Napoleon I, which had resulted from fear of the emperor's now legendary prowess in battle. Consequently, the Allies planned to engage and defeat Napoleon's marshals and generals separately, and thus weaken his army while they built up an overwhelming force even he could not defeat. It was decided upon after a series of defeats and near disasters at the hands of Napoleon at Lützen, Bautzen and Dresden. The plan was successful, and at the Battle of Leipzig, where the Allies had a considerable numerical advantage, Napoleon was soundly defeated and driven out of Germany, back to the Rhine. (171, 84, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Castellan Tower,Zmigród (134, 65, 0) ***Halberdier*** Message: With the bridge destroyed, many French troops attempted to swim across, with a large number drowning in the process. The battle was the culmination of the German Campaign of 1813 and involved 500,000 soldiers, 2,200 artillery pieces, the expenditure of 200,000 rounds of artillery ammunition, and 127,000 casualties, making it the largest battle in Europe prior to World War I. (243, 8, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gatsjina (110, 49, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Hesse-Kassel--infamous for selling mercenaries (Hessians) to the British crown to help suppress the American Revolution (248, 61, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tula Arms Plant (168, 107, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Klodzko (141, 250, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Cairo (143, 251, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Kleber, son of an operative mason and a prominent {Freemason} himself, was attestedly instrumental in bringing {{Freemason}ry} to Egypt. While he was negotiating with Sidney Smith in January 1800, Kleber opened a masonic temple in Cairo and thus created the Isis lodge (La Loge Isis), serving as its first master. Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge La Loge Isis You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge La Loge Isis ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (144, 250, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Abukir (1799) At this point, cavalry general Murat saw his opportunity and attacked with his cavalry, quickly routing the exposed Turks (140, 251, 0) ***Mummy*** Message: You caught some Ottoman chiefs and some commanders，but our Mediterranean fleet was destroyed by the British navy in the Battle of Nile (117, 240, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Hundred-Horse Chestnut,eastern slope of Mount Etna(3,326 m) The tree's name originated from a legend in which a queen of Aragon and her company of 100 knights, during a trip to Mount Etna, were caught in a severe thunderstorm. The entire company is said to have taken shelter under the tree. Un pedi di castagna tantu grossu ca ccu li rami so' forma un paracqua sutta di cui si riparò di l'acqua, di fùrmini, e saitti la riggina Giuvanna ccu centu cavaleri, quannu ppi visitari Mungibeddu vinni surprisa di lu timpurali. D'allura si chiamò st'àrvulu situatu 'ntra 'na valli lu gran castagnu d'i centu cavalli. (93, 9, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Veluwe--a forest-rich ridge of hills (1100 km2) in the province of Gelderland in the Netherlands (77, 28, 0) ***Stone Gargoyle*** Message: The Sonian Forest or Sonian Wood(Dutch: Zoni?nwoud, French: Forêt de Soignes)-- a 4,421-hectare (10,920-acre) forest at the southeast edge of Brussels, Belgium.There are many species of bat in the forest (76, 18, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Scheldt river (75, 17, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (49, 62, 0) ***Event*** Message: … Oh-oh-oh, oh-oh, oh Oh-oh-oh, oh-oh, oh Oh-oh-oh, oh-oh, oh Oh-oh-oh, oh-oh, oh Oh-oh-oh, oh-oh, oh … I hear Jerusalem bells are ringing Roman Cavalry choirs are singing (46, 62, 0) ***Event*** Message: {Events that can be triggered by blue players for unlimited times -- salute Napoleon} Vive l'Empereur! (244, 10, 0) ***Event*** Message: {Events that green players can trigger infinitely -- Loyalty to the Tsar} Боже, Царя храни! (0, 181, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Francisco Espoz y Mina,a former peasant,ran a highly organised band,now join you,to wage a war of la guerrilla against the French (8, 224, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Tortosa(1810-11) Win Battle of Bailen first Siege of Tortosa(1810-11) (14, 224, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Tarragona(1811) Win Battle of Bailen first Siege of Tarragona(1811) (22, 155, 0) ***Devil*** Message: "I would ensure that the bridge is never finished and must be repaired each day!" (21, 154, 0) ***Event*** Message: Pont Valentre,Cahors (177, 202, 0) ***Event*** Message: "Wanna read Bible in Croatian?"--Matija PetarKatancic (61, 57, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Hotel de Langeac,a residence in Paris, France, located at 92, Avenue des Champs-elysees, the corner of the Champs-elysees and the rue de Berri. As the French Revolution began, Jefferson allowed his Paris residence, the Hotel de Langeac, to be used for meetings by Lafayette and other republicans. He was in Paris during the storming of the Bastille and consulted with Lafayette while the latter drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Jefferson left Paris for America in September 1789. He intended to return soon; however, that never happend.President George Washington appointed him the country's first Secretary of State. His belongings were shipped to him in Philadelphia. The building Hotel de Langeac was seized during the French Revolution, sold in 1793 and demolished in 1842.The subsequent five-story building on the site houses businesses, including the co-working offices operated by WeWork and a Morgan boutique (82, 101, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Alsatian Wine Route,Vosges mountain (138, 186, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ljubljana Castle--depicted on the city's coat of arms, along with a dragon on top. (138, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Monument to Napoleon, Ljubljana, Slovenia (135, 185, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Idrija--notable for its mercury mine (135, 184, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Mercury was discovered in Idrija (known as Idria under Austrian rule) in the late 15th century (various sources cite 1490, 1492,and 1497). To support the mining activities, Gewerkenegg Castle was constructed between 1522 and 1533 by the mine owners.Mining operations were taken over by the government in 1580. (116, 241, 0) ***Eversmoking Ring of Sulfur*** Message: By the middle of the 19th century, Sicily produced 3/4 of the world's production. Sulfur, also known as brimstone (the stone that burns), has a variety of purposes such as bleaching agent, incense for religious rites, insecticides, and glue. The Romans used it to make fireworks and weapons. Sicilian industrial sulfur comes from the sedimentary Miocene rocks found about 200 meters underground. The Sicilian method was one of the first ways to extract sulfur from underground deposits. It was the only industrial method of recovering sulfur from elemental deposits until replaced by the Frasch process. Sulfur ore was carried up manually from shallow mines and placed in fire pits. The stones are heated to separate the sulfur from its other elements. However, the method is relatively inefficient as a significant part is burned instead of melting. There is also a large amount of pollution coming from sulfuric anhydride. Sulfur, with a melting point of 115 °C (239 °F), is heated until it melts and flows downward with gravity. As it moves away from the heat source, it resolidifies and is collected. The sulfur obtained is not very pure. (117, 241, 0) ***Halfling*** Message: The excavation in Sicily was very easy and close to the surface. Local wages were low and underpaid children were also used. (184, 120, 0) ***Sign*** Message: This sulfur mine, Swoszowice,seven kilometers from the Wawel royal castle at the heart of Krakow (137, 86, 0) ***Dwarf*** Message: Jachymov District, Bohemia Mineralogically, Jachymov is best known for 3 groups of minerals: silver-containing species, arsenic-containing species, and uranium minerals. Finally, a diverse list of secondary arsenates also occur, many forming colorful microcrystals and some in larger crystallized examples. (233, 30, 0) ***Ancient Behemoth*** Message: Rumor has it thousands of years ago the last of the Behemoths went into the mountains to hide from hunters and trappers. Now the Behemoths have come for their revenge. The villages around the mountains need your help killing the ancient beasts. (203, 179, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The crystal cave of Ro?ia village in Bihor County,Romania (97, 131, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Kobelwald crystal cave is located above the hamlet of Kobelwald by Oberriet in the St. Galler Rhine valley. (247, 15, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Ilmen (152, 96, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jizera river (149, 231, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Zadar pentagon castles (150, 230, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Masonic lodge Zadar military lodge of instruction During the establishment of the Illyrian provinces under the rule of Napoleon, prominent associates of the French authorities that came to Croatia were proving involvement in the elite of the First French Empire by their membership in several lodges that have been established with important military garrisons that arrived to Croatia. First lodge in the Illyrian provinces named Eugen Napoleon was founded in Zadar in 1806, and in 1808 they published Rules of the Lodge in 600 copies. (149, 230, 0) ***Sign*** Message: St. Mary's Church, Zadar (149, 229, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (152, 194, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Medvedgrad,Agram (154, 196, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} in Croatia (Croatian: Slobodno zidarstvo u Hrvatskoj) may be traced to the second half of the 18th century when it was introduced by the officers that came back from the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). However, the fraternity has been repeatedly banned and re-founded since then. The first Masonic lodge in Croatia, and also in the Balkans, was established on the territory of the Military Frontier in the town of Glina in 1764 by Croatian Count Ivan Dra?kovi? VIII under the name 'War Friendship' (Croatian: Ratno prijateljstvo, French: L’amitie de guerre, German: Zur Kriegsfreundschaft). Ivan Dra?kovi? VIII led the Lodge from 1768 to 1770. From June 22 to 24, 1777 founding assembly for the 'Croatian Grand Lodge' (Croatian: Hrvatska Velika lo?a; Latomia Libertatis sub Corona Hungariae in Provinciam redacta) was held in the Brezovica Castle near Zagreb. Grand Master of the Lodge was Count Ivan Dra?kovi? VIII.. This lodge had its own rules called 'Dra?kovi?'s Observance' (Croatian: Dra?kovi?eva opservancija).Lodges in Glina, Vara?din, Zagreb and Kri?evci were under its protection. Lodge was divided into two districts: 'Ultra Savam' or 'War alliance' (Glina and Zagreb) and 'Cis Savam' or 'Free Association' (Vara?din and Kri?evci). Every district had its own Deputy Grand Master. According to the Dra?kovi?'s Observance, Lodge 'Stillness' from Bratislava also joined HVL. (154, 197, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (153, 197, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (153, 196, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Wisdom',Zagreb Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (155, 197, 0) ***Giant*** Message: First 'Grand Lodge of Croatia' was founded in year 1778. Grand Master was Count Ivan Draskovi? VIII., First Warden Aleksandar Pastroi, Second Warden Colonel Kne?evi?, Deputy Grand Master Count Franjo Szpleny and Secretary Captain Paunsenwien. Lodges 'Freedom' (Vara?din), 'Wisdom' (Zagreb), 'War friendship' (Glina), 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' (Oto?ac), 'Vigilance' (Osijek), Generosity (Budapest), Stillness (Bratislava), Green Lions (Prague) and Three White Lilies (Timi?oara) were under VLH protection (118, 121, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Munich Timed events: Name: e18060712 Message: Bavaria became kingdom according to the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine Name: e18060712 Message: The Bavarian line infantry Enlist in the French army Name: eRoyal Academy of Fine Arts Message: In 1808 ,Royal Academy of Fine Arts established.The Academy of Fine Arts, Munich (German: Akademie der Bildenden Künste München, also known as Munich Academy) is one of the oldest and most significant art academies in Germany. It is located in the Maxvorstadt district of Munich, in Bavaria, Germany.The history of the academy goes back to the 18th century, before the 1770 founding by Elector Maximilian III. Joseph, the so-called "drawing school", which already bore the name "academy" in its name ("Zeichnungs Schule respective Maler und Bildhauer academie"). The Academy of Fine Arts was enhanced in 1808 by King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria as Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Name: eAlte_Münze Message: In 1809 , Alte Münze in use.The Alte Münze (Old Mint Yard) is a renaissance building in Munich which originally served for the ducal stables and the art collections of Albert V, Duke of Bavaria.It was constructed by court architect Wilhelm Egkl in 1563. Later it served as mint. The inner courtyard has kept its renaissance arcades while the west facade was redesigned in neoclassical style in 1809. (119, 121, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: "I visited the workshop of Alois Senefelder, the inventor of lithography.Let me tell you the new method "--Louis-Francois Lejeune (117, 121, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Thompson moved to Munich，Bavaria.Thompson was made a Count of the Holy Roman Empire; he took the name "Rumford" for Rumford, New Hampshire, which was an older name for the town of Concord where he had been married, becoming Reichsgraf von Rumford (English: Imperial Count Rumford). His experiments on gunnery and explosives led to an interest in heat.Rumford's most important scientific work took place in Munich, and centred on the nature of heat, which he contended in "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction" (1798) was not the caloric of then-current scientific thinking but a form of motion. (23, 221, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (24, 220, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (25, 220, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic "Faithful Friends of Napoleon",Barcelona Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (24, 221, 0) ***Swordsman*** Message: With the invasion of the Napoleonic troops in 1808 lodges appeared which were instruments of Napoleonic policy. Barcelona had six, one of which was significantly called "Faithful Friends of Napoleon", and were mainly composed of military Frenchmen. (84, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (84, 50, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (85, 50, 0) ***Champion*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} first appeared in Luxembourg in the 18th century. It was also the provincial Grand Lodge of the Austrian Netherlands which established the first permanent Lodge in 1770. This was a semi-military, semi-civilian Lodge, with the title "The Perfect Union", where garrison members and local notables encountered each other (224, 192, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Sibiu (Hermannstadt) Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Sibiu (Hermannstadt) Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (224, 191, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Sibiu (Hermannstadt) Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Sibiu (Hermannstadt) Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (224, 190, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Sibiu (Hermannstadt) Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Sibiu (Hermannstadt) You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge L'Union ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (225, 192, 0) ***Mage*** Message: The beginnings of {{Freemason}ry} in the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (which would unite to form Romania in 1859) date to the 18th century and the activities of the humanist scholar Anton Maria del Chiaro, secretary to voivodes Constantin Brancoveanu (ruled Wallachia 1688-1714) and Constantine Mavrocordatos (alternately ruled both domains between 1730 and 1769). In 1734 or 1737, del Chiaro founded the first Masonic Lodge in the Principalities at Gala?i. Shortly thereafter, Mavrocordat founded a lodge at Ia?i while ruler of Moldavia. During the same period in Transylvania, known {Freemason}s included László and János Kemeny, Count Gabriel Bethlen and Baron Samuel von Brukenthal. In 1753 lodges were set up at Bra?ov (Kronstadt), Sibiu (Hermannstadt) and at the military garrisons of Sfantu Gheorghe (Sepsiszentgy?rgy) and Miercurea Ciuc (Csíkszereda) (225, 191, 0) ***Wight*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} in Romania traces its origins to the eighteenth century. Following an intricate history, all organised {{Freemason}ry} in the country ceased during the Communist era, although some lodges continued to operate in exile overseas. {{Freemason}ry} returned to Romania in the 1990s. (139, 18, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Pomerania (9, 138, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (10, 138, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (9, 139, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge “L'Anglaise” Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (10, 140, 0) ***Necklace of Ocean Guidance*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} appeared in Bordeaux in 1732 with the creation by three sailors originating from Britain or Ireland of the masonic lodge “L'Anglaise”.--Martin Kelly, Nicholas Staunton and John Robinson were Irish Jacobites from Youghal, in County Cork, who like other Irish and Scots who had followed James II into exile established {{Freemason}ry} in France. etienne Morin trading between the Antilles and Bordeaux, in 1745, founded the Scottish lodge of Bordeaux (10, 139, 0) ***Zealot*** Message: During the 1789 Revolution, {{Freemason}ry} in Bordeaux sides strongly with the freedom movement chosen by the nation. During the Terror, it stops its activity for more than a year, for fear of persecution. This however, is only temporary. {{Freemason}ry} became an essential element of Bordeaux society at the beginning of 19th century.The large number of masons in Bordeaux at the end of 18th century suggest that Lodges represented a privileged meeting place of Bordeaux elite of the day. Nearly half of its members were traders and brokers, nobles, naval and military officers, lawyers the clergy made up the remainder. (64, 20, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge of Lille Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge of Lille You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge of Lille ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (63, 20, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge of Lille Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge of Lille Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (65, 20, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge of Lille Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge of Lille Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (45, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Seine (116, 28, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Weser river (75, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Bar-le-Duc Marshal Remy Joseph Isidore Exelmans, 1st Comte Exelmans (13 November 1775 - 22 June 1852) was a distinguished French soldier of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, as well as a political figure of the following period. In 1801, he was made aide-de-camp to Marshal Joachim Murat, with whom he became close friends. (74, 70, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Exelmans and 56 other generals who loyal to the Bonapartes join you (64, 177, 0) ***Event*** Message: The route Napoleon took from Cannes to Grenoble—today mapped out as the Route Napoleon for tourists, hikers and cyclists—is one of the loveliest (if more vertiginous) trails in the country. (249, 55, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kolomna Kremlin,Kolomna (151, 214, 0) ***Event*** Message: Biha? --The Ottomans occupied it in 1592 after a 10-day siege and from that time Biha? was the most important forts in Bosnia until the 19th century. (150, 201, 0) ***Sign*** Message: six-pointed star fortress of Karlovac (151, 203, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Military Frontier--It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat). 1.The Croatian and Adriatic Border Fortress Captain Generalcy (kroatische und Meergrenze), from 1579 in Karlovac. The Military Frontier (German: Milit?rgrenze, Serbo-Croatian: Vojna krajina/Vojna granica, Во?на кра?ина/Во?на граница; Hungarian: Katonai határ?rvidek; Romanian: Grani?? militar?) was a borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century, following the election of Ferdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. The Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen) included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.. They were mostly Croatian, Serbian, German, Vlach and other colonists.In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known as Donauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Ba?ka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some Germans, Poles, Magyars and Slovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire - Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Rusyns and others. (150, 182, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Military Frontier--It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat). 2.The Slavonian or Wendish Captain Generalcy (slawonische/windische Grenze), centred in Vara?din, after 1578 known as the Wendish-Bajcsavár Captain Generalcy; The Military Frontier (German: Milit?rgrenze, Serbo-Croatian: Vojna krajina/Vojna granica, Во?на кра?ина/Во?на граница; Hungarian: Katonai határ?rvidek; Romanian: Grani?? militar?) was a borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century, following the election of Ferdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. The Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen) included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.. They were mostly Croatian, Serbian, German, Vlach and other colonists.In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known as Donauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Ba?ka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some Germans, Poles, Magyars and Slovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire - Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Rusyns and others. (170, 184, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kapos river (159, 180, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Military Frontier--It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat). 3.The Kanizsa Captain Generalcy (kanischarische Grenze), centred in Kanizsa. Renamed the Captain Generalcy across from Kanizsa (gegenüber von Kanischa liegende Grenze) following the loss of Kanizsa in 1600 The Military Frontier (German: Milit?rgrenze, Serbo-Croatian: Vojna krajina/Vojna granica, Во?на кра?ина/Во?на граница; Hungarian: Katonai határ?rvidek; Romanian: Grani?? militar?) was a borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century, following the election of Ferdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. The Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen) included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.. They were mostly Croatian, Serbian, German, Vlach and other colonists.In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known as Donauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Ba?ka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some Germans, Poles, Magyars and Slovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire - Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Rusyns and others. (165, 154, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: After this battle,Eugène soon joined Napoleon with 23,000 soldiers (186, 145, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Banská Bystrica--a regional mining center. "Welcome to our guilds."--local craftsmen. (182, 151, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Military Frontier--It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat). 5.The Captain Generalcy Defending the Mining Towns (bergst?dtische Grenze), centred in Leva, and in ersekújvár after 1589 The Military Frontier (German: Milit?rgrenze, Serbo-Croatian: Vojna krajina/Vojna granica, Во?на кра?ина/Во?на граница; Hungarian: Katonai határ?rvidek; Romanian: Grani?? militar?) was a borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century, following the election of Ferdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. The Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen) included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.. They were mostly Croatian, Serbian, German, Vlach and other colonists.In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known as Donauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Ba?ka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some Germans, Poles, Magyars and Slovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire - Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Rusyns and others. (201, 146, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kassa--City of tolerance (204, 146, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Military Frontier--It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat). 6.The Upper Hungary or Kassa Captain Generalcy (oberungarische Grenze), centred in Kassa. The Military Frontier (German: Milit?rgrenze, Serbo-Croatian: Vojna krajina/Vojna granica, Во?на кра?ина/Во?на граница; Hungarian: Katonai határ?rvidek; Romanian: Grani?? militar?) was a borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century, following the election of Ferdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. The Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen) included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.. They were mostly Croatian, Serbian, German, Vlach and other colonists.In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known as Donauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Ba?ka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some Germans, Poles, Magyars and Slovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire - Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Rusyns and others. (191, 36, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Eylau Napoleon crushed the armies of the Kingdom of Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt In late January Bennigsen's Russian army went on the offensive in East Prussia, pushing far to the west. Napoleon reacted by mounting a counteroffensive to the north, hoping to prevent their retreat to the east. (190, 36, 0) ***Giant*** Message: Volkonsky was promoted Major General after the Battle of Gro?beeren and Battle of Dennewitz. He was wounded in the Battle of Eylau. Prince Sergei Grigorievich Volkonsky (Серге?й Григорьевич Волко?нский; 19 December 1788 - 10 December 1865) was a Russian Empire Major General and Decembrist from the aristocratic Volkonsky family. He was the only general still in active service who took part in the Decembrist conspiracy of 1825, an attempt to achieve liberal reform by preventing the accession of Tsar Nicholas I. Following the failure of the revolt, he was found guilty and sentenced to beheading, which was eventually commuted to life in prison. Prince Volkonsky went to toil in the mines near Irkutsk and spent 30 years as a political exile in Siberia. His wife Maria Rayevskaya followed him to Siberia. Their tribulations and hardships have been seen, in a later Russian tradition, as the stuff of high Romantic legend. Nikolay Nekrasov described them in a long poem. Oleg Strizhenov played the part of Volkonsky in the 1975 Soviet film The Captivating Star of Happiness. On succeeding to the throne in 1856, Alexander II allowed Volkonsky and other old Decembrists to return from Siberia. In the late 1850s, Sergey Volkonsky travelled in Europe, where he met Alexander Herzen and other young liberals. Sergey and Maria spent the rest of their lives in the village of Voronki (Little Russia), which was owned by their daughter. Volkonsky is Leo Tolstoy's cousin; he may have been an strong inspiration for Andrei Bolkonsky, a prominent character in Tolstoy's novel War and Peace. (251, 35, 0) ***Zealot*** Message: "they are going to send me another exile to Siberia"--Alexander Radishchev,author of Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,a true student of the Enlightenment, Radischev held views that favored the freedom of the individual, Humanism, and patriotism. (249, 2, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Imperial Philanthropic Society Rescript of Emperor Alexander I May 16, 1802 in St. Petersburg was formed a charitable society which later renamed to the Imperial Philanthropic Society Imperial Philanthropic Society (Императорское Человеколюбивое общество) — was the largest charity at Russian Empire. Philanthropic Society was founded on 16 May 1802 by Emperor Alexander I of Russia. Motto Love Thy Neighbour as Thyself. (241, 163, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Ivan Nikitich Inzov (Russian: Иван Никитич Инзов; 1768-1845) was a Russian General of the Infantry and a commander in the Patriotic War of 1812. Chi?in?u owes to him some of its finest buildings, including the Nativity Cathedral. Inzov's obscure origin and booming career, in combination with his physical likeness to Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, led some of his contemporaries to suspect that his father was Emperor Paul I of Russia (who was only 14 years his senior).In the early 1820s, Alexander Pushkin was one of his subordinates at Chi?in?u (then Kishinev). (238, 52, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov (1784-1812) Major-General, Count (Graf) Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov was one of the youngest Russian generals in 1812.Kutaisov showed himself as a brave and talented commander in the campaign of 1806-1807 against France. He distinguished in the battles at Golimin, Eylou and Friedland and became well-known in the Russian army. Alexander Kutaisov was a handsome young man and had many interests besides military art. So he was a good musician, could draw very good and wrote beautiful verses. He also spoke fluently three European languages and was welcomed in the Russian high society. In the campaign of 1812 this 28 years old general commanded the artillery of the 1-st Western army of General Barclay de Tolly. He was in the centre of all military actions during the retreat of the Russian army. In the Borodino battle Kutaisov commanded the whole artillery of the Russian army and rode from one battery to another in the most dangerous places. After getting to know about wounding of General Bagration Kutaisov together with General Ermolov went to the place to find out the situation. In his "Memories" General Ermolov wrote : Count Kutaisov that was together with me, rode to the right where he met a part of our infantry and led them to the attack, but then this infantry was thrown back by the French, but Kutaisov was not with them! After some time his horse came back and the blood-stained saddle made us to think the brave general was killed... Next day an infantry officer came to General Ermolov and gave him the sabre and awards of Kutaisov and said he was a witness of his death. So the life of this young, clever and brave general came abruptly to the end... (229, 47, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Denis Vasilyevich Davydov (Russian: Дени?с Васи?льевич Давы?дов, IPA: [d???n?is v??s?il?j?v??d? d??v?d?f] ; 27 July [O.S. 16 July] 1784 - 4 May [O.S. 22 April] 1839) was a Russian soldier-poet of the Napoleonic Wars who invented the genre of hussar poetry, characterised by hedonism and bravado. He used events from his own life to illustrate such poetry. He suggested and successfully pioneered guerrilla warfare in the Patriotic War of 1812 against Napoleon. He was high-spirited, healthy, virile, unromantic, and shallowish. He was great wits and fond of fun, in life as well as in literature. His early and most popular verses are in a style of his own making, known as the “hussar style.” In them he sings the praise of reckless valor, on the field of battle as well as before the bottle. The diction in some is rather unconventional, and occasionally his words have to be replaced by dots, but it is always full of spirit and great rhythmical go. In the Patriotic War of 1812, Lieutenant-Colonel Davydov suggested to his general, Pyotr Bagration, the strategy of using a small force of at least 3,000 horsemen to attack the supply trains of Napoleon's invading Grande Armee. The Russian Commander-in-chief Mikhail Kutuzov (in office from 29 August [O.S. 17 August] 1812) agreed and gave an order for 200 to increase his attrition warfare against Napoleon. Davydov started with 135 horsemen as a separate command in the rear of the Grande Armee. They wore peasant clothes and beards to get the immediate support of the Russian people. They gave captured food and French weapons to the peasants and taught them how to fight a people's war. They captured French forage-expeditions, supply-trains with food, horses, weapons and ammunition, freed Russian prisoners and integrated them as volunteers with French horses, uniforms and weapons into their raiding party. These actions set off an avalanche of guerrilla warfare that became an important part of Kutuzov's attrition warfare (50, 4, 0) ***Event*** Message: Brighton Palace Pier. (47, 6, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Isle of Wight,It is in the English Channel, between two and five miles off the coast of Hampshire, from which it is separated by the Solent. The island has played an important part in the defence of the ports of Southampton and Portsmouth, and been near the front-line of conflicts through the ages A member of the Bohemian House of Waldstein, early patron of Ludwig van Beethoven,Count Ferdinand Ernst Gabriel von Waldstein became obsessed with the idea of defeating the French, broke up with the Elector of Cologne Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria,and squandered all his money raising an army.On 3 June 1795, Ferdinand sealed a contract with Britain on creating a "Mergentheim Regiment". Recruited mainly in the principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont, his regiment arrived in the Isle of Wight, England in 1796. "Waldstein's Light Infantry" was well below its target strength of 1,200 men. While Adjutant Schmitt returned to Germany to continue recruiting, about 800 were sent to the West Indies in 1797. Waldstein joined the Teutonic Knights and received the knighthood of the Order by its Grand Master Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria, the Elector of Cologne. He was admitted to electoral court in Bonn and became Geheimrat ("privy councillor") of the Order and a member of its Staatskonferenz ,commander (Komtur) of the Teutonic Order (223, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The military and theatrical worlds of the First French Empire were a revelation to Stendhal. He was named an auditor with the Conseil d'etat on 3 August 1810, and thereafter took part in the French administration and in the Napoleonic wars in Italy. He travelled extensively in Germany and was part of Napoleon's army in the 1812 invasion of Russia.Upon arriving, Stendhal witnessed the burning of Moscow from just outside the city as well as the army's winter retreat.He was appointed Commissioner of War Supplies and sent to Smolensk to prepare provisions for the returning army.He crossed the Berezina River by finding a usable ford rather than the overwhelmed pontoon bridge, which probably saved his life and those of his companions. He arrived in Paris in 1813, largely unaware of the general fiasco that the retreat had become. Stendhal became known, during the Russian campaign, for keeping his wits about him, and maintaining his "sang-froid and clear-headedness." He also maintained his daily routine, shaving each day during the retreat from Moscow (0, 4, 0) ***Wraith*** Message: You encountered a ghost ship, an unmanned vessel drifting in the ocean. When you and your men boarded the drifting ship , you found the ship to be covered in pools of dried blood, with putrefied corpses with deep wounds crucified to the masts and in the battery; bloody papers identified the wreck as Duc de Dantzig. (57, 60, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: La Force Prison--a French prison located in the Rue du Roi de Sicile, in what is now the 4th arrondissement of Paris. (58, 59, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "I spent some time in ballistic studies, which led him to the invention of the modern artillery shell during the period that I was arrested as an Orleaniste"--French novelist, official, {Freemason} and army general Pierre Ambroise Francois Choderlos de Laclos. (57, 59, 0) ***Giant*** Message: Darnay is a wealthy gentleman who spends time in both France and England during the time of the story. However, he resents how the lower classes are extorted and kept in extreme poverty by the upper class. Darnay specifically resents the views of his uncle, Marquis St. Evremonde, who has no respect for the people in poverty. He abandons his own family name in favor of his mother's, D'Aulnais, which he later alters to "Darnay"; relocating to London, he finds work as a tutor of French language and literature. Darnay is put on trial for treason against the Kingdom of Great Britain, but the key eyewitness testimony against him is undermined when his defense counsel directs attention to Sydney Carton, a barrister who has been assisting in the case. The two men bear a strong resemblance to one another, and Darnay is acquitted as a result. Later, Darnay succeeds his uncle as Marquis when the latter is stabbed to death in his sleep by a French revolutionary. Both Darnay and Carton express their love for Lucie Manette, but Darnay courts and marries her. As the French Revolution begins, Darnay is arrested and brought before a tribunal, where the crimes of his uncle and father are brought to light. He is sentenced to death by guillotine, and bravely accepts his fate. However, Carton then takes his place (rendering Darnay unconscious so that he cannot refuse his help) so that he and his family can escape. Later, Lucie and Charles have a son whom they call Sydney in honour of their friend. (61, 193, 0) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Bishop Charles-Fran?ois-Bienvenu Myriel, referred to as Bishop Myriel or Monseigneur Bienvenu, is a fictional character in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel Les Miserables.[1] Myriel is the Bishop of Digne in southeastern France. The actual Bishop of Digne during the time in which Myriel's appearance in the novel is set was Bienvenu de Miollis (1753-1843) who served as Hugo's model for Myriel.[2] In the novel and the film and musical adaptions of it, the Bishop is a heroic figure who personifies compassion and mercy. As Hugo set to work on the novel in 1848 after a long interruption, his anti-clerical son Charles objected to presenting Myriel as "a prototype of perfection and intelligence", suggesting instead someone from "a liberal, modern profession, like a doctor". The novelist replied I cannot put the future into the past. My novel takes place in 1815. For the rest, this Catholic priest, this pure and lofty figure of true priesthood, offers the most savage satire on the priesthood today (60, 194, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Digne-les-Bains Jean Valjean is a strange man, who arrives one October evening in Digne, searches for a place to stay the night and is turned away. At last he is taken in by the bishop, who trusts him, feeds him supper, and gives him a bed for the night. Hugo then details Valjean's background. He was born sometime in 1769 in a small town and orphaned as a child. He became a pruner and helped support his widowed sister and her seven children. In the winter of 1795, when resources were scarce, Valjean stole a loaf of bread from a local baker by breaking the window. He was caught and imprisoned for five years in the Bagne of Toulon, the Toulon prison. He attempted to escape four times, and each time his sentence was lengthened by three years; he also received an extra two years for once resisting recapture during his second escape. After nineteen years in prison, he was released, but by law must carry a yellow passport that announces he is an ex-convict. During the night, he awakens and steals the bishop's silverware and silver plates, and runs off. He is arrested and brought back to the bishop. However, the Bishop admonishes Valjean (in front of the police) for forgetting to also take the silver candlesticks that he'd given Valjean, reminding Valjean of his "promise" to use the silver to become an honest man, claiming to have bought Valjean's soul with it, withdrawing it from evil and giving it to God. Out of this encounter, Valjean becomes a repentant, honorable, and dignified man. (58, 22, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: As a convict, Valjean is shunned wherever he goes and cannot find regular work with decent wages or lodging, but the Bishop of Digne offers him food and shelter. Desperate and embittered, Valjean steals the Bishop's silver, angering a farmer and other merchants as he flees. He is captured by the police, but rather than turn him in, the Bishop lies and tells the police that the silver was a gift, giving Valjean a pair of silver candlesticks in addition. The Bishop tells Valjean that he must use the silver "to become an honest man" and that he has "bought (Valjean's) soul for God" ("Valjean Arrested, Valjean Forgiven"). Humbled by the Bishop's kindness, Valjean resolves to redeem his sins ("Valjean's Soliloquy (What Have I Done?)") and tears up his yellow ticket, breaking his parole but giving himself a chance to start a new life free from the stigma of his criminal past. As a convict, Valjean is shunned wherever he goes and cannot find regular work with decent wages or lodging, but the Bishop of Digne offers him food and shelter. Desperate and embittered, Valjean steals the Bishop's silver, angering a farmer and other merchants as he flees. He is captured by the police, but rather than turn him in, the Bishop lies and tells the police that the silver was a gift, giving Valjean a pair of silver candlesticks in addition. The Bishop tells Valjean that he must use the silver "to become an honest man" and that he has "bought (Valjean's) soul for God" ("Valjean Arrested, Valjean Forgiven"). Humbled by the Bishop's kindness, Valjean resolves to redeem his sins ("Valjean's Soliloquy (What Have I Done?)") and tears up his yellow ticket, breaking his parole but giving himself a chance to start a new life free from the stigma of his criminal past. Eight years later, in 1823, Jean Valjean has assumed a new identity as Monsieur Madeleine, a wealthy factory owner and mayor of Montreuil-sur-Mer (57, 22, 0) ***Rogue*** Message: Fantine is a single mother working in his factory, trying to support her daughter Cosette, who is being raised by an innkeeper and his wife while Fantine labours in the city. Unbeknownst to Valjean, the factory foreman lusts after Fantine, and when she rejects his advances, he takes it out on the other workers, who resent her for it. One day, a coworker steals a letter about Cosette from Fantine, revealing to the other workers that Fantine has a child. A fight breaks out, and the foreman and other workers use the incident as a pretence to fire Fantine ("At the End of the Day"). Fantine reflects on her broken dreams and about Cosette's father, who abandoned them both ("I Dreamed a Dream"). Desperate for money, she sells her locket and hair, finally becoming a prostitute ("Lovely Ladies"), and attracts local sailors. When she fights back against an abusive customer, Bamatabois, Javert, now a police inspector stationed in Montreuil-sur-Mer, arrives to arrest her. Valjean, passing by the scene, pities Fantine, and when he realises she once worked for him and that she blames him for her misfortune, he is guilt-stricken. He orders Javert to release her and takes her to a hospital ("Fantine's Arrest"). (56, 23, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Soon afterwards, Valjean rescues a man, Fauchelevent, who is pinned by a runaway cart ("The Runaway Cart"). Javert, who has up until now not recognised Valjean, though he has pursued him as a fugitive all these years, witnesses the incident and becomes suspicious, remembering the incredible strength Valjean displayed in the work camp. However, it turns out a man who looks like Valjean has been arrested, and is about to go to trial for breaking parole. The real Valjean realises that this case of mistaken identity could free him forever, but he is not willing to see an innocent man go to prison in his place. He confesses his identity to the court ("Who Am I? (The Trial)"). At the hospital, a delirious Fantine dreams of Cosette. Valjean promises to find Cosette and protect her ("Come to Me (Fantine's Death)"). Relieved, Fantine succumbs to her illness and dies. Javert arrives to take Valjean back into custody, but Valjean asks Javert for time to fetch Cosette. Javert refuses, insisting that a criminal like Valjean can never change for the better. They struggle, but Valjean overpowers Javert and escapes ("The Confrontation"). (57, 24, 0) ***Hell Hound*** Message: Javert (French pronunciation: ?[?av??]) is a fictional character and the main antagonist of Victor Hugo's 1862 novel Les Miserables. He was presumably born in 1780 and died on June 7, 1832.First a prison guard, and then a police inspector, his character is defined by his legalist tendencies and lack of empathy for criminals of all forms. In Les Miserables, he becomes obsessed with the pursuit and punishment of the protagonist Jean Valjean after his violation of parole. (56, 22, 0) ***Sprite*** Message: Fantine (French pronunciation: [fɑ?.tin]) is a fictional character in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel Les Miserables. She is a young grisette in Paris who becomes pregnant by a rich student. After he abandons her, she is forced to look after their child, Cosette, on her own. Originally a beautiful and naive girl, Fantine is eventually forced by circumstances to become a prostitute, selling her hair and front teeth, losing her beauty and health. The money she earns is sent to support her daughter. She was first played in the musical by Rose Laurens in France, and when the musical came to England, Patti LuPone played Fantine in the West End. Fantine has since been played by numerous actresses. Fantine became an archetype of self-abnegation and devoted motherhood. She has been portrayed by many actresses in stage and screen versions of the story and has been depicted in works of art. (50, 214, 0) ***Sign*** Message: The Chateau d'If-- a fortress and former prison situated about 1.5 kilometres (7?8 mile) offshore from Marseille in southeastern France. (49, 214, 0) ***Angel*** Message: Edmond Dantès (pronounced [?d.m?? dɑ?.t?s]) is a title character and the protagonist of Alexandre Dumas's 1844 adventure novel The Count of Monte Cristo. Within the story's narrative, Dantès is an intelligent, honest and loving man who turns bitter and vengeful after he is framed for a crime he did not commit. When Dantès finds himself free and enormously wealthy, he takes it upon himself to reward those who have helped him in his plight and punish those responsible for his years of suffering. He is known by the aliases The Count of Monte Cristo (French: le Comte de Monte-Cristo), Sinbad the Sailor (Sinbad le Marin), Abbe Busoni and Lord Wilmore. (93, 219, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Montecristo, also Monte Cristo (/?m?nti?kr?sto?/,[1] Italian: [?monte?kristo]) and formerly Oglasa (Ancient Greek: ?γλ?σσα, romanized: ōglássa), is an island in the Tyrrhenian Sea and part of the Tuscan Archipelago. Much of the island's fame is derived from the fact that it provides the setting for part of the novel The Count of Monte Cristo, by Alexandre Dumas. Look for Edmond Dantès at Chateau d'If,and get him out from that island Over the next eight years, Faria educates Dantès in languages, history, culture, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, and science. Knowing himself to be close to death from catalepsy, Faria tells Dantès the location of a treasure on the Island of Monte Cristo, an inheritance from his work for the last of the Spada family, which according to Faria himself, is estimated to be worth "Two Millions of Roman crowns [actually, ecus, but it might as well refer to either soldi or denarii]; nearly thirteen millions of our money (francs)" (94, 219, 0) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Abbe Faria: Italian priest and sage.Edmond's dearest friend and his mentor and teacher while in prison. On his deathbed, reveals to Edmond the secret treasure hidden on Monte Cristo. Partially based on the historical Abbe Faria. (0, 0, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Count of Monte Cristo (French: Le Comte de Monte-Cristo) is an adventure novel written by French author Alexandre Dumas (père) completed in 1844. It is one of the author's more popular works, along with The Three Musketeers. Like many of his novels, it was expanded from plot outlines suggested by his collaborating ghostwriter Auguste Maquet. The story takes place in France, Italy, and islands in the Mediterranean during the historical events of 1815-1839: the era of the Bourbon Restoration through the reign of Louis-Philippe of France. It begins on the day that Napoleon left his first island of exile, Elba, beginning the Hundred Days period when Napoleon returned to power. The historical setting is a fundamental element of the book, an adventure story centrally concerned with themes of hope, justice, vengeance, mercy, and forgiveness. It centers on a man who is wrongfully imprisoned, escapes from jail, acquires a fortune, and sets about exacting revenge on those responsible for his imprisonment. Before he can marry his fiancee Mercedès, Edmond Dantès, a nineteen-year-old Frenchman, and first mate of the Pharaon, is falsely accused of treason, arrested, and imprisoned without trial in the Chateau d'If, a grim island fortress off Marseille. A fellow prisoner, Abbe Faria, correctly deduces that his jealous rival Fernand Mondego, envious crewmate Danglars, and double-dealing magistrate De Villefort turned him in. Faria inspires his escape and guides him to a fortune in treasure. As the powerful and mysterious Count of Monte Cristo (Italy), Dantès arrives from the Orient to enter the fashionable Parisian world of the 1830s and avenge himself on the men who conspired to destroy him. The book is considered a literary classic today. According to Lucy Sante, "The Count of Monte Cristo has become a fixture of Western civilization's literature, as inescapable and immediately identifiable as Mickey Mouse, and the story of Little Red Riding Hood." Visit Abbe Faria , then find treasure of Monte Cristo Now everything is ready ,purchases the Island of Monte Cristo and the title of Count from the Tuscan government,start the revenge,kill all the enermies,ruin and destory them to the last people. (64, 179, 0) ***Event*** Message: 9th March, the cannibal has quitted his den (64, 178, 0) ***Event*** Message: 10th, the Corsican Ogre has landed at Cape Juan (64, 176, 0) ***Event*** Message: 11th, the Tiger has arrived at Gap (63, 176, 0) ***Event*** Message: 12th, the Monster slept at Grenoble (63, 175, 0) ***Event*** Message: 13th, the Tyrant has passed through Lyons (62, 175, 0) ***Event*** Message: 14th, the Usurper is directing his steps towards Dijon, but the brave and loyal Burgundians have risen en masse and surrounded him on all sides (62, 174, 0) ***Event*** Message: 18th, Bonaparte is only sixty leagues from the capital; he has been fortunate enough to escape the hands of his pursuers (61, 174, 0) ***Event*** Message: 19th, Bonaparte is advancing with rapid steps, but he will never enter Paris (60, 174, 0) ***Event*** Message: 20th, Napoleon will, tomorrow, be under our ramparts (60, 173, 0) ***Event*** Message: 21st, the Emperor is at Fontainebleau (60, 172, 0) ***Event*** Message: 22nd, His Imperial and Royal Majesty, yesterday evening, arrived at the Tuileries, amidst the joyful acclamations of his devoted and faithful subjects (169, 98, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Breslau--a gathering place for volunteers from all over Germany, the centre of Prussian mobilisation (69, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (58, 89, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (44, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (74, 65, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (39, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (74, 103, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (48, 139, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (43, 115, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (42, 177, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (84, 64, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (90, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (36, 93, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Chateau de Valencay--"one of the most beautiful on earth" In 1803, Napoleon ordered his foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand to acquire the property as a place particularly appropriate for reception of foreign dignitaries The period of Talleyrand's occupancy was the golden age in the history of Valencay (50, 48, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (49, 0, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to London was not allowed to enter and leave at will,for preventing foreign spies from entering London Please present a credential that better proves your status to gain access to London London has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (183, 1, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Stockholm was not allowed to enter and leave at will,for preventing conspirators from plotting against the royal family Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Stockholm has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (167, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Stockholm was not allowed to enter and leave at will,for preventing conspirators from plotting against the royal family Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Stockholm has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (28, 218, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (22, 200, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (2, 178, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (246, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (238, 31, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (226, 4, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (218, 41, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (225, 77, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (218, 133, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (222, 126, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (210, 97, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (206, 139, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (251, 151, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (211, 51, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (170, 152, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (141, 157, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (140, 127, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (126, 165, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (210, 215, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (174, 113, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (165, 92, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (145, 194, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (101, 124, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (220, 160, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (105, 139, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (106, 156, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (150, 104, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (106, 27, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ems river (128, 0, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kiel Canal (81, 154, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Maggiore (251, 12, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Humboldt published two works on the Russian expedition, first Fragments de geologie et de climatologie asiatiques in 1831, based on lectures he gave on the topic. In 1843, he completed the three-volume Asie Centrale,which he dedicated to Czar Nicholas, which he called "an unavoidable step, as the expedition was accomplished at his expense". (251, 13, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Humboldt 's Expedition in Russia, 1829 Meet Andres Manuel del Río at Guanajuato City and return to Europe At the invitation of the Russian government,between May and November 1829 he and the growing expedition traversed the wide expanse of the Russian empire from the Neva to the Yenisei, accomplishing in twenty-five weeks a distance of 9,614 miles (15,472 km). (151, 145, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Joseph Haydn's home,suburb of Windmühle On Dec 12,1792,In Vienna Ludwig Van Beethoven (22) received 1st lesson in music composition from Franz Joseph Haydn. Working under Haydn's direction, he sought to master counterpoint (152, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Graben (153, 146, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Austrian Evidenzbureau -- military intelligence service Prince Von Metternich was an Austrian Aristocrat born on the 18th May 1773 at Cob Lenz in Rhineland in Prussia where his father was an Austrian ambassador. It was from this place that he witnessed the events of the French revolution. He completed his studies in 1788 at Strasburg University and was appointed an Austrian ambassador in France in 1807. In 1809, he became a minister of foreign affairs and 1821; he was made the chancellor of Austria which he attained for over 40 years. He dominated European affairs as a pilot of peace. The period between 1815 -1848, was referred to as “Metternich era” and the system he used during this period was called “Metternich system” Metternich put in place a strong spy network to control all liberal and nationalistic movements throughout Europe. His spy network was entrenching in the army, police, civil servants, public places and in strategic places like Hotels lodges, cinema halls and in schools. His spy network was too strong that an Italian woman remarked, “My daughter can not sneeze, but Metternich will know of it.” METHOODS USED BY METTERNICH TO CONTROL EUROPEAN AFFAIRS: 1. Strong Spy network: Metternich put in place a strong spy network to control all liberal and nationalistic movements throughout Europe. His spy network was entrenching in the army, police, civil servants, public places and in strategic places like Hotels lodges, cinema halls and in schools. His spy network was too strong that an Italian woman remarked, “My daughter can not sneeze, but Metternich will know of it.” 2. Censorship of the press: Metternich also used censorship of the press and control of communication to seal off the empire from liberal and nationalistic ideas. A censor official was appointed at Vienna to approve all books, news papers and publications. Especial office was set at Vienna for opening, recording and sealing all foreignletters.through such network, Metternich was able to control all forces of liberalism and nationalism. 3. He influences the congress system: He exploited the congress system and influenced European affairs up to 1848. he was the chairman of the congress of Vienna that mapped out strategies to suppress nationalism and liberalism in Europe. He was very active in the congress system between 1818-1825.through the congress system, Metternich was able to bring all European powers into one thinking cup. This made him a coach man of Europe. 4. Control over education: Metternich controlled education system within the empire. All professors, lecturers’ principles and teachers were made to take an oath of allegiance to Metternich system. At all levels, education syllabus disregarded liberal subjects like history, philosophy, psychology and literature. He went further to prohibit liberal discussions, associations and seminars. This enables Metternich to control all forms of liberalism and nationalism in Europe. 5. Church and state relationship: Metternich also maintained relationship between the church and the state. He won the support of Bishops, priest and the Catholics was made the states religion. He encouraged religious intolerance that won him support from all Catholics within the empire. This was easy because most of the clergy were anti liberal. 6. Use of force: The use of force was applied by Metternich to control European politics. whenever diplomacy and peaceful means failed; he applied force against rebellions and suppressed them. The Carbonari and young Italian movements were all crashed militarily by Metternich. The use of force therefore, enables Metternich to control European affairs. 7. Influenced the German Diet: In German states, Metternich secured for Austria the post of the presidents in the German diet( parliament. This was a vital post since he would veto the decision on issues to be discussed and the protocol to be followed. Metternich persuaded all the German state to limit the subject to be discussed in parliament which also limited liberalism and nationalism in the parliament. 8. Carlsbad decree: To suppress German nationalism that had climaxed into the murder of Kotzbue, Metternich enacted Carlsbad decree as a counter offensive. By its provision, students associations were abolished and all German universities were to have government inspectors, a spy network to monitor all the activities of lecturers and students. 9. Posting foreign officers: To check on the nationalistic movement, Metternich posted foreign officers to administer foreign areas. E.g., Croatians were sent to Slovenia, Poles to Austria, and Italians to Germans. Being foreigners, these officers offered the activities of nationalism effectively. This explains why Austria herself survived the 1830 revolutions in Europe: 10: Use of his own eloquence: Metternich was an orator, who used his speeches to convince people, i.e., he was an eloquent who persuaded the Vienna peace makers and influenced them to dance according to his tune. Some historians believed that prince Metternich was born with a silver spoon in the mouth because of his ability to change people’s minds using his own words. (72, 130, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need gain control of key alpine passes You can win battle of Würzburg and then move your Rhine Legion here Battle_of_Grauholz (70, 130, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Bern,Switzerland The Napoleonic wars pitted France, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, against a number of countries in Europe from 1797 through 1815. At different times during this period, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and the Neapolitan Kingdom all waged war against France in various coalitions. The main rivals in this struggle were Great Britain and France. During this time, the methods of intelligence gathering, espionage, and counterespionage did not differ so much from modern methods, apart from the differences in technological progress. Compared to other periods, however, espionage was a much more intense activity during the Napoleonic wars. This rise in espionage activity resulted mainly from revolutionary events in France and the following French emigration, which was in turn, used by Britain to achieve their own goals. During this period, Switzerland became a place of intensive intelligence activity by Britain, mostly against France. In 1794 the new charge d'affaire of Great Britain was the newly arrived William Wickham (1761-1840), for whom his diplomatic work in Bern was a cover. Wickham's main activity was to collect information about France and to lead various royalist organizations, which acted inside France as well as abroad. In particular, Wickham organized invasions of royalist armies into France, one of which was the Quiberon Bay invasion of 1795; the effort failed within one month. Both Wickham's agents and those of the royalist organizations actively participated for almost three years in different conspiracies against France, but in 1797, many of those involved were arrested. Wickham was forced to leave Switzerland in 1798, but the successive charge d'affaire continued the same activity. (104, 114, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (104, 113, 0) ***Red Dragon*** Message: Mack surrendered with 25,000 men, 18 generals, 65 guns, and 40 standards,offered his sword and presented himself to Napoleon as "the unfortunate General Mack" (102, 116, 0) ***Arch Devil*** Message: William Wickham established a spy network in Switzerland, southern Germany and in France and negotiated with French Royalists and others, supporting amongst other initiatives the disastrous rising in la Vendee. Wickham strengthened the British intelligence system by emphasising the centrality of the intelligence cycle - query, collection, collation, analysis and dissemination - and the need for an all-source centre of intelligence.He came to Swabia in 1799 , close to the Swiss border, where his averred role was to liaise with the armies of Austria and Russia in Europe, which were supported by Britain against Napoleon (100, 115, 0) ***Skeleton*** Message: French royalist army in exile joins you (102, 115, 0) ***Titan*** Message: You met Jean-Charles Pichegru,who helds royalist view (187, 80, 0) ***Badge of Courage*** Message: The Order of the White Eagle (Polish: Order Or?a Bia?ego) is Poland's highest order awarded to both civilians and the military for their merits. It was officially instituted on 1 November 1705 by king Augustus II the Strong of Poland and elector of Saxony and bestowed on eight of his closest diplomatic and political supporters.It is one of the oldest distinctions in the world still in use. It is awarded to the most distinguished Poles and the highest-ranking representatives of foreign countries. The Order of the White Eagle is attached to a purple ribbon slung over the left shoulder to the right side. The star of the Order, once embroidered, is worn on the left side of the chest (128, 141, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Archduke adopted a 'corps’ system of army organisation Mobility increased: The new Jaeger Corps and artillery reform This had been increased to become a 'Jaeger Korps’, inspiring the Archduke Charles to establish eight full battalions of Jaeger by 1808. Crack elite troops drawn from the Alpine valleys and forests, these were soldiers noted for their strong mental and physical qualities (250, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Battle of Austerlitz Finish Battle of Austerlitz After the lessons learned at the Battle of Austerlitz, where Russian artillery had performed poorly, Arakcheyev devised the "System of 1805" (251, 7, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Aleksey Arakcheyev reorganized the artillery units, improved the officer training, and issued new regulations. Aleksey Arakcheyev reorganized the artillery units, improved the officer training, and issued new regulations. Under this arrangement, 6- and 12-pounder guns were employed throughout the army, as well as 2-, 10-, and 18-pounder licornes. Under the new system, a single Russian division had as much artillery as an entire French corps.A foot artillery battalion was composed of two light and two heavy companies.A light foot artillery company consisted of four 10-pounder licornes, four light and four medium 6-pounder guns; a heavy artillery company had four light and four heavy 12-pounder guns and four 18- and two 2-pounder licornes. Six light 6-pounder guns and six 10-pounder licornes made a company of horse artillery.Licornes were usually deployed on the flanks of the batteries.All these guns used a screw elevating mechanism instead of the old system of wedges and had an improved sighting apparatus. (251, 10, 0) ***Badge of Courage*** Message: The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called (Russian: Орден Святого апостола Андрея Первозванного, romanized: Orden Svyatogo apostola Andreya Pervozvannogo) is the highest order of the Russian Federation. Established as the first and highest order of chivalry of the Russian Tsardom and the Russian Empire in 1698, it was abolished under the USSR before being re-established as the top Russian order in 1998. (30, 11, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: During the peace, Smith chose to travel to France and first became involved with intelligence matters while observing the construction of the new naval port at Cherbourg. (68, 72, 0) ***Demon*** Message: The sans-culottes (French: [sɑ?kyl?t], literally "without breeches") were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their poor quality of life under the Ancien Regime. The word sans-culotte, which is opposed to that of the aristocrat, seems to have been used for the first time on 28 February 1791 by Jean-Bernard Gauthier de Murnan in a derogatory sense, speaking about a "sans-culottes army". The word came into vogue during the demonstration of 20 June 1792. The name sans-culottes refers to their clothing, and through that to their lower-class status: culottes were the fashionable silk knee-breeches of the 18th-century nobility and bourgeoisie, and the working class sans-culottes wore pantaloons, or long trousers, instead.The sans-culottes, most of them urban labourers, served as the driving popular force behind the revolution. They were judged by the other revolutionaries as "radicals" because they advocated a direct democracy, that is to say, without intermediaries such as members of parliament. Though ill-clad and ill-equipped, with little or no support from the upper class and middle class, they made up the bulk of the Revolutionary army and were responsible for many executions during the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars (62, 64, 0) ***Demon*** Message: The most fundamental political ideals of the sans-culottes were social equality, economic equality, and popular democracy. They supported the abolition of all the authority and privileges of the monarchy, nobility, and Roman Catholic clergy, the establishment of fixed wages, the implementation of price controls to ensure affordable food and other essentials, and vigilance against counter-revolutionaries. (58, 84, 0) ***Demon*** Message: During the peak of their influence, the sans-culottes were seen as the truest and most authentic sons of the French Revolution, held up as living representations of the revolutionary spirit. During the height of revolutionary fervor, such as during the Reign of Terror when it was dangerous to be associated with anything counter-revolutionary, even public functionaries and officials actually from middle or upper-class backgrounds adopted the clothing and label of the sans-culottes as a demonstration of solidarity with the working class and patriotism for the new French Republic. (144, 138, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our austrian men with French prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (144, 139, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our austrian men with French prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (249, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our Russian men with French prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (250, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our Russian men with French prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (12, 42, 0) ***Event*** Message: French forces based in Vannes repelled your British-Royalist invasion. (21, 63, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Loyalist rebels surrounded the city of Nantes,Republican soldiers in Chateau des ducs de Bretagne couldn't hold on for long Come and reinforce here as soon as possible after the victory of the Battle of Valmy Cathelineau, the commander of the royalist party, was killed and they were in a mess! (74, 55, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) Save Royal children from Tuileries Palace first Well done ,Fersen! (113, 60, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fulda river (118, 69, 0) ***Event*** Message: Bad Salzungen (189, 70, 0) ***Event*** Message: Captain Marcellin Marbot, who was serving with Augereau's Corps wrote: It rained and snowed incessantly. Provisions became very scarce; no more wine, hardly any beer, and what there was exceedingly bad, no bread, and quarters for which we had to fight the pigs and the cows ---Battle of Pultusk (163, 68, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Swiebodzin-an important transportation hub Because of its position near the Holy Roman Empire's border with the Kingdom of Poland (236, 19, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (148, 60, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Spree river (201, 66, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bialystok (80, 116, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mulhouse (2, 182, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aragón river (15, 212, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Segre river (142, 123, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Moldau river (135, 2, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (76, 14, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (76, 15, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (76, 17, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (171, 182, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (190, 162, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (182, 153, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (152, 156, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (237, 162, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (220, 78, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (89, 127, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (214, 201, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (205, 91, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (245, 159, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (185, 107, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (14, 107, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Boyard,Ile-d'Aix (11, 105, 0) ***Bone Dragon*** Message: "If you choose to rush to self-destruction that is your own affair . . . but it is my duty to take care of the lives of others, and I will not place the crews of the fireships in palpable danger,"James Gambier said,and was reluctant to allow his sailors to support Cochrane in the operation (16, 107, 0) ***Event*** Message: Basque Roads (223, 179, 0) ***Gnoll*** Message: THE WEREWOLF, DACIAN PROTECTOR The fact that the werewolf legends spawned on Transylvania’s territory is mostly unknown. Modern interpretations depict the werewolf as a negative character, but in the original version, the werewolf is a positive guardian/protector. WEREWOLF DEFINITION The werewolf or the lycan is a fantastic positive hero from the Dacian mythology (the predecesor of the Romanian mythology). Its characteristic is the lycan’s ability to shapeshift into a wolf-like creature. The oldest mentioning of the werewolf comes from 6th century BC and has its origins on the actual territory of Transylvania, according to the ancient historian Herodotus, all of this happening centuries before any other European references in regard with this subject. The legend of the Great White Wolf shows the werewolf as being a man transformed into a wolf by Zalmoxe (the supreme deity of the Dacians, nowadays Romanians’ ancestors) in order to protect the Dacian people from invaders. THE WEREWOLF CONCEPT The werewolf concept was undertaken from the Romanian mythology and subsequently adapted throughout the world, being intensively promoted in recent years, due to some successful screenings such as Twilight Saga, Underworld, Harry Potter or True Blood. The incorrect international adaptation of the werewolf concept, due to the lack of information and folklore research, reinvented him as a negative character, although according to the Dacian mythology (the predecessor of nowadays Romanian mythology) this creature has a divine role of man’s protector. Lycanthropy has existed since ancient times (5700-4500 BC) on Transylvania’s territory, and plenty of legends and myths were woven around this totemic animal - the wolf. The werewolf has appeared on this territory since Neolithic times and evidence exists in form of representations on the ceramics of the oldest European civilization - Cucuteni - and also on the statues of Vinca (Turda?) Culture, where we can see dancers wearing wolf skin and wolf heads. The Dacians (the ancestors of today’s Romanians) used to call themselves “daoi”, a word inherited from the ancient Phrygian language - daos - meaning wolf, as they had a strong connection to these animals. Their battle flag called Draco was formed out of a wolf’s head with its mouth wide open alongside the body of a dragon, symbolizing the spirit of this vivid animal guardian.[7] [8][9] [10][11] In times of war, during the battle ceremonies but also on the battlefield, the Dacians would wear wolf skin and wolf masks and they would behave as such, their growling sending fear into the enemy’s hearts. It was their appearance, their behavior and their war ritual which made the invaders believe that the Dacians were beings which could transform into wolves. (216, 186, 0) ***Event*** Message: The traditional village in Transylvania, usually located on the Romanian Carpathians’ foothills, represents a unique European element. The preserving of the ancient and medieval traditions and habits, its self-sustainment and its traditional houses which act as real ecosystems are all factors which contribute to the Transylvanian village’s uniqueness. The raw beauty of the Carpathians outlines this magical touristic location. (211, 205, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sanctuaries ,Sarmizegetusa Regia--the most important military, religious and political centre of the Dacians before the wars with the Roman Empire (213, 204, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Sarmizegetusa Regia contained a citadel and residential areas with dwellings and workshops as well as a sacred zone. The fortress, a quadrilateral formed by massive stone blocks (murus dacicus), was constructed on five terraces, on an area of almost 30,000 m2. The sacred zone — among the most important and largest circular and rectangular Dacian sanctuaries - includes a number of rectangular temples, the bases of their supporting columns still visible in regular arrays. Perhaps the most enigmatic construction at the site is the large circular sanctuary. It consisted of a setting of timber posts in the shape of a D, surrounded by a timber circle which in turn was surrounded by a low stone kerb. The layout of the timber settings bears some resemblance to the stone monument at Stonehenge in England (25, 146, 0) ***Sword of Judgement*** Message: Legend in Rocamadour, in the Lot department, claims that the true Durendal was deposited in the chapel of Mary there, but was stolen by Henry the Young King in 1183. Durendal, also spelled Durandal, is the sword of Roland, a legendary paladin and partially historical officer of Charlemagne in French epic literature. It is also said to have belonged to young Charlemagne at one point, and, passing through Saracen hands, came to be owned by Roland. Local folklore also claims Durendal still exists, embedded in a cliff wall in Rocamadour. In that version, twelfth-century monks of Rocamadour claim Roland threw the sword rather than hiding it beneath himself, creating a crevice "due to its sharpness" in the wall. Tradition has it that when Roland cut a huge gash in the rocks with one blow, it created Roland's Breach in the Pyrenees in the process. The sword was capable of cutting through giant boulders of stone with a single strike, and was indestructible (1, 193, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the summer of 1808, Zaragoza was one of the last cities in northern Spain not to have fallen to the forces of Napoleon and was therefore, by the time of the First Siege of Zaragoza (1808), choked with vast numbers of refugees fleeing the advancing Grande Armee. In early June, the French began to advance on Zaragoza, which had not seen war for about 450 years and was held by a tiny provincial force under Jose de Palafox y Melci, whose heroism would come to rival Agustina's. On June 15, 1808, the French army stormed the Portillo, an ancient gateway into the city defended by a hodgepodge battery of old cannons and a heavily outnumbered volunteer unit. Agustina, arriving on the ramparts with a basket of apples to feed the gunners, watched the nearby defenders fall to French bayonets. The Spanish troops broke ranks, having suffered heavy casualties, and abandoned their posts. With the French troops a few yards away, Agustina herself ran forward, loaded a cannon, and lit the fuse, shredding a wave of attackers at point-blank range. The sight of a lone woman bravely manning the cannons inspired the fleeing Spanish troops and other volunteers to return and assist her. After a bloody struggle, the French gave up the assault on Zaragosa and abandoned their siege for a few short weeks before returning to fight their way into the city, house-by-house. With the human cost proving truly terrible on both sides and the city's defences hopelessly compromised, Palafox finally accepted the inevitable and was forced to surrender the city to the French. Despite the eventual defeat, Agustina's action became an inspiration to those opposing the French. (0, 193, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Agustina Raimunda Maria Saragossa i Domènech or Agustina of Aragón (March 4, 1786 - May 29, 1857) was a Spanish heroine who defended Spain during the Peninsular War, first as a civilian and later as a professional officer in the Spanish Army. Known as "the Spanish Joan of Arc," she has been the subject of much folklore, mythology, and artwork, including sketches by Francisco Goya and the poetry of Lord Byron. (117, 193, 0) ***Orb of Driving Rain*** Message: Venice has been known as "La Dominante", "La Serenissima", "Queen of the Adriatic", "City of Water", "City of Masks", "City of Bridges", "The Floating City", and "City of Canals" (77, 9, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Middelburg,Zeeland In terms of technology, Middelburg played a role in the Scientific Revolution at the early modern period. The town was historically a center of lens crafting in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology. The invention of the microscope and telescope is often credited to Middelburg spectacle-makers (including Zacharias Janssen and Hans Lippershey) in the late 16th century and early 17th century. (77, 11, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Charles Joseph Minard (/m??nɑ?r/; French: [mina?]; 27 March 1781 - 24 October 1870) was a French civil engineer recognized for his significant contribution in the field of information graphics in civil engineering and statistics. Minard was, among other things, noted for his representation of numerical data on geographic maps, especially his flow maps. Minard was sent by the Napoleon's government to Antwerp and then almost immediately to the port of Flushing in Zeeland. There, he solved a critical problem with a cofferdam that was leaking water faster than it could be removed. He solved the problem by using pumps driven by a steam engine, only the third time this solution had been applied to a project. Minard worked for many years as a civil engineer on the construction of dams, canals and bridge projects throughout Europe. On November 1, 1830, he was named superintendent of the School of Bridges and Roads, where he continued to serve through 1836. While there he was awarded the cross of the Legion of Honor. From 1839 he was inspector of the Corps of Bridges, and from 1846 inspector general and a permanent member of the Conseil general des ponts et chaussees. (149, 102, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Josef Jüttner (12 September 1775, Bernartice- 27 April 1848, Prague) was a cartographer and Austrian army general, author of the first exact map of Prague based on geodetic measurement. Starting in 1801, Jüttner taught at the mathematical school in Prague. In 1808 Jüttner became the director of this school. The etching for the map was done by Prague's graphic master Josef Alois Drda [cs]; the lettering by Alois Mussil. In 1818 Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky issued a number of good quality copies of the map under the title Grundri? der k?niglichen Hauptstadt Prag at a scale of 500 Viennese lots (60 lots = 1 finger). (148, 155, 0) ***Event*** Message: Semmering_Pass (138, 168, 0) ***Green Dragon*** Message: "I am the lindworm who lives near Klagenfurt!" (139, 168, 0) ***Mighty Gorgon*** Message: "I am the fat bull who defeats the lindworm!" (138, 169, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Franz Xaver Freiherr von Wulfen (5 November 1728 - 17 March 1805) was an Austrian botanist, zoologist, mineralogist, alpinist, and Jesuit priest. He is credited with discovering the flowering plants Wulfenia carinthiaca, Saxifraga moschata, and Stellaria bulbosa. In 1845 the lead molybdate mineral wulfenite was named in his honor by Wilhelm Karl von Haidinger. Wulfen was born in Belgrade. His father, Christian Friedrich von Wulfen, was a high-ranking lieutenant in the Austrian Army of Swedish descent. His mother, nee Mariassy, was a Hungarian countess. Franz's education took place at Kaschau Gymnasium in present-day Ko?ice, Slovakia. When he was 17, he joined a Jesuit school in Vienna. Following his graduation, he became a school instructor (chiefly of mathematics and physics) in Vienna, Graz, Neusohl, Gorz, Laibach (Ljubljana), and from 1764 Klagenfurt. From his twenty-second year he devoted himself to botany. The upland and valley flora of the Eastern Alps was his chief study. The genus Wulfenia (in the family Plantaginaceae) was named in 1782 in his honor by Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin. Then in 1980 botanist D.Y.Hong published Wulfeniopsis which is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Plantaginaceae, it also honor's Franz Xaver von Wulfen.Also, he is commemorated in about 22 plants with the specific epithet of wulfenii. such as Dianthus wulfenii F.Dietr. and Rosa wulfenii Tratt. A monument in Klagenfurt, was erected in 1838, honors him, describing him as "equally great as priest, scholar and man". After the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in the 1760s, he remained in Klagenfurt until his death. By 1763, he was officially a priest.Wulfen died at the age of 76 years. To find specimens, Wulfen frequently hiked up the Gro?glockner and was a pioneer in exploring the Austrian Alps. In 1781, he published his studies in the well-illustrated Plantae rariorum Carinthicae (Rare Plants of Carinthia). With particular success, he conducted research of lichens that he still regarded as a division of algae. He made numerous trips to the south (on many occasions to the Adriatic Sea) and to the north as far as Holland. Wulfen was also a researcher of the fauna of the Inner Austria and the Adriatic Sea. He concerned himself primarily with insects, fish, and birds. (85, 131, 0) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum) is the flower most commonly associated with the Alps, thanks to that memorable song from The Sound of Music. It usually grows in the inaccessible regions of the Alps and is a protected species (don't pick it). The unique beauty of the white flower is a symbol of purity in Bavaria and a plant shrouded in myth. As the story goes, high in the Alps lived a hauntingly beautiful queen with a heart of pure ice. The queen's melodious singing lured many forlorn shepherds to her cave. Since her frozen heart was unable to love, she soon tired of them and ordered her loyal gnome slaves to throw the hapless men to their deaths. One day an ordinary shepherd found his way to her cave and the queen fell in love with him. The jealous gnomes, fearing their mistress would marry this mortal and abandon them, threw him into a valley where his heart was crushed. When she learned of the tragedy, her heart melted enough for her to shed one tear. That tear became an Edelweiss. (101, 136, 0) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Edelweiss, edelweiss Every morning you greet me Small and white, clean and bright You look happy to meet me Blossom of snow, may you bloom and grow Bloom and grow forever Edelweiss, edelweiss Bless my homeland forever Edelweiss, edelweiss Every morning you greet me Small and white, clean and bright You look happy to meet me Blossom of snow, may you bloom and grow Bloom and grow forever Edelweiss, edelweiss Bless my homeland forever (50, 146, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Jussieu was born in Lyon, France, in 1748, as one of 10 children, to Christophle de Jussieu, an amateur botanist. Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (French pronunciation: ?[ɑ?twan lo?ɑ? d? ?ysj?]; 12 April 1748 - 17 September 1836) was a French botanist, notable as the first to publish a natural classification of flowering plants; much of his system remains in use today. His classification was based on an extended unpublished work by his uncle, the botanist Bernard de Jussieu. The publication of Jussieu's Genera plantarum in 1789 was rapidly followed by the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789-1799). Jussieu adhered to the revolutionary principles and was appointed to a position in the municipal government of Paris, where he had the task of managing all the hospitals. Napoleon appointed him to the position of counsellor of the university. With the overthrow of the monarchy, the Jardin du Roi was renamed the Jardin des plantes, and Jussieu was instrumental in reorganizing the Jardin as the Museum national d'histoire naturelle in 1790, where he became a professor of botany, holding the chair in Botanique à la campagne. He was also Director of the museum from 1794-1795, and again from 1798-1800.Jussieu immediately set about setting up a herbarium, a task greatly facilitated by the seizure of foreign collections by the revolutionary armies, and by the confiscation of the assets of the church and aristocracy.Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles (1816-1830). He was also a member of the Masonic Lodge, Les Neuf Soeurs. (149, 50, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Peter Simon Pallas FRS FRSE (22 September 1741 - 8 September 1811) was a Prussian zoologist and botanist who worked in Russia (1767-1810). Pallas was born in Berlin, the son of Professor of Surgery Simon Pallas. In 1767, Pallas was invited by Catherine II of Russia to become a professor at the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences and, between 1768 and 1774, he led an expedition to central Russian provinces, Povolzhye, Urals, West Siberia, Altay, and Transbaikal, collecting natural history specimens for the academy. He explored the Caspian Sea, the Ural and Altai Mountains and the upper Amur River, reaching as far eastward as Lake Baikal. The regular reports which Pallas sent to St Petersburg were collected and published as Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs (Journey through various provinces of the Russian Empire) (3 vols., 1771-1776). They covered a wide range of topics, including geology and mineralogy, reports on the native peoples and their religions, and descriptions of new plants and animals.Between 1793 and 1794, Pallas led a second expedition to southern Russia, visiting the Crimea and the Black Sea. He was accompanied by his daughter (by his first wife who had died in 1782) and his new wife, an artist, servants, and a military escort. In February 1793, they travelled to Saratov and then downriver to Tsaritsyn. They explored the country to the east, and in August travelled along the banks of the Caspian Sea and into the Caucasus Mountains. In September, they travelled to the Crimea, wintering in Simferopol. Pallas spent early 1794 exploring to the southeast, and in July travelled up the valley of the Dnieper, arriving back in St Petersburg in September. Pallas gave his account of the journey in his P. S. Pallas Bemerkungen auf einer Reise in die Südlichen Statthalterschaften des Russischen Reichs (1799-1801). Catherine II gave him a large estate at Simferopol, where Pallas lived until the death of his second wife in 1810. He was then granted permission to leave Russia by Emperor Alexander, and returned to Berlin, where he died in the following year. (182, 10, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Carl Linnaeus (/l??ni??s, l??ne??s/; 23 May[note 1] 1707 - 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linne(Swedish pronunciation: [?kɑ?? f?n l??ne?] (audio speaker iconlisten)), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy".Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linn?us (after 1761 Carolus a Linne). Linnaeus was born in R?shult, the countryside of Sm?land, in southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. He was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe at the time of his death. Once Linnaeus was appointed Professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of ?land and Gotland with six students from the university, to look for plants useful in medicine. First, they travelled to ?land and stayed there until 21 June, when they sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in ?l?ndska och Gothl?ndska Resa, written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica, it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in ?land and Gotland. (182, 1, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Erik Prosperin (25 July 1739 - 4 April 1803) was a Swedish astronomer. Erik Prosperin was a lecturer in mathematics and physics at Uppsala University in 1767, professor of observational astronomy (Observator) in 1773 - 1796, and professor of Astronomy in 1797 - 1798. He became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (KVA) in Stockholm in 1771, a member of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala in 1774 (secretary from 1786 onwards), and a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1803 (181, 0, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Uppsala (189, 3, 0) ***Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment*** Message: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (Swedish: Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien) is one of the royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization which takes special responsibility for promoting the natural sciences and mathematics and strengthen their influence in society, whilst endeavouring to promote the exchange of ideas between various disciplines. The goals of the academy are: to be a forum where researchers meet across subject boundaries, to offer a unique environment for research, to provide support to younger researchers, to reward outstanding research efforts, to communicate internationally among scientists, to advance the case for science within society and to influence research policy priorities to stimulate interest in mathematics and science in school, and to disseminate and popularize scientific information in various forms. (92, 23, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Niers river (89, 25, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Katwijk (203, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Kaunas Castle,Kovno (197, 33, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nemunas river (138, 57, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Eble river (41, 73, 0) ***Sign*** Message: George V Bridge, Orleans (40, 76, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Orleans (56, 80, 0) ***Event*** Message: The old church (85, 3, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Ridderzaal,The Hague (204, 16, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: I am Johann Heinrich Baumann,here--Jelgava is my hometown.I always like painting animals, hunting scenes,do you want to buy some of my paintings? (191, 22, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Memel- A Uostamiestis that export timber to Great Britain for use by the Royal Navy (15, 58, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Saint-Nazaire (222, 55, 0) ***Wolf Raider*** Message: 4th Lithuanian Vanguard Regiment of Borisov charge on you (238, 42, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The situation in Europe is unpredictable, the Tsar ordered that the important roads in the empire should be strictly guarded to prevent the collusion of the insurgent forces. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Tsar has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (74, 60, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Valmy First you have to face the enemy in Verdun "Vive la Nation!"Kellermann raised his hat and cried (237, 190, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (160, 1, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (160, 86, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Bobr river (131, 140, 0) ***Fire Elemental*** Message: In its history, Traunstein was struck at least twice by significant town fires: It was presumed the fire was an act of revenge by the angry Haslachers. There were feelings of rage because the parochial seat was taken away from Haslach and was given to Traunstein. (124, 147, 0) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Edelweiss--In German, “edel” means noble and “weiss” means white. According to one source, “symbolic meanings of the edelweiss flower are daring, courage and noble purity.” The flower grows in many inaccessible places. Men would risk their lives to bring the flower to their girl as a symbol of true love. Edelweiss in Sound of MusicUnfortunately, many men lost their lives in such an attempt. For this reason, the flower has become protected. (25, 167, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Rodez Let's measure Paris meridian here at Rodez Pierre Mechain headed the southern expedition, measuring from Barcelona to Rodez. (155, 159, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Austrian commander Ignaz Gyulai was successful in getting supplies to the Austrian garrison of Graz (0, 171, 0) ***Event*** Message: Pamplona (84, 202, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua June 14,1797: Bonaparte installs a new government in Genoa, with the aim of creating a new Ligurian Republic. (58, 212, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge The Students of Minerva，Toulon--Mother lodge to Marshals Andre Massena Masonic lodge The Students of Minerva，Toulon--Mother lodge to Marshals Andre Massena Marshals Andre Massena initiated in Toulon in 1784 by "The Students of Minerva," a member of many lodges, including "The Real Friends Meeting" in Nice and the military lodge "The Perfect Friendship," GODF administrator and member of the Supreme Council.Later In 1804, Andre Massena participated in the reorganization of French {{Freemason}ry} and became, in November, "grand representative of the grand master of the Supreme Council"; in this capacity, he is one of the negotiators of the concordat established between the Grand Orient de France and the Supreme Council. (35, 191, 0) ***Event*** Message: The tower of the Montpellier observatory (35, 190, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Louis-Sebastien Lenormand (May 25, 1757 - April 4, 1837) was a French chemist, physicist, inventor, and a pioneer in parachuting.Lenormand was born in Montpellier on May 25, 1757 as the son of a clockmaker. Between 1775 and 1780, he studied physics and chemistry under Lavoisier and Berthollet in Paris, where he also got involved with the administration of saltpeter. In this position he learned of the use of scientific and mathematical knowledge in the production of gunpowder. After returning to his natal town, he worked in his father's clock shop while immersing himself in the intellectual community and starting his experiments with parachuting, inspired by the performance of a Thai equilibrist who used a parasol for balance. Before performing the public jump from the Montpellier observatory tower, Lenormand tested his parachutes using animals. He is considered as the first man to make a witnessed descent with a parachute and is also credited with coining the term parachute, from the Latin prefix para meaning "against", an imperative form of parare = to avoid, avert, defend, resist, guard, shield or shroud, from paro = to parry, and the French word chute for "fall", hence the word "parachute" literally means an aeronautic device "against a fall". After making a jump from a tree with the help of a pair of modified umbrellas, Lenormand refined his contraption and on December 26, 1783 jumped from the tower of the Montpellier observatory in front of a crowd that included Joseph Montgolfier, using a 14-foot parachute with a rigid wooden frame. (109, 222, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua First clear out the Austrian army in the fortress of Mantua French army entered Rome (108, 222, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: etienne Macdonald join you (117, 245, 0) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: Traditionally, each sanctuary is limited to 22 members who are described as "technical mystics" (157, 248, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Korcula (158, 248, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Second Archipelago Expedition--an expedition by the Russian Baltic Fleet under Admiral Dmitry Senyavin into the Mediterranean between 1805 and 1807 Russian admiral who ranks among the greatest seamen of the Napoleonic Wars Dmitry Senyavin join you (65, 71, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The crowd gather outside the fortress,calling for the pulling back of the seemingly threatening cannon from the embrasures of the towers and walls and two representatives enter Prise de la Bastille Please send representatives to negotiate with the prison guards. Around 1:30 pm,gunfire began. (242, 238, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Siege of Izmail Win Siege of Izmail After the capture of the Izmail fortress, Suvorov marched upon Constantinople, where we Russians hoped could establish a Christian empire.Our dream come true now. (64, 208, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Rene-Nicolas Dufriche, baron Desgenettes (23 May 1762, Alencon - 3 February 1837, Paris) was a French military doctor. He was chief doctor to the French army in Egypt and at Waterloo. Desgenettes soon became one of the top army surgeons through his energy and courage, and in March 1793 was attached to the field hospital of the armee de la Mediterranee due to his knowing Italian.he took up leadership of the hospital at Antibes. In effect, during this first campaign, always at the advanced outposts, he was involved in the reorganisation of French military hospitals. In the Armee d'Italie from 1793 to 1795, he got to know Napoleon Bonaparte and dazzled him with his intelligence and his range of cultural awareness. Attached to the division commanded by general Massena, he successfully faced a typhus epidemic. All of Desgenettes's patients were cured, and returned to the army on 30 fructidor to be head of the hospital service of the right division, then moved to Loano and the representatives there, on 2 niv?se year III, to organise the medical service for the maritime expedition assigned to reconquer Corsica (taken by the English). A few years later, Bonaparte remembered him and made him chief doctor to the Egyptian expedition. (31, 76, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tours Amphitheatre (32, 75, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Nicolas Heurteloup was a French military physician and surgeon. He was born on 26 November 1750 in Tours (Indre-et-Loire ) and died in Paris on 27 March 1812. He succeeded Pierre-Fran?ois Percy (1754-1825) as chief surgeon of the Grande Armee, and had himself as his successor Dominique-Jean Larrey (1766-1842). He was the father of physician Charles Louis Stanislas Heurteloup (1793-1864). Born in Tours, Nicolas Heurteloup began his medical studies in that city. He finished them in Paris. He then joined the army. Heurteloup made his career under the Ancien Regime, the Revolution, the Consulate and the Empire. He attained the rank of Surgeon in 1790 and of first army surgeon in 1795. In 1804 he was inspector general of the health service and chief surgeon of the Grande Armee in 1808, replacing Percy. His work earned him the esteem of the Emperor Napoleon, who quoted him in the bulletin that followed the Battle of Wagram, and made him an Officer of the Legion of Honor in 1809 and a Baron in 1810. (7, 242, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Melilla--"Himno de Melilla" (9, 244, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (38, 230, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. (5, 94, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. (30, 218, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Lloret (93, 30, 0) ***Battle Dwarf*** Message: The mining area of Netherlands was located in Province Limburg in the south of the Netherlands, bordering Germany and Belgium. (88, 112, 0) ***Event*** Message: Mount Feldberg(1,493 m) (190, 168, 0) ***Event*** Message: Szolnok (223, 38, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Polotsk (211, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Our Russian Empire and Archduchy of Austria were engaged in hostilities with the Ottoman Empire (the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792 and the Austro-Turkish War, 1787-1791); we Russians also found ourselves simultaneously fighting in the Russo-Swedish War, 1788-1790. Poles found Poland's neighbors were preoccupied with wars and unable to intervene forcibly in Polish affairs. Sign Treaty of Jassy With the wars between Turkey and Russia and Sweden and Russia having ended, Tsarina Catherine was furious over the adoption of the document, which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland.Now,here Battle of Mir (1792) (238, 177, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Jassy --The Cultural Capital of Romania (52, 70, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Grand Orient de France--The Grand Orient de France (GODF) is the largest of several Masonic organizations in France and is the oldest in Continental Europe (as it was formed out of an older Grand Lodge of France in 1773, and briefly absorbed the rump of the older body in 1799, allowing it to date its foundation to 1728 or 1733). It is generally considered to be the mother lodge of traditional Liberal, or Continental {{Freemason}ry}. Some notable French revolutionaries were {Freemason}s, including Marquis de Lafayette.Throughout his life, Lafayette was an exponent of the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, especially on human rights and civic nationalism, and his views were taken very seriously by intellectuals and others on both sides of the Atlantic. His image in the United States was derived from his "disinterestedness" in fighting without pay for the freedom of a country that was not his own. Samuel Adams praised him for "foregoing the pleasures of Enjoyment of domestick Life and exposing himself to the Hardship and Dangers" of war when he fought "in the glorious cause of freedom". This view was shared by many contemporaries, establishing an image of Lafayette seeking to advance the freedom of all mankind rather than the interests of just one nation. During the French Revolution, Americans viewed him as an advocate for American ideals, seeking to transport them from New World to Old. After the French Revolution, the Jesuit Augustin Barruel wrote that {Freemason}s had actively prepared the 1789 revolution, which has been used to back theories of a Masonic plot. This thesis was often reprised later, notably during the French Third Republic, by Catholic authors (using it to oppose both the Republic and {{Freemason}ry}) and by {Freemason}s (so as to reinforce their pro-Republican stance and their positive image with the Republican government). In reality, there were {Freemason}s in both the Republican and monarchical camps. During the First Empire, the Grand Orient de France was under strict control from the political authorities and little by little gathered almost all of French {{Freemason}ry} (which had newly developed and quickly reached 1,200 lodges, mainly military ones) under its aegis. Because of the involvement of {Freemason}s in the French Revolution, {{Freemason}ry} has become forever linked with revolutionary ideals with many modern writers suggesting that the {Freemason}s in France were behind the Revolution itself. The differences behind these masonic figures suggests otherwise; it reflects the complexity of the Revolution and how different political ideas conflicted with personal ideals. (200, 4, 0) ***Event*** Message: Kuressaare,Saaremaa island (45, 76, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (146, 132, 0) ***Event*** Message: Freistadt (55, 68, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) The situation of the royal family became considerably more desperate on 18 April 1791, when they were prevented from travelling to Saint-Cloud to attend Mass by a large hostile crowd. Escape plans had been broached earlier between Comte de Mirabeau and von Fersen, but Mirabeau's death on 2 April 1791 put an end to that discussion.Following the aborted trip to Saint Cloud, von Fersen revived these plans with vigor. In June, von Fersen acquired a Berline and drove it to a courtyard at Eleanore Sullivan's residence on the Rue de Clichy in Paris. The escape was arranged to take place on 20 June, coinciding with a particular guard change. (47, 81, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (160, 2, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Halmstad (251, 116, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Luhanske--headquarters of the Luhansk pikemen regiment (251, 120, 0) ***Titan*** Message: Serhiy Volyna, the commander of the 36th sparate marine Brigade , who is holding out for Mariupol, and his men join you . Glory to Ukraine! (113, 107, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sign The Treaty of Amiens Sign The Treaty of Amiens The Treaty of Amiens is over. New war breaks out (150, 75, 0) ***Behemoth*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (138, 70, 0) ***Ogre Mage*** Message: You captured Russian army's flag bearer in this battle (137, 69, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Defeat Barclay's Russian reserve army (135, 69, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Kleist's Prussian Second Corps is attacking our Polish ally at Markkleeberg (134, 69, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Merveldt's Austrian Second Corps is trying to cross on the left bank of the Pleisse to capture Connewitz and Dolitz,we must stop it! (133, 69, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Schwarzenber's Austrian main army of Bohemia is attacking on you (132, 69, 0) ***Black Dragon*** Message: You captured Austrian army's flag bearer in this battle (137, 68, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Bennigsen's infantry regiments is attacking Wachau, Reinforce the Victor's Second Corps! (135, 67, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Liebertwolkwitz(14th October 1813)--as the largest cavalry battle in Europe's history (138, 66, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Klenau's Fourth Corps occupiet high ground of the Kolmberg,it is fighting its way to Liebertwolkwitz,we need to retake them back (139, 64, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Sweden army led by Bernadotte is attacking joined the allies (139, 63, 0) ***Titan*** Message: You captured Sweden army's flag bearer in this battle (136, 62, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Bulow's Prussian corps supported by Austrian jaegers and British congreve rockets detachment is attacking from north (137, 62, 0) ***Lich*** Message: You captured British army's flag bearer in this battle (134, 63, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We received Reynier's French -Saxon Seventh Corps (134, 62, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We are Dabrowski' Polish division,we will help Marmont's Sixth Corps fighting the Prussian army (133, 63, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Mockern is undered attack by Prussian army led by Blücher (133, 62, 0) ***Bone Dragon*** Message: You captured Prussian army's flag bearer in this battle (120, 240, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After Battle of Cape St Vincent,Nelson was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue Nelson began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. After a conference with his captains, Nelson decided Egypt was Napoleon's most likely destination and headed for Alexandria. (164, 60, 0) ***Wraith*** Message: According to a popular legend, a woman in black appears on the hardly-accessible organ balcony. (18, 104, 0) ***Armor of Wonder*** Message: "A Templar Knight is truly a fearless knight, and secure on every side, for his soul is protected by the armour of faith, just as his body is protected by the armour of steel. He is thus doubly armed, and need fear neither demons nor men." -Bernard of Clairvaux, c.?1135, De Laude Novae Militae - In Praise of the New Knighthood (123, 184, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: sign Peace of Basel first sign Peace of Basel first now sign Treaty of Campo Formio (250, 119, 0) ***Crusader*** Message: The Azov battalion soldiers who are defending the Mariupol steelworks have joined your troops (52, 93, 0) ***Sign*** Message: ecole speciale militaire de Saint-Cyr-founded in Fontainebleau in 1802 by Napoleon (192, 220, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Serbian Uprising Finish Italian and Swiss expedition first Now we Russian decide to intervene in Balkan affairs, predicting the liberation of Serbia from Ottoman and Habsburg rule (163, 153, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Military Frontier--It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies (Grenzgeneralat). 4.The Gyor Captain Generalcy (Raaber/raaberische Grenze), protecting Vienna The Military Frontier (German: Milit?rgrenze, Serbo-Croatian: Vojna krajina/Vojna granica, Во?на кра?ина/Во?на граница; Hungarian: Katonai határ?rvidek; Romanian: Grani?? militar?) was a borderland of the Habsburg Monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the new defense system in Hungary and Croatia took place in the 16th century, following the election of Ferdinand I as king. Six districts under special military administration were established in Hungary and Croatia. The Croatian Military Frontier and the Slavonian Military Frontier came under the jurisdiction of the Croatian Sabor and ban. In 1627, they were placed under the direct control of the Habsburg military. For more than two centuries, they would retain complete civilian and military authority over the area, up to the abolition of the Military Frontier in 1881. The inhabitants of the area were known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen) included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.. They were mostly Croatian, Serbian, German, Vlach and other colonists.In exchange for land-grants, religious freedom and favorable tax rates, they colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. Germans had been recruited by Hungary in the late 18th century to resettle and develop the Danube River Valley, and became known as Donauschwaben. The military regiments formed by the settlers had a vested reason to stand and fight and were familiar with local terrain and conditions. They soon gained a formidable military reputation, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, Ba?ka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some Germans, Poles, Magyars and Slovaks also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire - Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Rusyns and others. (185, 31, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Konigsberg (52, 63, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: At 13:45 (1:45 PM) on December 1, 1783, Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched a new manned balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris.Their pioneering use of hydrogen for lift led to this type of balloon being named a Charlière (as opposed to a Montgolfière which used hot air). It was filled with hydrogen that had been made by pouring nearly a quarter of a tonne of sulphuric acid onto a half a tonne of scrap iron. Montgolfier's principal scientific collaborator was M. Charles, ... who had been the first to propose the gas produced by vitriol instead of the burning, dampened straw and wood that he had used in earlier flights (162, 83, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Glogau-- one of the largest fortified towns in Lower Silesia (19, 104, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Original Templar cross, Cour de la Commanderie,Cour de la Commanderie,La Rochelle, ancient location of the Templars' headquarters. La Rochelle once was the Templars' largest base on the Atlantic Ocean,and where they stationed their main fleet.For thousands of years, the Knights Templar have been chasing the Holy Grail, but the Knightfall.If you can find the Holy Grail, you may be able to spin the ancient Original Templar cross and initiate mysterious rituals. Our ritual suggests that it is a physical journey that is being undertaken; this is also the case with the Grail story. In fact both the Grail Cycle and the Templar Ritual are allegories of a spiritual journey, the whole saga is in fact a spiritual story dressed up in the guise of history, the Grail itself being a metaphor of God's grace which the Knight receives on his journey.Now, you will become this legend, please continue to pass on the spirit of the knight to establish a new order! (100, 111, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Sigmaringen Castle--the House of Hohenzollern. (36, 195, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The city is captured by the Federalistes You need to release their Girondin leaders in the National Convention What,you arrest their leaders instead? (85, 144, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (94, 123, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Rhine Falls--the most powerful waterfall in Europe (56, 73, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On the right bank of the Seine, just a stone’s throw away from the Palais Royal, the Paris Opera and the Musee de Louvre in the French capital’s second arrondissement, lies a blink-and-you’ll-miss-it passageway. Despite being so close to these popular Parisian tourist attractions, the Passage des Petits-Pères boasts little to attract the attention of even the most intrepid of travellers.In the late 18th century, however, this little thoroughfare was significantly larger (a portion has since been swallowed up by the re-development of an adjacent street), and was home to both the H?tel des Etats-Unis and the H?tel d’Angleterre. As such it was a destination of choice for members of both the American and British ex-pat communities, most notably the group of radical Anglo-American exiles who called themselves 'The Society of the Friends of the Rights of Man’. Another possible attendee that night was a young William Wordsworth. While definitive proof of his presence at the meeting remains frustratingly elusive, we do know that the twenty-three-year-old, having already resided in France for a year, was in Paris at the time. He was also armed with a letter of introduction to Helen Maria Williams, which had been furnished by Charlotte Smith, a novelist acquaintance of the Wordsworth family. Further adding to the conceivability of his attendance is the fact that the young man’s interest in revolutionary politics had already been piqued: during his stay in London from January to May 1791 he would have undoubtedly been cognizant of the heated parliamentary debates on the situation in France, while in The Prelude he recalls having 'sometimes read / with care the master pamphlets of the day’ by the likes of Paine and Edmund Burke. His subsequent acquaintance with Captain Michel de Beaupuy, who was a rarity in late 18th century France being as he was an aristocrat and an ardent supporter of the Revolution, further influenced Wordsworth’s nascent political beliefs - it is thought that Beaupuy was the person who ultimately converted Wordsworth to the Jacobin cause. The first recorded meeting of this Society took place at the Hotel d’Angleterre, also known as White’s Hotel, on 18 November 1792, a Sunday. This 'meeting’ was in fact a banquet to celebrate the establishment of the first French Republic and the advancement, as they saw it, of the Romantic ideals of democracy, human rights, and equality. In attendance were about one hundred British and American intellectuals including such progressive thinkers as Thomas Paine, author of the seminal Rights of Man; radical publisher, John Hurford Stone; the Welsh philosopher and polemicist David Williams; the poet and novelist, Helen Maria Williams; and the Irish aristocrat and revolutionary, Lord Edward Fitzgerald. (147, 251, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition The southern part of the French Empire was successfully linked to Egypt, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean East! (162, 242, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illyrian Provinces--an autonomous province of France during the First French Empire that existed under Napoleonic Rule from 1809 to 1814.Marmont pushed the Code Napoleon throughout the area and led a vast infrastructural expansion. Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition,then we can link Egypt and the Middle East with Dalmatia Although we French will finally retreat from this area,but we do significantly contributed to greater national self-confidence and awareness of freedoms, especially in the Slovene lands,give it a beginning of an enhanced awareness of the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity.Our cause will last forever (59, 213, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition The southern part of the French Empire was successfully linked to Egypt, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean East! (45, 92, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Market-women were infuriated by the chronic shortage and high price of bread."--Stanislas-Marie Maillard The royal famliy only agree a group of six women nominated by the crowd to go into the king's apartment "The king's guard killed a young man ! Let us rush in together! The king should face the citizens of Paris, instead of hiding in the Palace!" (43, 93, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) The French royal family, coerced by the revolutionaries, had to return to Paris from Versailles, and Fersen vowed to protect her Be ready to take the royal family out of Paris at that time (44, 94, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: One wax modelling artist was invited to live at Versailles for a period of nine years She was perceived as a royal sympathiser in the Reign of Terror.Bribe guards to prevent the artist from being guillotined The artistwas released thanks to Collot d'Herbois' support for Curtius and his household (101, 217, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition The southern part of the French Empire was successfully linked to Italy,Egypt, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean East! (47, 210, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Nile first Win Battle of Nile first The French Mediterranean fleet has been hit hard, and Marseille is already within reach (137, 251, 0) ***Nomad*** Message: These Egyptians were willing to act as guides for the army in the desert (47, 148, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During September 1790 the Lyon city's working class activists established 32 revolutionary societies to which they gave the name "Peoples' associations of friends of the [revolutionary] constitution" ("Societes populaires des Amis de la Constitution"). These were established in opposition to more bourgeois revolutionary societies such as "The association of friends of the revolution" ("Societe des Amis de la Revolution") This means that Lyon's political circles were clearly leaning towards the moderate Gironde faction during this period The revolt of Lyon against the National Convention was a counter-revolutionary movement in the city of Lyon during the time of the French Revolution. It was a revolt of moderates against the more radical National Convention, the third government during the French Revolution. It broke out in June 1793[1] and was put down in October of the same year, after government forces had besieged the city. (49, 146, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Lyon was convulsed by violence during the French Revolution, when the citizenry rose up against the National Convention and supported the Girondins. The city was besieged by Revolutionary armies for over two months before it surrendered in October 1793. Many buildings were destroyed, especially around the Place Bellecour, and Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois and Joseph Fouche administered the execution of more than 2,000 people. The Convention ordered that its name be changed to "Liberated City", and a plaque was erected that proclaimed "Lyons made war on Liberty; Lyons no longer exists". (49, 147, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The revolt of Lyon against the National Convention was a counter-revolutionary movement in the city of Lyon during the time of the French Revolution. It was a revolt of moderates against the more radical National Convention, the third government during the French Revolution. It broke out in June 1793[1] and was put down in October of the same year, after government forces had besieged the city. Lyon had a large working class at the time, while Lyon's political circles tended toward a leadership atmosphere of moderates or even with a royalist stance, which led to the whole of Lyon being at odds with the radical bourgeois wing of the central government. After a siege by government forces, Lyon was finally taken control of by the revolutionary government. Moving quickly, on 9 October, the government representatives had created both a "Military Commission", charged with judging people who had taken up arms, and a "Commission of Peoples' Justice" which was to judge the other "rebels". Three days later the National Convention itself decided to create a five-member "Extraordinary Commission" which they tasked with imposing "immediate military punishment" on the "criminal counter-revolutionaries of Lyon".[8] (3, 229, 0) ***Event*** Message: In the era of the Atlantic Revolution, when the Napoleonic Wars were in full swing on the European continent, Iberia was supposed to be a frontier land away from the conflict, but the Peninsular War changed everything. Many Spaniards took up arms to defend their homeland or were forced to join the armies of the great powers to fight in the continental wars, such as joining the French conquest of Russia in 1812; at the same time, many Europeans left their homeland in Europe and used the Iberian Peninsula as a springboard to find their purpose in life in the Americas, such as the Polish soldiers from Eastern Europe who were conscripted by France to fight in Haiti and the Haitian Revolution. After the end of the Haitian Revolution, many of these Polish soldiers and officers chose to settle in Haiti permanently, as they no longer wanted to be used as pawns. (1, 164, 0) ***Event*** Message: In the era of the Atlantic Revolution, when the Napoleonic Wars were in full swing on the European continent, Iberia was supposed to be a frontier land away from the conflict, but the Peninsular War changed everything. Many Spaniards took up arms to defend their homeland or were forced to join the armies of the great powers to fight in the continental wars, such as joining the French conquest of Russia in 1812; at the same time, many Europeans left their homeland in Europe and used the Iberian Peninsula as a springboard to find their purpose in life in the Americas, such as the Polish soldiers from Eastern Europe who were conscripted by France to fight in Haiti and the Haitian Revolution. After the end of the Haitian Revolution, many of these Polish soldiers and officers chose to settle in Haiti permanently, as they no longer wanted to be used as pawns. (182, 77, 0) ***Event*** Message: Although Poland was partitioned by Prussia, Austria and Russia in the second half of the 18th century, the struggle of the Polish people would never end. Polish soldiers in exile formed many Polish legions and participated extensively in many wars against the enemy, following Napoleon as far as Haiti. They also participated in the Peninsular War and in the conquest of Russia to fight against the common enemy they shared with their allies (148, 135, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Austrians agreed and they are willing to come with us to teach the Tsar a lesson! (148, 136, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon of France wanted to reconnect with us in Austria and wanted us to send troops to help him to attack the Tsar together Napoleon of France wanted to reconnect with us in Austria and wanted us to send troops to help him to attack the Tsar together Napoleon was so naive as to imagine that we would mobilize 30,000 troops or more! In fact, we were only going to send a few filler troops and bolt when the time was right. (95, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Before the imperial expedition to Spain, Emperor Napoleon called up 160,000 recruits from 1806 to 1809 in the Legislative Assembly to supplement the Grand Army Corps in Germany. On October 12, 1808, the Grand Army Corps was divided into two branches: the Spanish Corps and the Rhine Corps. The latter, of which one third were veterans, was stationed in Central Europe. The former was taken by the emperor to the imperial campaign. The expedition to Haiti, the Peninsular War and the French invasion of Russia were like war quagmires, and many of the troops sent there never returned. (131, 17, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Hamburg-Pomeranian region is a place where soldiers have to fight for their lives. The Swedes in the north were ostensibly neutral, but they definitely had an interest in the great war in Europe once the opportunity arose, because that would give Sweden a share of benefit in each round of the contest. I heard that there was going to be a war in Iberia, and Napoleon of France also had torn his face off with the Czar of Russia. (249, 6, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France were the two main protagonists and antipodes of a military-political drama that played out on the battlefields of Europe at the very beginning of the 19th century. Both the Russians and French were watching each other vigilantly, understanding well that confrontation and military conflict were inevitable. In these conditions the acquisition of timely, reliable, and secret information on the designs and actions of the potential adversary took on a significance of the first degree. The idea for forming such a highly secret state intelligence service belonged to Barclay de Tolly. In the summer of 1810, Barclay set before Alexander I the matter of organizing the activity of Russian intelligence abroad and requested permission to send special military agents to Russian embassies to collect information “on the number of forces; their order; armaments and morale; the condition of their fortresses and stores; the capabilities and merits of their best generals; the character and spirit of the people; the economic disposition; the internal resources of the powers and their means of continuing a war; and various conclusions provided on offensive and defensive operations.”[ii] These military agents would be placed in diplomatic missions under the cover of civilian bureaucrats and officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Colonel Chernyshev was one of the first seven Russian “military agents” whom then-War Minister Barclay de Tolly sent to the capitals of a number of European states as officers of the Special Chancellery - a special organ of Russian foreign intelligence[i]. Aside from Chernyshev, de Tolly also sent Lieutenant G.F. Orlov; Colonel F.V. Teil Von Seraskerken, a Dutchmen by origin; Colonel R.E. Renin, the descendant of a Scottish immigrant (Vienna, Berlin); Lieutenant P.I. Brozin (Madrid); Lieutentant P.H. Grabbe (Munich); and Major V.A. Prendel (Dresden). In his youth Prendel was imprisoned in France for revolutionary struggle. Like other heroic intelligence officers - F. Vintsingerode, D. Davydov, and A. Finger - Prendel commanded a partisan detachment during the Fatherland War of 1812. The activity of the Special Chancellery was carried out in three directions: 1.Organization of strategic intelligence (acquiring abroad strategically important secret information) 2.Operational/tactical intelligence (collection of data on enemy forces on Russian borders) 3.Counterintelligence (detect and neutralize Napoleon’s agent networks) (250, 4, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: find Aleksandr Chernyshev send Aleksandr Chernyshev to Paris "I will work in Paris,verify information coming from Talleyrand"--Aleksandr Chernyshev (177, 3, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Despite the amazing achievements of Sweden in many academic and technological inventions in this era, which even the British and French powers are ashamed of, the center of artistic and cultural exchange is still in Paris, not in Stockholm, because it is too far north and too cold! We must take the initiative to visit Paris to exchange and liaise with other countries in the international center of Paris in order to continue the golden age of Sweden. You need to obtain authorization from the Swedish monarch as well as the Royal Academy of Sciences to travel to Paris for various activities. Take care of your personal appearance, behave like a gentleman and be elegant, so that you can be seen by the French and other countries as a representative of the advanced civilization in Sweden. (89, 215, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Corsican Revolution (1755–1769) In November 1755, Pasquale Paoli proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, the Corsican Republic (Italian: Repubblica Corsa), independent from the Republic of Genoa. He created the Corsican Constitution, which was the first constitution written in Italian under Enlightenment principles, including the first implementation of female suffrage,[1] later revoked by the French when they took over the island in 1769. The republic created an administration and justice system, and founded an army. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Corsican Revolution (1755–1769) (70, 140, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Geneva Revolution of 1782 The Geneva Revolution of 1782 (French: La revolution genevoise de 1782) was a short-lived attempt to broaden the franchise and include men of modest means in the republican government of the oligarchic Genevan city-state. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Geneva Revolution of 1782 (68, 79, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French Revolution (1789–1799) The French Revolution (French: Revolution fran?aise [?ev?lysj?? f?ɑ?s??z]) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy,[1] while phrases like liberte, egalite, fraternite reappeared in other revolts, such as the 1917 Russian Revolution,[2] and inspired campaigns for the abolition of slavery and universal suffrage.[3] The values and institutions it created dominate French politics to this day Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean French Revolution (1789–1799) (74, 18, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Brabant Revolution (1790) The Brabant Revolution or Brabantine Revolution (French: Revolution braban?onne, Dutch: Brabantse Omwenteling), sometimes referred to as the Belgian Revolution of 1789–1790 in older writing, was an armed insurrection that occurred in the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) between October 1789 and December 1790. The revolution, which occurred at the same time as revolutions in France and Liège, led to the brief overthrow of Habsburg rule and the proclamation of a short-lived polity, the United Belgian States. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Brabant Revolution (1790) (239, 138, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Decembrist revolt-Chernigov Regiment revolt The Decembrist Revolt (Russian: Восстание декабристов, romanized: Vosstaniye dekabristov, lit.?'Uprising of the Decembrists') took place in Russia on 26 December [O.S. 14 December] 1825, following the sudden death of Emperor Alexander I. Returning from exile in 1819, Speransky was appointed as the governor of Siberia, with the task of reforming local government. In 1818, the tsar asked Count Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev to draw up a constitution.[1] The abolition of serfdom in the Baltic provinces was instituted between 1816 and 1819.[2] However, internal and external unrest, which the tsar believed stemmed from political liberalization, led to a series of repressions and a return to a former government of restraint and conservatism. Meanwhile, the experiences of the Napoleonic Wars and realization of the suffering of peasant soldiers resulted in Decembrist officers and sympathizers being attracted to reform changes in society.[3] They displayed their contempt of court by rejecting the court lifestyle, wearing their cavalry swords at balls (to indicate their unwillingness to dance), and committing themselves to academic study. These new practices captured the spirit of the times as a willingness by the Decembrists to embrace both the peasant (i.e., the fundamental Russian people) and ongoing reform movements from intellectuals abroad. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean. Decembrist revolt-Chernigov Regiment revolt The Chernigov Regiment revolt was the second and the last major armed conflict of the Decembrist revolt in the former Russian Empire. The revolt unfolded January 10 [O.S. December 29] – January 15 [O.S. January 3] 1826 in Ukraine between Kiev and Bila Tserkva. (89, 121, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Helvetic Revolution (1798) The French invasion of Switzerland (German: Franzoseneinfall) occurred from January to May 1798 as part of the French Revolutionary Wars. The independent Old Swiss Confederacy collapsed from the invasion and simultaneous internal revolts called the "Helvetic Revolution". The Swiss ancien regime institutions were abolished and replaced by the centralised Helvetic Republic, one of the sister republics of the French First Republic. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean. Helvetic Revolution (1798) (94, 5, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Batavian Revolution (1795) The Batavian Revolution (Dutch: De Bataafse Revolutie) was a time of political, social and cultural turmoil at the end of the 18th century that marked the end of the Dutch Republic and saw the proclamation of the Batavian Republic. The period of Dutch history that followed the revolution is referred to as the "Batavian-French era" (1795–1813) even though the time spanned was only 20 years, of which three were under French occupation under Napoleon Bonaparte. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean. Batavian Revolution (1795) The Batavian Revolution ended with the proclamation of the Batavian Republic in 1795. William was forced to flee to England,[7] where he issued the Kew Letters proclaiming that all Dutch colonies were to fall under British rule, as they had declared war on the Batavian Republic. Several coups followed in 1798, 1801 and 1805 which brought different groups of Patriots to power. Though the French presented themselves as liberators,[8] many disagreed. The Batavian Republic saw its end in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was founded, with Napoleon's brother, Louis Napoleon as King of Holland. In 1810, the area was annexed into the First French Empire. (196, 92, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Ko?ciuszko Uprising The Ko?ciuszko Uprising,[h] also known as the Polish Uprising of 1794[2][i] and the Second Polish War,[3][j] was an uprising against the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia[4] led by Tadeusz Ko?ciuszko in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Prussian partition in 1794. It was a failed attempt to liberate the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from external influence after the Second Partition of Poland (1793) and the creation of the Targowica Confederation. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean. Ko?ciuszko Uprising The struggle of the Polish people against foreign invasion will always shine brightly and inspire all small nations with a heroic spirit (186, 3, 0) ***Tower*** Name: Stockholm Timed events: Name: e1791Ministry_for_Foreign_Affairs Message: The ministry for Foreign Affairs was created in 1791 when King Gustav III set up Konungens kabinett for den utrikes brevv?xlingen (The King's cabinet for Foreign Letters of Exchange ). Name: eRoyal_Swedish_Academy_of_War_Sciences Message: On 12 November 1796 ,The Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences was founded by Gustaf Wilhelm af Tibell,The Academy is an independent organization and a forum for military (army and air force) and defense issues. Name: eTreaty of Saint Petersburg (1805) Message: On 11 April 1805 the Treaty of Saint Petersburg was signed by Great Britain and the Russian Empire and created an offensive alliance directed against Napoleon's French Empire. The two allies were joined by Austria on 9 August 1805 and by Sweden on 3 October 1805 while France was allied to Spain and a number of France's satellite republics. Sweden joined only after Britain granted subsidies that financed almost all Swedish war costs. Sweden armed 10,000 men. This treaty was one of the main causes of the War of the Third Coalition. Name: eSwedish_East_India_Company Message: The fourth charter of The Swedish East India Company arrive in Sweden.he main goods were silk, tea, furniture, porcelain, precious stones and other distinctive luxury items from China. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 180瑞军AI增兵乘以0.7倍 87’35' 20’15 10'8 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 280 135'45 30’25 20'15 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 780 400’125 90'70 45’30 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 980 425’180 120'110 65’45 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2480 910’520 370'330 155’110 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 2980 1170’560 420'360 185’150 135 Name: eCharles de Suremain Message: In 1794，French nobility，member of Armee des emigres Charles de Suremain came to be in service of the Swedish army and instructor of War science of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden. He also became a favorite of the regent Duke Charles, devoted himself to court service Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: “His Majesty the King requires that the Royal Chancellery in all written documents endeavor to write in clear, plain Swedish.” Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: "Cum Deo et victricibus armis" Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: "De hafva aldrig wikit eller for sin egen dehl tappadt" Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: Possunt nec Posse Videntur Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: Attityd ar allt Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: Gardet dor, men ger sig icke Name: AI主城满建 Message: (8, 0, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. (20, 14, 0) ***Sign*** Message: d'Auvergne's tower,Jersey (15, 103, 0) ***Event*** Message: Pertuis d'Antioche (144, 246, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After Battle of Cape St Vincent,Nelson was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue Nelson began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. After a conference with his captains, Nelson decided Egypt was Napoleon's most likely destination and headed for Alexandria. (143, 247, 0) ***Event*** Message: British Mediterranean fleet led by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson found you (70, 242, 0) ***Event*** Message: A naval division led by admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues to Northern Africa to reduce attacks by Barbary corsairs at your service (184, 163, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Buda-Pest Timed events: Name: ex Message: In 1791 the Diet passed Law X, which stressed Hungary's status as an independent kingdom ruled only by a king legally crowned according to Hungarian laws. Name: edoublekingdom Message: On Aug 11, 1804 Francis II, who was also the Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the other dynastic lands of the Habsburg dynasty, founded the Empire of Austria in which Hungary and all his other dynastic lands were included. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, that had functioned as a composite monarchy for about three hundred years before. He himself became Francis I (Franz I.), the first Emperor of Austria (Kaiser von ?sterreich), ruling from 1804 to 1835, so later he was named the one and only Doppelkaiser (double emperor) in history. The workings of the overarching structure and the status of the new Kaiserthum’s component lands at first stayed much as they had been under the composite monarchy that existed before 1804. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary, whose affairs remained to be administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been under the composite monarchy, in which it had always been considered a separate Realm. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 100 53’17' 10’7 5'5 3 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 150 75'23 15’12 10'10 5 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 400 205’63 45'35 22’20 10 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 500 220’90 60'55 32’25 18 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 1250 460’260 185'165 77’60 43 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 1500 590’280 210'180 93’80 67 Name: Ai主城满建 Message: (168, 173, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Benedictine Abbey on Tihany Peninsula (179, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (180, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by pink Player. The second guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (181, 7, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (87, 27, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Purple player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Purple player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Although Miranda actively served revolutionary France during the French Revolution, political turmoil forced him out of the French army when he was falsely accused of secretly colluding with the royalists. (86, 27, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go to the west of Buenos Aires and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (21, 218, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Orange player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Orange player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area After several battles against the Moors in North Africa, St. Martin returned to Catalonia to prepare for the Battle of the Eastern Pyrenees against the invasion of revolutionary France. (22, 217, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go south of Madrid and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (163, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Karlskrona--a strong naval base (140, 13, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Blücher was a captain in the light cavalry. (139, 13, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Born in Rostock, Blücher first served in the Swedish army in his early years (59, 216, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Bagne of Toulon-- the notorious prison in Toulon, France Prisoner #24601 has escaped! (237, 53, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Grande Armee launched attack on our earthworks Raevski Redoubt and Bagration Flèches (240, 52, 0) ***Event*** Message: We planned to followed the old Kaluga road southwards towards unspoilt parts of Russia to use other roads for retreat westwards to Smolensk than the one being scorched by our army for the march eastwards.But Kutuzov let us know in Battle of Maloyaroslavets that impossible. Now we must return to Smolensk along the way we came. (241, 54, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: “I want to see the Tsar succumb!” - Napoleon (80, 12, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Tholen (140, 24, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Müritz (121, 22, 0) ***Sign*** Message: King's German Legion--a great number of soldiers from Hanover of mostly expatriated German personnel eventually emigrating to Great Britain (90, 83, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Palatinate Forest-- is a low-mountain region in southwestern Germany, located in the Palatinate in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. (147, 79, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Augustus Bridge,Dresden (49, 89, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win battle of Leipzig Defeat Austrian army in Battle of Leipzig (50, 89, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win battle of Leipzig Defeat Russian army in Battle of Leipzig (51, 89, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Leipzig Defeat Prussian army in Battle of Leipzig (52, 88, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Leipzig Defeat British Army in Battle of Leipzig (52, 87, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Leipzig Defeat Sweden army in Battle of Leipzig (76, 25, 0) ***Castle*** Name: Brusels Timed events: Name: e1815 Message: In 1815,Brussels becomes joint capital of United Kingdom of the Netherlands. (237, 62, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Yelnya, Yelninsky District, Smolensk Oblast Win Battle of Borodino During the counter-offensive campaign, Mikhail Kutuzov's headquarters were located here. (250, 225, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Russian Imperial Black Sea Fleet Headquarters Win Battle of Borodino Russian Admiral Pavel Vassilyevich Chichagov Павел Васильевич Чичагов (1767-1849) was the commander of the Third Army of the South, responsible for leading the troops northward in the Patriotic War of 1812, threatening the French army from the south. (250, 189, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Izmail Win Battle of Focsani-Rymnik first The Sultan boasted that the fortress was impregnable,Ottoman forces inside the fortress had the orders to stand their ground to the end, haughtily declining the Russian ultimatum. (250, 191, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Spanish admiral Jose de Ribas,commanding The Black Sea flotilla,join you on the coast (250, 192, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Russian Empire is now firmly in control of the Black Sea coast at the outlet of the Danube, and our Black Sea Fleet now raises its flag! (129, 191, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Treaty of Campo Formio resulted in Austria becoming the largest, and indeed the only, naval power in the Adriatic. Prior to the incorporation of the remnants of the Venetian navy, the Austrian Navy only consisted of the two cutters purchased in 1786, as well as several armed merchant vessels and gunboats. While Venice had suffered under French occupation, and the ships Austria acquired from the city's annexation allowed the Austrian Navy to grow to some 37 vessels by the start of the War of the Second Coalition in 1799. These ships mostly consisted of small coastal craft, with some 111 guns and 787 crew members between them (128, 190, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The onset of the French Revolution in 1789 and the subsequent French Revolutionary Wars greatly changed the political face of Europe and resulted in the largest expansion of the Austrian Navy up to that point in time. Under Joseph II's successor, Leopold II, the Austrian Navy was formally located out of the port of Trieste. Sign Treaty of Campo Formio In 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio between France and Austria which ended the War of the First Coalition, Austria ceded to France the Austrian Netherlands and certain islands in the Mediterranean, including Corfu and some Venetian-held islands in the Adriatic. The Republic of Venice and its territories were divided between the two states, and Austria received the city of Venice along with Istria and Dalmatia. Venice's naval forces and facilities were also handed over to Austria and became the basis of the formation of the future Austrian Navy (107, 221, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Colosseum,Rome (77, 31, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Where is Grouchy ?" "Here I am,Sire!"--Emmanuel de Grouchy (76, 31, 0) ***Spellbinder's Hat*** Message: The center of the British army was breached and several squares were defeated. Wellington run away on his horse called Copenhagen, and his blue cocked hat was also left on the ground. (48, 77, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Committee of Public Safety Overthrow the Girondists first. Robespierre elected to the Committee of Public Safety. (50, 78, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The mountain calls on all those who are not fully loyal to the revolution to be sent to the guillotine in Place de la Concorde Have you eliminated the internal enemies of the revolution? The Legislative Assembly accept Robespierre's petition of the establishment of a provisional Revolutionary Tribunal that had to deal with the "traitors" and "enemies of the people". (108, 219, 0) ***Event*** Message: Pass Assassins Guild challenges of HQ,defeat these master Assassins,then you will be able to get a scroll used for the initiation Leap of Faith performed by the recruits. (110, 219, 0) ***Event*** Message: Pass Assassins Guild challenges of HQ,defeat these master Assassins,then you will be able to get a scroll used for the initiation Leap of Faith performed by the recruits. (187, 248, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Maja Jezerca(2,694 m) (14, 193, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Aneto(3,404m) (185, 5, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Jonas Lidstromer (1755-1808) was a Swedish inventor and officer in the Swedish Navy. Lidstromer was born in 1755 at Lagfors bruk, Medelpad. He is Colonel-mecanicus, Head of the mechanical state of the Royal Swedish-Finnish Navy, Royal Inventor and adviser to the king, Knight of the Order of Vasa and finally knighted Lidstromer (was previously called Lidstrom). Jonas Lidstromer has often been called Sweden's "mechanical genius" and is often compared with Polhem, another great Swedish inventor. He collaborated with Fredrik Henrik af Chapman. He also collaborated with the artists Johan Tobias Sergel, Louis Jean Desprez and Ehrensv?rd, and a letter correspondence with C.C. Gj?rwell has been preserved. Also The later well renowned royal architect Fredrik Blom. Perhaps he is mostly famous for the Obelisk at Slottsbacken adjacent to the Stockholm Palace and the construction of Norrbro (the bridge between the Royal Palace and the Opera in Stockholm, architect for the southern part, but leader for the construction of the northern as well). Jonas Lidstr?mer also erected the statue of king Gustav III, with its functional postament. He has also designed, constructed and built the famous Mast Crane at the Naval harbour of Karlskrona Jonas Lidstr?mer also constructed series of harbours in Sweden and Finland, and improved the harbours of Gothenburg, Karlskrona and Helsingborg He was the head of the Mechanical school in Karlskorna, the most qualified technical education at the time. He is behind a large number of mechanical devices and innovations, such as steel grinderies, chip docks, compasses etc. (60, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: He was known as the "Son of the Revolution''. He was a pivotal figure throughout the era of the Atlantic Revolution. After the end of the Revolution Napoleon became the main military leader of the Jacobins and led the army to repel the armies of the neighboring countries of France at that time. He became the ruler of the First French Empire. Born in 1769-1821, he was also known as I after his coronation in 1804, and served as general, first consul and emperor of France during the French Revolution. He was a deserving bourgeois revolutionary. He defended the fruits of the French Revolution, defeated the foreign invaders, buried the old dictatorship, he is regarded as the 'son of the revolution'; he did not exsist in the French heroes pool at beginning, but he is still in the center stage of this revolution, he will take the stage, he will be the connecting link between the preceding and the followin, he will serve as the core hero of French plot line in the next. He is known as the "son of the revolution".He laid the foundations of modern France by quelling the turmoil of the revolution while preserving the basic gains of 1789. Of course, He was able to succeed not only by revolutionary ideas, but by inheriting the institutional legacy of the French Revolution. He is also known as the Liberator. Because his policies and promises led people to believe that he would bring freedom. He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system. Many of his measures brought the revolutionary ideas of freedom and modern law to the rest of Europe and had an impact on people long after He left. That is, his influence extended beyond the borders of France as well. He left a legacy of war, civil rights, exploitation and national awakening that reshaped the identity of the entire European continent, while in the Atlantic world he destroyed the colonial order. The success of the French Revolution caused fear in countries such as England and Germany (which should have been called the Holy Roman Empire at that time) because other countries were feudal at that time and feared that the royal position would be shaken if the people followed the example of the French Revolution and started a revolution. So they formed the Anti-French League to launch an attack on France. It was against this background that Napoleon entered the political arena. The Directoire executif he overthrew was essentially a corrupt and incompetent regime of the rich, which was surely despised when the country was facing a crisis of life and death. Napoleon, on the other hand, as the "son of the revolution", had to present a new face to the world. He wanted to strengthen his power base by boosting morale and national identity through military victories. From 1803 to 1815, Napoleon launched a series of wars against neighboring countries, known as the "Napoleonic Wars". It is not often that a war is named after a person in history, and only heroic figures such as Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan deserve this honor. The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts between France, under Napoleon, and the European countries that made up the alliance. It produced a period of French domination over most of the European continent. Each time was named after the alliance that fought against Napoleon: the Third Coalition (1805), the Fourth 1806-07, etc. (62, 67, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: He was an outstanding military man who personally participated in more than 60 battles during his lifetime, and he commanded several battles that remain significant in military history to this day. In Paris, where the Corsican trainee witnessed first-hand the turmoil of revolution and rode its conflicting currents to the heights of political and military power, the cult of him is still in evidence, most prominently at the former veteran’s hospital known as L’Hotel des Invalides. A masterpiece of seventeenth-century architectural splendor at the center of the city, the Invalides is well known as the site of his Tomb, a massive marble crypt that attracts many thousands of visitors each year. Upstairs, several floors of the vast Musee de l’Armee are devoted to the period, and on the streets of the city monuments and place names recalling the era abound–much more so than those dedicated to the Republic or the Revolution itself, public remembrances of which tend to be few and far between. For all of the destruction and loss of life wrought by its many wars, the age of him is remembered for something beyond the reach of historical analysis, beyond even the compulsions of national honor. Known simply as La Gloire–Glory–it was a sentiment first experienced by newly recruited citizen-soldiers on a hillside at Valmy in 1792. In the years that followed, Napoleon would become its chief architect as well as its living embodiment, his name and image becoming synonymous with a larger Romantic age whose artistic and emotional heritage are still with us. The fact that so many of his contemporaries followed him in its pursuit is no mystery of a bygone era. Its ongoing appeal for people of all nationalities is still to be seen in the faces of the crowds at Les Invalides and wherever his story is told. Napoleon was an outstanding military man who personally participated in more than 60 battles during his lifetime, and he commanded several battles that remain significant in military history to this day. But his conquests upset the balance of power in Europe, leading other European powers to form an anti-French alliance seven times and eventually defeating Napoleon once and for all. At the Congress of Vienna following Napoleon's defeat, a new European order and balance of power was quickly re-established. Napoleon's influence was also reflected in the Napoleonic Code, which was the prototype for the legal systems of many modern democracies. Politically, Napoleon always kept the principle of equality as much as possible, a ruler who was reluctant to make laws against himself. The Code Napoleon fully embodied his political ideas. He was deeply influenced by Rousseau, and the shadow of the "social contract" can be seen in both his laws and his way of ruling. His influence on future generations was profound, and he was loved by the French people not only because he won many battles and brought honor to the French, because after all, these ended in defeat. But it was the road system he left behind, the land he fought for the peasants, and so on, from public construction to the political system, that had the real impact on France. Napoleon implemented at least the second and third of the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity proposed at the beginning of the Revolution. As for liberty, this is indeed worthy of criticism. But there were practices that could not but be considered a historical necessity. His dictatorship avoided anarchy, but it was not a dynastic restoration-like dictatorship. Thus it can be said that in name he was the emperor, in ambition he was Caesar, but in practice he has tried to approach the ideal that many republics of today are still trying to achieve. In addition to this, Napoleon was also the first to propose the idea of a United States of Europa and to try to achieve it by force. Although he himself did not succeed in realizing this dream, Europe today is moving toward the goal of integration. Napoleon brought glory to France, and the French people always loved this French warrior (interestingly, he did not consider France his homeland until he was 18 years old), and when his body arrived in Paris in December 1840, 900,000 Parisians braved the cold to greet him. Years later, Napoleon also won the respect of his rivals: in 1855, when Queen Victoria of England visited the L’Hotel des Invalides with the Dauphin (later Edward VII), the Queen told the Prince to "kneel before the tomb of the great Napoleon". (228, 52, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Russian front has caught up with you. (229, 54, 0) ***Event*** Message: The Russian front has caught up with you. (58, 75, 0) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :Blue France}==== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (156, 147, 0) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :tan Austria}==== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (250, 2, 0) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :green Russia}==== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (19, 222, 0) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :orange Spain}==== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (188, 4, 0) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ==={Current selected side color :pink Sweden }=== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (175, 7, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nykoping (135, 21, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (145, 20, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Peene (141, 19, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Landlodge of the {Freemason}s of Germany--Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg, founded in 1777 The Grand Landlodge of the {Freemason}s of Germany (Gro?e Landesloge der Freimaurer von Deutschland, GLL FvD or GLL), also: Order of {Freemason}s (Freimaurerorden, FO) is a Masonic Grand Lodge in Germany. The Grand Landlodge of the {Freemason}s of Germany works according to a slightly modified version of the Swedish Rite. It therefore differs from other German Grand Lodges both in its content and organizational structure. However, as a masonic Grand Lodge it is not a religious community and affiliation to a particular Christian denomination is not required. Neither is it necessary for a member of the Order to be expressly Christian, however the Rules of the Order demand that every member "recognize the teachings of Jesus Christ as they are written down in the Holy Scripture" It demands that its members keep working continuously at the development of their own personality. Rationality and conscience, inner freedom and self-knowledge as well as being conscious of one's responsibilities are regarded as the necessary means by which one can approach the finding of the origin, character and destiny of mankind and the whole of existence. (141, 18, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (142, 18, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (143, 18, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania Degrees of Fellowcraft of Provincial Lodge of Pommerania Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (144, 19, 0) ***Champion*** Message: Apart from this, there is also a High Chapter for the holders of the XIth degree of Knight Commander with some 70 members.The conjunction of these branches forms a cohesive masonic body that closely follows that of the Swedish Rite, which is predominantly found in Scandinavian countries. (85, 49, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge "The Perfect Union",Luxembourg Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (181, 177, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (1, 1, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights of Pride have no Prejudice or regret Pride and Prejudice is an 1813 novel of manners written by Jane Austen. The novel follows the character development of Elizabeth Bennet, the dynamic protagonist of the book who learns about the repercussions of hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between superficial goodness and actual goodness. Mr. Bennet, owner of the Longbourn estate in Hertfordshire, has five daughters, but his property is entailed and can only be passed to a male heir. His wife also lacks an inheritance, so his family faces becoming very poor upon his death. Thus, it is imperative that at least one of the girls marry well to support the others, which is a motivation that drives the plot. Pride and Prejudice has consistently appeared near the top of lists of "most-loved books" among literary scholars and the reading public. It has become one of the most popular novels in English literature, with over 20 million copies sold, and has inspired many derivatives in modern literature. For more than a century, dramatic adaptations, reprints, unofficial sequels, films, and TV versions of Pride and Prejudice have portrayed the memorable characters and themes of the novel, reaching mass audiences The work, which Austen initially titled First Impressions, is the second of four novels that Austen published during her lifetime. Although Pride and Prejudice has been criticized for its lack of historical context (it is likely set either during the French Revolution [1787-99] or the Napoleonic Wars [1799-1815]), the existence of its characters in a social bubble that is rarely penetrated by events beyond it is an accurate portrayal of the enclosed social world in which Austen lived. She depicted that world, in all its own narrow pride and prejudice, with unswerving accuracy and satire. At the same time, she placed at its centre, as both its prime actor and most perceptive critic, a character so well conceived and rendered that the reader cannot but be gripped by her story and wish for its happy denouement. In the end, Austen’s novel has remained popular largely because of Elizabeth—who was reportedly Austen’s own favourite among all her heroines—and because of the enduring appeal to men and women alike of a well-told and potentially happily ending love story. Knights of Pride have no Prejudice or regret (2, 2, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Mirth can not hide the Les Miserables Les Miserables (/le? ?m?z??rɑ?b?l, -bl?/, French: [le mize?abl(?)]) is a French historical novel by Victor Hugo, first published in 1862, that is considered one of the greatest novels of the 19th century. In the English-speaking world, the novel is usually referred to by its original French title. However, several alternatives have been used, including The Miserables, The Wretched, The Miserable Ones, The Poor Ones, The Wretched Poor, The Victims and The Dispossessed. Beginning in 1815 and culminating in the 1832 June Rebellion in Paris, the novel follows the lives and interactions of several characters, particularly the struggles of ex-convict Jean Valjean and his experience of redemption. Examining the nature of law and grace, the novel elaborates upon the history of France, the architecture and urban design of Paris, politics, moral philosophy, antimonarchism, justice, religion, and the types and nature of romantic and familial love. Les Miserables has been popularized through numerous adaptations for film, television and the stage, including a musical. Upton Sinclair described the novel as "one of the half-dozen greatest novels of the world", and remarked that Hugo set forth the purpose of Les Miserables in the Preface: So long as there shall exist, by reason of law and custom, a social condemnation, which, in the face of civilization, artificially creates hells on earth, and complicates a destiny that is divine with human fatality; so long as the three problems of the age—the degradation of man by poverty, the ruin of women by starvation, and the dwarfing of childhood by physical and spiritual night—are not solved; so long as, in certain regions, social asphyxia shall be possible; in other words, and from a yet more extended point of view, so long as ignorance and misery remain on earth, books like this cannot be useless. Towards the end of the novel, Hugo explains the work's overarching structure: The book which the reader has before him at this moment is, from one end to the other, in its entirety and details ... a progress from evil to good, from injustice to justice, from falsehood to truth, from night to day, from appetite to conscience, from corruption to life; from bestiality to duty, from hell to heaven, from nothingness to God. The starting point: matter, destination: the soul. The hydra at the beginning, the angel at the end. The novel contains various subplots, but the main thread is the story of ex-convict Jean Valjean, who becomes a force for good in the world but cannot escape his criminal past. The novel is divided into five volumes, each volume divided into several books, and subdivided into chapters, for a total of 48 books and 365 chapters. Each chapter is relatively short, commonly no longer than a few pages. The novel as a whole is one of the longest ever written,with 655,478 words in the original French. Hugo explained his ambitions for the novel to his Italian publisher: I don't know whether it will be read by everyone, but it is meant for everyone. It addresses England as well as Spain, Italy as well as France, Germany as well as Ireland, the republics that harbour slaves as well as empires that have serfs. Social problems go beyond frontiers. Humankind's wounds, those huge sores that litter the world, do not stop at the blue and red lines drawn on maps. Wherever men go in ignorance or despair, wherever women sell themselves for bread, wherever children lack a book to learn from or a warm hearth, Les Miserables knocks at the door and says: "open up, I am here for you". In the popular imagination, the character of Jean Valjean came to represent Hugo himself. The Mirth can not hide the Les Miserables (3, 3, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Whether Portal A Tale of Two Cities A Tale of Two Cities was published serially in 1859. As a historical novel about the French Revolution, however, it takes us back to 18th century London and Paris. 1757-1794: The Period Represented in the Novel Though A Tale of Two Cities begins in 1770 with Doctor Manette’s release from the Bastille and ends in late 1793 or early 1794, the story as a whole covers a much broader period. In the larger view, the novel begins in 1757 (the year of Doctor Manette’s incarceration under the ancien regime) and its final scene anticipates a post-revolutionary Paris. However, as a historical novel organized around the events of the French Revolution (1789-1794), the major historical features of A Tale of Two Cities are drawn from the major events of the revolutionary period in France - the fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789), the September Massacres (September 2-6, 1792), and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). From a historical point of view, A Tale of Two Cities gives a rather compressed account of the French Revolution; yet this is appropriate in a novel concerned as much with the lives of private individuals as with public events. Dickens researched the revolutionary period carefully in preparation for writing A Tale of Two Cities, and the novel maintains a high level of historical accuracy. Complete historical explanations will be found in the notes that accompany each issue of this re-serialization. A Tale of Two Cities is an 1859 historical novel by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the French Revolution. The novel tells the story of the French Doctor Manette, his 18-year-long imprisonment in the Bastille in Paris and his release to live in London with his daughter Lucie, whom he had never met. The story is set against the conditions that led up to the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror. In the Introduction to the Encyclopedia of Adventure Fiction, critic Don D'Ammassa argues that it is an adventure novel because the protagonists are in constant danger of being imprisoned or killed. As Dickens' best-known work of historical fiction, A Tale of Two Cities is claimed to be one of the best-selling novels of all time.In 2003, the novel was ranked 63rd on the BBC's The Big Read poll. The novel has been adapted for film, television, radio, and the stage, and has continued to influence popular culture. Whether Portal A Tale of Two Cities (4, 4, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Vision through The Le Rouge et le Noir Le Rouge et le Noir (French pronunciation: ?[l? ?u? e l(?) nwa?]; meaning The Red and the Black) is a historical psychological novel in two volumes by Stendhal, published in 1830. It chronicles the attempts of a provincial young man to rise socially beyond his modest upbringing through a combination of talent, hard work, deception, and hypocrisy. He ultimately allows his passions to betray him. The novel's full title, Le Rouge et le Noir: Chronique du XIXe siècle (The Red and the Black: A Chronicle of the 19th Century), indicates its twofold literary purpose as both a psychological portrait of the romantic protagonist, Julien Sorel, and an analytic, sociological satire of the French social order under the Bourbon Restoration (1814-30). In English, Le Rouge et le Noir is variously translated as Red and Black, Scarlet and Black, and The Red and the Black, without the subtitle. The title is taken to refer to the tension between the clerical (black) and secular (red) interests of the protagonist. But it could also refer to the then-popular card game "rouge et noir," with the card game being the narratological leitmotiv of a novel in which chance and luck determine the fate of the main character.There are other interpretations as well.The title apparently refers to both the tensions in Sorel’s character and the conflicting choice he is faced with in his quest for success: the army (symbolized by the colour red) or the church (symbolized by the colour black). Incisively and with subtlety, the novel examines careerism, political opportunism, the climate of fear and denunciation in Restoration France, and bourgeois materialistic values. Le Rouge et le Noir is set in the latter years of the Bourbon Restoration (1814-30) and the days of the 1830 July Revolution that established the Kingdom of the French (1830-48). Julien Sorel's worldly ambitions are motivated by the emotional tensions between his idealistic Republicanism and his nostalgic allegiance to Napoleon, and the realistic politics of counter-revolutionary conspiracy by Jesuit-supported legitimists, notably the Marquis de la Mole, whom Julien serves for personal gain. Presuming a knowledgeable reader, Stendhal only alludes to the historical background of Le Rouge et le Noir—yet did subtitle the novel Chronique de 1830 ("Chronicle of 1830"). The reader who wants an expose of the same historical background might wish to read Lucien Leuwen (1834), one of Stendhal's unfinished novels, posthumously published in 1894. Stendhal repeatedly questions the possibility and the desirability of "sincerity," because most of the characters, especially Julien Sorel, are acutely aware of having to play a role to gain social approval. In that 19th-century context, the word "hypocrisy" denoted the affectation of high religious sentiment; in The Red and the Black it connotes the contradiction between thinking and feeling. Vision through The Le Rouge et le Noir (1, 0, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: All of us view the world and other people from the perspective of our own lives, values, attitudes, opinions, interests and preferences and judge what we view in terms of how far it is in consonance or dissonance with our personal standards and expectations. We feel comfortable and accept what conforms and react with varying degrees of disapproval or disturbance to what conflicts with our own personal perspective without knowing or perceiving that behind each contradictory experience lies a wealth of truth and an opportunity for greater personal growth and social accomplishment. In Pride and Prejudice, Darcy and Elizabeth present such contradictory perspectives to each other and the story depicts how by the progressive resolution of those opposing viewpoints life opens up unprecedented opportunities. When they first meet, they view one another from the perspective of their relative social positions and personal egoistic attitudes. Elizabeth finds Darcy cold, aloof, arrogant and self-important. She is offended by his offensive pride and his off-handed comment about her indifferent appearance. He is offended by the lack of breeding of the Meryton community and the vulgar exhibitionism of Mrs. Bennet and her younger daughters, which is aggravated as Bingley develops particularly interest in the eldest daughter, Jane, and as Darcy finds himself increasingly attracted to the charms of Elizabeth. Elizabeth’s natural prejudice against Darcy’s overt display of social superiority and disdain is augmented by the false reports she hears from Wickham about Darcy’s mean conduct, by Fitzwilliam’s disclosure of Darcy’s hand in the separation of Bingley and Jane, and by the crude manner of Darcy’s proposal to her at Hunsford. His pride clashes with her prejudice from diametrically opposite perspectives. Like many authors, Jane Austen wrote about the life she knew: the complex world of the gentry and rising middle class in England during her lifetime. Many of the characters and situations in Pride and Prejudice can be traced to circumstances in the author's own experience. Elizabeth Bennet - the second-eldest of the Bennet daughters, she is attractive, witty and intelligent - but with a tendency to form tenacious and prejudiced first impressions. (2, 1, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: When he arrives in Montfermeil on Christmas Eve, Valjean finds Cosette fetching a pail of water and accompanies her back to the inn, where he witnesses her mistreatment by the Thenardiers as well as the unkindnesses of their daughters eponine and Azelma. Valjean leaves the inn and returns with an expensive new doll which he offers to Cosette. At first reluctant, Cosette joyfully accepts it, which infuriates Thenardier; eponine and Azelma become jealous. The next morning, Christmas Day, Valjean informs the Thenardiers that he has come to take Cosette with him. Madame Thenardier immediately agrees but Thenardier pretends affection for Cosette and acts reluctant. Valjean pays 1500 francs to settle Fantine's debts and leaves with Cosette. Thenardier tries to swindle more money out of Valjean by saying that he has changed his mind and wants Cosette back, informing Valjean that Cosette's mother had entrusted her to his care and he cannot release her without a note from her mother. Valjean, agreeing with him, hands him a letter signed by Fantine. Thenardier then attempts to order Valjean to return Cosette or to pay a thousand crowns, but Valjean ignores him and leaves with Cosette. However, in a novel of symbolism and metaphor, Cosette may also be seen as a symbol of hope in the world of Les Miserables, representing the rise of the oppressed and abused from darkness to a bright future. She is the primary motivation for several characters in the novel to lift themselves out of darkness, regardless of whether or not they succeed. For this reason the picture of her sweeping the inn in the evening is often the image most associated as being singularly representative of the main themes of the book, and is used frequently on the cover. Cosette can be seen as a strong female lead in the novel, aiming to achieve happiness ultimately in her life. Ultimately, with Marius, she succeeds in doing so. She can be seen as restrained by the time in which she lived, but still full of hopeful innocence and subtle strength. "When love has fused and mingled two beings in a sacred and angelic unity, the secret of life has been discovered so far as they are concerned; they are no longer anything more than the two boundaries of the same destiny; they are no longer anything but the two wings of the same spirit." (3, 2, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Dickens opens the novel A Tale of Two Cities with a sentence that has become famous: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. As the French Revolution begins, Darnay is arrested and brought before a tribunal, where the crimes of his uncle and father are brought to light. He is sentenced to death by guillotine, and bravely accepts his fate. However, Carton then takes his place (rendering Darnay unconscious so that he cannot refuse his help) so that he and his family can escape. Carton's last meaningful action in his life is to give strength and comfort to a seamstress also about to be executed. Carton's final words - or rather, what Dickens suggests could have been his final words, had he been given the time to verbalize his final thoughts - are among the most famous in English literature: I see Barsad, and Cly, Defarge, The Vengeance [a lieutenant of Madame Defarge], the Juryman, the Judge, long ranks of the new oppressors who have risen on the destruction of the old, perishing by this retributive instrument, before it shall cease out of its present use. I see a beautiful city and a brilliant people rising from this abyss, and, in their struggles to be truly free, in their triumphs and defeats, through long years to come, I see the evil of this time and of the previous time of which this is the natural birth, gradually making expiation for itself and wearing out. I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peaceful, useful, prosperous and happy, in that England which I shall see no more. I see Her with a child upon her bosom, who bears my name. I see her father, aged and bent, but otherwise restored, and faithful to all men in his healing office, and at peace. I see the good old man [Lorry], so long their friend, in ten years' time enriching them with all he has, and passing tranquilly to his reward. I see that I hold a sanctuary in their hearts, and in the hearts of their descendants, generations hence. I see her, an old woman, weeping for me on the anniversary of this day. I see her and her husband, their course done, lying side by side in their last earthly bed, and I know that each was not more honoured and held sacred in the other's soul than I was in the souls of both. I see that child who lay upon her bosom and who bore my name, a man winning his way up in that path of life which once was mine. I see him winning it so well, that my name is made illustrious there by the light of his. I see the blots I threw upon it, faded away. I see him, fore-most of just judges and honoured men, bringing a boy of my name, with a forehead that I know and golden hair, to this place—then fair to look upon, with not a trace of this day's disfigurement—and I hear him tell the child my story, with a tender and a faltering voice. It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known. A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens, deals with the major themes of duality, revolution, and resurrection. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times in London and Paris, as economic and political unrest lead to the American and French Revolutions. The three most important aspects of A Tale of Two Cities: A Tale of Two Cities is told from the omniscient, or all-knowing, point of view. The narrator, or storyteller, who is never identified, has access to the thoughts and feelings of all the characters. A Tale of Two Cities, which is one of two historical novels written by Charles Dickens, is set in London and in Paris and the French countryside at the time of the French Revolution. The book is sympathetic to the overthrow of the French aristocracy but highly critical of the reign of terror that followed. Dickens characterizes the men and women who populate A Tale of Two Cities less by what the book's narrator or the characters themselves say, and more by what they do. As a result, the novel seems somewhat modern, despite being set in the 18th century and written in the 19th century. Dickens points out a major conflict between family and love, hatred and oppression, good and evil, light and darkness, and wisdom and folly. Dickens begins this tale with a vision that human prosperity cannot be matched with human despair. He, in fact, tells about a class war between the rich and the poor. He also tells of a time of despair and suffering guillotine on one hand, and joy and hope on the other----These characters travel across the English Channel,travel between the two cities(London and Paris),Portal on the road of thier redemptions (4, 3, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Le Rouge et le Noir est un titre assez etrange. Il y a pourtant des cles tout au long du roman pour comprendre cette enigme. Il faut aussi replacer l’?uvre dans le contexte de son epoque pour comprendre pourquoi Stendhal a choisi ce titre. Le jeune heros pense qu’à travers l’eglise et l’armee, il lui est possible de dominer le monde.En effet, le titre du roman indique l’opposition presente dans le texte : le rouge comme la couleur des habits de l’armee, et le noir pour les prêtres. Autrement dit, pour reussir et vivre dans cette epoque, il faut soit faire partie des hommes de politique soit rejoindre la vie religieuse et les prêtres. Les deux n’ont qu’un but : aboutir à une somme d’argent et un classement social respectueux. Ainsi, l’objectif de Stendhal est signale. Son roman est certainement une reflexion de la vie de cette epoque historique qui a marque tous les jeunes et surtout les pauvres. Born in Grenoble, Isère, Stendhal was an unhappy child, disliking his "unimaginative" father and mourning his mother, whom he passionately loved, and who died when he was seven.He spent "the happiest years of his life" at the Beyle country house in Claix near Grenoble. His closest friend was his younger sister, Pauline, with whom he maintained a steady correspondence throughout the first decade of the 19th century. His family was part of the bourgeois class and was attached to the Ancien Regime, explaining his ambiguous view toward Napoleon, the Bourbon Restoration, and the monarchy later on.The military and theatrical worlds of the First French Empire were a revelation to Beyle. He was named an auditor with the Conseil d'etat on 3 August 1810, and thereafter took part in the French administration and in the Napoleonic wars in Italy. He travelled extensively in Germany and was part of Napoleon's army in the 1812 invasion of Russia. Upon arriving, Stendhal witnessed the burning of Moscow from just outside the city as well as the army's winter retreat. He was appointed Commissioner of War Supplies and sent to Smolensk to prepare provisions for the returning army. He crossed the Berezina River by finding a usable ford rather than the overwhelmed pontoon bridge, which probably saved his life and those of his companions. Dans certaines cultures, le noir est la couleur du deuil, mais elle est aussi celle de l’absolu.En guise de conclusion, la fin tragique de Stendhal accentue la faiblesse du personnage principale, la chute de ses objectifs et son echec social contrairement à la reussite d’autres heros comme par exemple la reussite de Bel Ami de Maupassant. Julien Sorel est considere comme d’une part un heros, un jeune courageux qui avait des objectifs à realiser contre une societe etouffante ; et d’autre part un anti-heros qui est mort après l’echec de ses rêves. (3, 4, 0) ***Orb of Inhibition*** Message: Le Rouge et le Noir est un titre assez etrange. Il y a pourtant des cles tout au long du roman pour comprendre cette enigme. Il faut aussi replacer l’?uvre dans le contexte de son epoque pour comprendre pourquoi Stendhal a choisi ce titre. Le jeune heros pense qu’à travers l’eglise et l’armee, il lui est possible de dominer le monde. Le rouge fait reference au rouge sang de l’uniforme.Il y a aussi un langage des couleurs. Le rouge a toujours symbolise la violence de la passion. En resume, c’est l’histoire d’un jeune, Julien Sorel, qui devient le percepteur des enfants de Monsieur de Renal, le Maire de Verrières. Cependant, il devient amoureux de sa femme, Madame de Renal. Le succès de son enseignement accompagne des rumeurs d’amour n’hesite pas à être entendus et declares. Ainsi, le jeune Julien, qui a obtenu une place de secretaire chez le marquis du Mole, quitte les enfants et son amante. De nouveau, l’amour entre Julien et Mathilde, la fille du marquis, mène les deux jeunes à une relation orgueilleuse et desirante. Mathilde, enceinte, declare son amour à son père qui finalement donne le titre de noblesse à Julien. Le rêve devenu reel, Julien qui n’a pas encore celebre cet honneur, est malheureusement choque par une lettre envoyee de la part de Madame de Renal. Par consequent, les deux femmes se combattent l’une contre l’autre pour Julien : la première pour se venger et la deuxième pour le sauver. Malheureusement, Julien finit par mourir. Mathilde, desesperee, enterre la tête de son amour et, trois jours plus tard, madame de Renal meurt. Dans le Rouge et le Noir, differentes classes sociales s’opposent. Cette societe est gangrenee par l’hypocrisie ambiante où la pratique religieuse n’a rien à voir avec la spiritualite mais plus avec le rituel social vide de substance. Julien est un parvenu, mais il garde une part de rebellion tapie en lui. Il doit se battre dans une societe qui stagne. (2, 3, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: In Dickens' England, resurrection always sat firmly in a Christian context. Most broadly, Sydney Carton is resurrected in spirit at the novel's close (even as he, paradoxically, gives up his physical life to save Darnay's). More concretely, "Book the First" deals with the rebirth of Dr Manette from the living death of his incarceration. Resurrection appears for the first time when Mr Lorry replies to the message carried by Jerry Cruncher with the words "Recalled to Life". Resurrection also appears during Mr Lorry's coach ride to Dover, as he constantly ponders a hypothetical conversation with Dr Manette: ("Buried how long?" "Almost eighteen years." ... "You know that you are recalled to life?" "They tell me so.") He believes he is helping with Dr Manette's revival and imagines himself "digging" up Dr Manette from his grave. Resurrection is a major theme in the novel. In Jarvis Lorry's thoughts of Dr Manette, resurrection is first spotted as a theme. It is also the last theme: Carton's sacrifice. Dickens originally wanted to call the entire novel Recalled to Life. (This instead became the title of the first of the novel's three "books".) Jerry is also part of the recurring theme: he himself is involved in death and resurrection in ways the reader does not yet know. The first piece of foreshadowing comes in his remark to himself: "You'd be in a blazing bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!" The black humour of this statement becomes obvious only much later on. Five years later, one cloudy and very dark night (in June 1780), Mr Lorry reawakens the reader's interest in the mystery by telling Jerry it is "Almost a night ... to bring the dead out of their graves". Jerry responds firmly that he has never seen the night do that. It turns out that Jerry Cruncher's involvement with the theme of resurrection is that he is what the Victorians called a "Resurrection Man", one who (illegally) digs up dead bodies to sell to medical men (there was no legal way to procure cadavers for study at that time). The opposite of resurrection is of course death. Death and resurrection appear often in the novel. Sydney Carton's martyrdom atones for all his past wrongdoings. He even finds God during the last few days of his life, repeating Christ's soothing words, "I am the resurrection and the life".Resurrection is the dominant theme of the last part of the novel. Darnay is rescued at the last moment and recalled to life; Carton chooses death and resurrection to a life better than that which he has ever known: "it was the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there ... he looked sublime and prophetic". In the broadest sense, at the end of the novel, Dickens foresees a resurrected social order in France, rising from the ashes of the old one. Carton he arranges for Lucie, her daughter, and her father to escape Paris, and just hours before Darnay's scheduled execution by guillotine Carton smuggles himself into Darnay's prison cell, renders Darnay unconscious, and trades places with him, both for the sake of their friendship and for Lucie. Then he arranges to have Darnay carried to Lucie's waiting carriage while he stoically prepares to sacrifice himself , to face the Reign of Terror which Madame Defarge represents, Jacobins and the guillotine (1, 2, 0) ***Shackles of War*** Message: Will you join in our crusade? Who will be strong and stand with me? Somewhere beyond the barricade is there a world you long to see? Do you hear the people sing? Say, do you hear the distant drums? It is the future that they bring when tomorrow comes! Tomorrow comes! --Do you hear the people sing, (0, 1, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Mr Fitzwilliam Darcy - Mr Bingley's friend and the wealthy owner of the family estate of Pemberley in Derbyshire, rumoured to be worth at least ￡10,000 a year (equivalent to ￡670,000 in 2020). While he is handsome, tall, and intelligent, Darcy lacks ease and social graces, and so others frequently mistake his initially haughty reserve as proof of excessive pride (which, in part, it is). The rest of the story is a progressive dissolution of their contradictory positions leading ultimately to complete reconciliation, deep admiration and marriage. The process of resolution is psychological. The physical action only comes to confirm the psychological change and to ensure that it becomes sufficiently deep and complete. At each step in the process of reconciliation one or the other of them comes to recognize and concede a partial truth in the other’s viewpoint which they had hitherto rejected as false. (109, 220, 0) ***Inferno*** Name: Rome (185, 127, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Gerlachovskystít(2,655m) (64, 156, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Blanc (4,810m) (60, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Scholar There is no royal road to learning Transfer value,help each other (58, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Necromancy Loyal bones of warriors were buried in Years of war of Europe continent ,the heroic souls dived into the Atlantic Ocean with the wind Shadow of Death (54, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Navigation The Republic of the Maritime is a combination of the ideals of the Enlightenment and the courage of freedom Raise the Sail,Sail to the sea of revolution and build the Atlantic Empire! (68, 238, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (68, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Positive Buff Super pack:Slayer，Frenzy,Bloodlust,Stone Skin，shield，Prayer,Fortune,Mirth,Bless，Precision，Cure Positive Buff Super pack:Slayer，Frenzy,Bloodlust,Stone Skin，shield，Prayer,Fortune,Mirth,Bless，Precision，Cure (72, 238, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (72, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Destructive Super pack:Meteor Shower,Frost Ring,Inferno, Lightning Bolt,Chain Lightning,Ice Bolt,Fire Ball, Magic Arrow Destructive Super pack:Meteor Shower,Frost Ring,Inferno, Lightning Bolt,Chain Lightning,Ice Bolt,Fire Ball, Magic Arrow (70, 238, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (70, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Negative Buff Super pack:Sorrow,Misfortune,Weakness,Disrupting Ray,Curse Negative Buff Super pack:Sorrow,Misfortune,Weakness,Disrupting Ray,Curse (74, 238, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (74, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Special Tactics super pack:Quicksand,Destroy dead,Death Rippel,Fire Wall,Hypnotize,Land mine,Earthquake,Remove obstacle,Air Elemental,Earth Elemental,water Elemental,fire Elemental Special Tactics super pack:Quicksand,Destroy dead,Death Rippel,Fire Wall,Hypnotize,Land mine,Earthquake,Remove obstacle,Air Elemental,Earth Elemental,water Elemental,fire Elemental (73, 224, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Strategic Maneuver for all:Fly,Dimension Door,Town Portal Strategic Maneuver for all:Fly,Dimension Door,Town Portal (71, 225, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Top Save-load method for all:Armageddon，Titan's Lightning Bolt，Implosion Top Save-load method for all:Armageddon，Titan's Lightning Bolt，Implosion (70, 226, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Zero Casualties for all:Sacrifice，Resurrection，Animate Dead Zero Casualties for all:Sacrifice，Resurrection，Animate Dead (69, 227, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Five top tactics for all:Clone，Berserk，Teleport，Force Field， Forgetfulness Five top tactics for all:Clone，Berserk，Teleport，Force Field， Forgetfulness (68, 228, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Four basic tactics for all:Blind，Haste，SLow，Dispel Four basic tactics for all:Blind，Haste，SLow，Dispel (67, 229, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Basic Adventure Essentials for all: Water Walk， Summon Boat，Scuttle Boat，View Air Basic Adventure Essentials for all: Water Walk， Summon Boat，Scuttle Boat，View Air (50, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Resistance super pack:Air Shield,Counterstrike,Fire Shield, Anti-Magic, Magic Mirror, Protection from Air， Protection from erath， Protection from water， Protection from fire Resistance super pack:Air Shield,Counterstrike,Fire Shield, Anti-Magic, Magic Mirror, Protection from Air， Protection from erath， Protection from water， Protection from fire (50, 238, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (74, 232, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (73, 232, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: France plot Truancy pack:Hellstorm Helmet，Helm of Chaos，Spirit of Oppression， Head of Legion， Celestial Necklace of Bliss France plot Truancy pack:Hellstorm Helmet，Helm of Chaos，Spirit of Oppression， Head of Legion， Celestial Necklace of Bliss (74, 230, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (73, 230, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati plot Truancy pack Illuminati plot Truancy pack (73, 234, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Masonic Alliance Gift Pack Masonic Alliance Gift Pack (74, 234, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (62, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Fly Fly (64, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dimension Door Dimension Door (66, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Town Portal Town Portal (43, 237, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Surper pack of Missing parts of various combination artifacts in this map :Cape of Conjuring,Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment , Shield of the Yawning Dead，Sentinel's Shield，Mystic Orb of Mana，Bow of Elven Cherrywood，Vial of Lifeblood，Everpouring Vial of Mercury，Amulet of the Undertaker，Necklace of Ocean Guidance，Blackshard of the Dead Knight， Titan's Gladius，Sword of Judgement，Still Eye of the Dragon Surper pack of Missing parts of various combination artifacts in this map :Cape of Conjuring,Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment , Shield of the Yawning Dead，Sentinel's Shield，Mystic Orb of Mana，Bow of Elven Cherrywood，Vial of Lifeblood，Everpouring Vial of Mercury，Amulet of the Undertaker，Necklace of Ocean Guidance，Blackshard of the Dead Knight， Titan's Gladius，Sword of Judgement，Still Eye of the Dragon (43, 238, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (250, 9, 0) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of Saint Anna The Imperial Order of Saint Anna (Russian: Орден Святой Анны; also "Order of Saint Anne" or "Order of Saint Ann") was a Holstein ducal and then Russian imperial order of chivalry. It was established by Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, on 14 February 1735, in honour of his wife Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great of Russia. Originally, the Order of Saint Anna was a dynastic order of knighthood; but between 1797 and 1917 it had dual status as a dynastic order and as a state order. The Order of St. Anna continued to be awarded after the revolution by Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich, Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich, and Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna. Today, the Russian Imperial Order of St. Anna, awarded by Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna is recognized as an order of chivalry by the privately operated ICOCas a continuation of the pre-Revolutionary order, and has been approved for wear with military uniform by the Russian Federation, but not by some members of the Romanov Family Association. Membership of the Order was awarded for a distinguished career in civil service or for valour and distinguished service in the military. The Order of Saint Anna entitled recipients of the first class to hereditary nobility, and recipients of lower classes to personal nobility. For military recipients, it was awarded with swords. It is now usually awarded for meritorious service to the Imperial House of Russia. Recipients of the Order of St. Andrew (K.A.) (including grand dukes, who received the order at baptism, and princes of the Imperial blood, who received it at their majority) simultaneously received the first class of the Order of Saint Anna. The Emperor himself was the hereditary grand master of the Order. The motto of the Order is "Amantibus Justitiam, Pietatem, Fidem" ("To those who love justice, piety, and fidelity"). Its festival day is 3 February (New Style, 16 February). The Head of the Imperial House of Russia always is Master of the imperial Order of Saint Anna (251, 9, 0) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of Saint Vladimir The Imperial Order of Saint Prince Vladimir (Russian: орден Святого Владимира) was an Imperial Russian order established on 3 October [O.S. 22 September] 1782 by Empress Catherine II in memory of the deeds of Saint Vladimir, the Grand Prince and the Baptizer of the Kievan Rus'. (249, 10, 0) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky The Imperial Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky was an order of chivalry of the Russian Empire first awarded on 1 June [O.S. 21 May] 1725 by Empress Catherine I of Russia (250, 10, 0) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of St. George The Order of Saint George (Russian: Орден Святого Георгия, Orden Svyatogo Georgiya) is the highest military decoration of the Russian Federation. Originally established on 26 November 1769 Julian (7 December 1769 Gregorian) as the highest military decoration of the Russian Empire for commissioned officers and generals by Empress Catherine the Great.After the 1917 Russian Revolution it was awarded by the White movement anti-communist forces under Alexander Kolchak until their collapse in 1921. The order was revived in the Russian Federation on 8 August 2000 by Decree №1463 of the President of Russia. The current award criteria were amended on 7 September 2010 by Presidential Decree 1099 (128, 142, 0) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: The Military Order of Maria Theresa (German: Milit?r-Maria-Theresien-Orden; Hungarian: Katonai Mária Terezia-rend; Czech: Vojensky ?ád Marie Terezie; Polish: Wojskowy Order Marii Teresy; Slovene: Voja?ki red Marije Terezije; Croatian: Vojni Red Marije Terezije) was the highest military honour of the Habsburg Monarchy, Austrian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire. (150, 148, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Wiener neustadt-- Theresian Military Academy trains officers for the Austrian army. The Military Order of Maria Theresa (German: Milit?r-Maria-Theresien-Orden; Hungarian: Katonai Mária Terezia-rend; Czech: Vojensky ?ád Marie Terezie; Polish: Wojskowy Order Marii Teresy; Slovene: Voja?ki red Marije Terezije; Croatian: Vojni Red Marije Terezije) was the highest military honour of the Habsburg Monarchy, Austrian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire. You will be on a mission to revitalize Habsburg (60, 229, 0) ***Event*** Message: Area D is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea and is {player bonus area}, players can use the medals received in area B and area C after killing bosses to exchange them into actual rewards such as troops in area D . There are also a lot of spells, skills and artifacts here in Area D, which are difficult to found on the map. (57, 230, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The fourth guard before player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the third of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The fourth guard before player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ,respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The fourth guard before player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now. (56, 56, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Marshal Michel Ney Marshal known as the Bravest of the Brave for his indomitable spirit during the retreat from Russia Born: January 10, 1769 Place of Birth: Sarrelouis, Moselle, France Died: December 7, 1815 Cause of Death: Executed Place of Death: Paris, France Arc de Triomphe: NEY on the east pillar (55, 56, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Marshal Ney, the emperor gave you a unique snuff bottle (65, 68, 0) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Some ten years later, observation balloons were used for the first time during the French Revolutionary Wars-- the experimental “Aerostatic Corps” (64, 68, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Montgolfier Hot Air Balloon From as long ago as the ancient Greeks and their legend of Icarus, whose wings melted when he flew too close to the sun, and the ancient Chinese who made kites that could take to the air, people have wanted to fly. The first known flight to carry people took place in Paris, France in 1783 in a balloon designed by the Montgolfier brothers. In 1775 Joseph Montgolfier began experimenting with parachutes. He had noticed that warm air from a fire billowed out washing that was drying above it. He built a light hollow chamber, covered with cloth and lit some paper under it. The contraption floated up to the ceiling of the room. After constructing a larger model, the brothers took it outside and, with similar success, the apparatus travelled two kilometres. They were determined to take their ideas further. On 15 October 1783, etienne Montgolfier became the first person to 'fly’ in a tethered balloon, rising to 24 metres (about 4 times the height of an average house). And on 21 November, the Montgolfier brothers’ balloon made the very first passenger flight, reaching a height of 910 metres and travelling a distance of 8 kilometres above Paris. It landed safely and so marked a revolution in aviation history and science. (251, 5, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Our Tsarist Empire is too far away from Europe, the latest reforms in England and France have achieved good results, and they have long been ahead in the field of science and culture. If we do not learn about their new technologies, I am afraid that sooner or later we will fall far behind them in our only pride, the military. You need the official diplomatic status of St. Petersburg to visit France The imperial court is now showing a lot of shortcomings because of serfdom, so you must go to Paris this time to learn some advanced methods and management experience. Of course, you can also become a military officer in Paris and learn the French way of fighting at the military school in Paris. (189, 82, 0) ***Rampart*** Name: Warsaw Timed events: Name: e1810 Message: In 1810 , Music School established.IT IS a musical conservatorium and academy located in central Warsaw, Poland. It is the oldest and largest music school in Poland, and one of the largest in Europe Name: eDuchy_of_Warsaw Message: In 1807 ,City becomes capital of Duchy of Warsaw. The Duchy of Warsaw (Polish: Ksi?stwo Warszawskie, French: Duche de Varsovie, German: Herzogtum Warschau), also known as Napoleonic Poland,was a Polish client state of the French Empire established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars. It comprised the ethnically Polish lands ceded to France by Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. It was the first attempt to re-establish Poland as a sovereign state after the 18th-century partitions and covered the central and southeastern parts of present-day Poland. The duchy was held in personal union by Napoleon's ally, Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, who became the Duke of Warsaw and remained a legitimate candidate for the Polish throne. Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: Name: AI增兵19月- Message: (148, 107, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Prague Timed events: Name: eLa clemenza di Tito Message: La clemenza di Tito (The Clemency of Titus), K. 621, is an opera seria in two acts composed by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to an Italian libretto by Caterino Mazzolà, after Pietro Metastasio. It was started after most of Die Zauberfl?te (The Magic Flute), the last of Mozart's principal operas, had already been written. The work premiered on 6 September 1791 at the Estates Theatre in Prague. Name: e179109 Message: On 6 September,1791,Coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia. Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: Name: AI增兵19月- Message: (239, 109, 0) ***Stronghold*** Name: Kiev Timed events: Name: emarket Message: In 1797 Contracts fair transferred to Kyiv from Dubno Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: Name: AI增兵19月- Message: (147, 52, 0) ***Dungeon*** Name: Berlin Timed events: Name: e玩家增兵Landwehr Message: LandwehrThe landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a royal edict of 17 March 1813, which called up all men capable of bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and not serving in the regular army, for the defense of the country. After the peace of 1815 this force was made an integral part of the Prussian Army, each brigade being composed of one line and one Landwehr regiment. Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI1-3 Message: Name: AI4-6 Message: Name: AI7-9 Message: Name: AI10-12 Message: Name: AI13-18 Message: Name: AI19- Message: (149, 52, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt Win battles of Jena and Auerstedt,and keep chasing Prussian army French army led by Davout entered Berlin (121, 8, 0) ***Random Town*** Name: Hamburg Timed events: Name: e1815 Message: On 8 June 1815,Hamburg becomes a member state of the German Confederation. Name: efrenchoccupy Message: In 1811 Hamburg becomes capital of the French Bouches-de-l'Elbe department.Bouches-de-l'Elbe ([bu?.d?.l?lb]; "Mouths of the Elbe", German: Elbmündungen) was a department of the First French Empire in present-day Germany that survived for three years. It was named after the mouth of the river Elbe. It was formed in 1811, when the region, originally belonging partially to Bremen-Verden (which in 1807 had been intermittently incorporated into the Kingdom of Westphalia), to Hamburg, Lübeck and Saxe-Lauenburg, was annexed by France. Its territory is part of the present-day German states of Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. Its capital was Hamburg. Name: eHamburg_Citizen_Militia玩家增兵 Message: In 1814 , Hamburg Citizen Militia formed.The Hamburg Citizen Militia (German: Hamburger Bürgermilit?r) or Hanseatic Citizen Guard (German: Hanseatische Bürgergarde) was a citizen militia of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, formed from conscripted citizens and inhabitants of the city. It was formed in 1814 and dissolved in 1868. The Hamburg citizen militia should not be confused with the Hanseatic Legion (German: Hanseatische Legion). During their time of coexistence, the militia restricted itself to ejecting the French garrisons of Hamburg and the other Hanseatic League cities, whereas the Legion also participated in the rest of the campaign under Russian overall command. Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI1-3 Message: Name: AI4-6 Message: Name: AI7-9 Message: Name: AI10-12 Message: Name: AI13-18 Message: Name: AI19- Message: (52, 84, 0) ***Sign*** Message: I present to you the body of Emperor Napoleon...' --General Joinville,pallbearer of the hearse (149, 133, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tan player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Tan player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area With the passing of his fathers, the fate of Habsburg fell to Franz II, who completed the transfer of the throne in Vienna and became the official monarch. (149, 132, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go to the underground of Vienna and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (121, 121, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Confederation of the Rhine--Kingdom of Bavaria Sign Peace of Pressburg first,then sign Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine Bavaria became kingdom according to the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine. (68, 74, 0) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: 这是给AI的 这是给AI的 不要作弊 (48, 147, 0) ***Castle*** Name: Lyon Timed events: Name: e17980905 Message: After the day of September 5,1798: The French legislature requires all French men between twenty and twenty-five to perform military service. Name: e18131009 Message: Marie-Louise (conscript):Empress Marie-Louise, who issued decrees dated 9 October 1813 ordering the conscription of 280,000 men. Name: 1803rebuild Lyon begin Message: A decade later, in 1803，Napoleon ordered the reconstruction of all Lyon buildings demolished during the French Revolution period. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 110 50’23' 13'12 2'8 3 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 320 80'30 15’15 3'12 5 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 410 205’70 45'45 7’28 10 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 510 220’90 60'60 20’45 15 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 1260 475’215 185'165 25’100 45 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 1510 590’280 210'200 45’120 65 Name: Ai主城满建 Message: (245, 237, 0) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Ambassador to The Porte in Constantinople Antoine-Francois Andreossy at your service (57, 69, 0) ***Event*** Message: In June, von Fersen acquired a Berline and drove it to a courtyard at Eleanore Sullivan's residence on the Rue de Clichy in Paris. The escape was arranged to take place on 20 June, coinciding with a particular guard change. (233, 180, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Nativity of St. John the Baptist Church, Piatra Neamt (66, 82, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "elise, your father's death has nothing to do with me" "I know" Arno told her of her father's Templar affiliations, only to learn that she was fully aware of it as she was a Templar herself. She then showed him the letter he was supposed to deliver the night Francois was murdered, which would have warned him of the impending assassination. Realizing that his negligence inadvertently caused Francois' death, Arno left the mansion (150, 144, 0) ***Sign*** Message: Schonbrunn Palace--court's recreational hunting ground (54, 69, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas acted with Lafayette and the constitutional liberal party. When Ney crossed the Nemunas river during retreat from russia in 1812,he met Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas Go and complete the montage plot of Marshal Ney first. Ney already seen Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas. (53, 68, 0) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The National Constituent Assembly passed the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" drafted mainly by Lafayette Men are born, and always continue, free and equal in respect of their rights--《Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen》 (162, 21, 0) ***Sign*** Message: the Baltic (187, 10, 0) ***Sign*** Message: the Baltic (250, 210, 0) ***Sign*** Message: the Black Sea (152, 35, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French general Lassalle had only 800 men indeed.Now let's defeat them and save our 5,300 Prussian allies! (25, 67, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: You insight into The first horseman: Conquest.Do you want to continue? (25, 68, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: You insight into The third horseman: Famine.Do you want to continue? (27, 67, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: You insight into The fourth horseman: Death - represented as a decaying corpse.Do you want to continue? (27, 68, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Apocalypse Tapestry--one of the great artistic interpretations of the revelation of Saint John. (26, 69, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: You insight into The eagle of Doom.Do you want to continue? (26, 68, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Apocalypse Tapestry--one of the great artistic interpretations of the revelation of Saint John. (27, 103, 1) ***Sword of Judgement*** Message: Joan of Arc's sword (26, 103, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In 1429 Poitiers was the site of Joan of Arc's formal inquest.Her holy relic is here. You must sacrifice an angel, a demon and a bishop for the soul of Joan of Arc. Now, please pray for Joan of Arc so that her sword can fight for France (60, 29, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The man described himself as Monsieur Rousseau from Lille ,but you found out that he is the wanted person--Eugène Francois Vidocq.This time he has nowhere to escape.But his friends and prostitutes wanted to help him resist the arrest. (61, 29, 1) ***Rogue*** Message: Brigade de la Surete ("Security Brigade") is now under your commmand! (68, 52, 1) ***Battle Dwarf*** Message: "Du pain et la Constitution de 1793!" ("Bread and Constitution of 1793!")--Philippe Rühl (41, 74, 1) ***Sign*** Message: University of Orleans (84, 72, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Metz -- The Green City (83, 73, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Metz Cathedral (37, 123, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Are you a great commander? (38, 123, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Now please sacrifice the undead warriors to revive the crusaders (39, 124, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need to recall the Clermont Council and form an alliance (201, 201, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Minho river (248, 180, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Segura river (222, 191, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pico Almanzor(2,591 m) (202, 193, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fountains and geothermal springs of Ourense (198, 190, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roman bridge of Lugo (199, 183, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Nalón River (200, 182, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Narcea river (201, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Gijón (206, 172, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santander (218, 171, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Logrono--centre of the trade in Rioja wine (243, 202, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Málaga--regional trade center (235, 199, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roman temple of Córdoba (248, 183, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cartagena--defensive port (226, 199, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Puente Romano, Merida (225, 200, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Amphitheatre of Merida (225, 199, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roman Theatre (Merida) (224, 204, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Olivenza,Badajoz (222, 197, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cáceres (238, 169, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mijares river (243, 179, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Please let our shoemaker to measure the size of your feet What, you have no legs or feet? Is this your feet? It's really big. I mean its smell.Here is the shoe. (242, 179, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Please let our shoemaker to measure the size of your feet What, you have no legs or feet? Oh man,is this your feet? It's really big. I mean its smell.And here is the shoe for you. (242, 178, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Please let our shoemaker to measure the size of your feet What, you have no legs or feet? Is this your feet? It's really big. I mean its smell. (243, 178, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Please let our shoemaker to measure the size of your feet What, you have no legs or feet? What a perfect pair of feet you have! (244, 178, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Please let our shoemaker to measure the size of your feet What, you have no legs or feet? Your shoes have been customized. (233, 170, 1) ***Gorgon*** Message: "La vaquilla del ángel of Teruel begins!" (224, 172, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Jalón river (216, 215, 1) ***Necropolis*** Name: Lisbon Timed events: Name: fr-Guerrillawarcost Message: The cost of the peninsula war against Portugal Name: eWilliam Carr Beresford Message: Liberal Revolution of 1820 against the British-led Regency of William Carr Beresford begins in Porto on 24 August. The Regency's troops decline to act against their countrymen and on 15 September declare for King, Cortes and Constitution. A provisional government is established on 1 October to oversee elections to the Cortes. Name: e1821 Message: The national assembly opens on 26 January and on 9 March adopts a liberal parliamentary constitution (ratified 1822), inspired by the recent liberal advances in Spain, notably the 1812 Constitution of Cadiz. Metropolitan Portugal demands the return of Jo?o VI to Lisbon. Portugal's first constitution ratified. (243, 195, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Alhambra,Granada (245, 194, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mulhacen(3,285 m) (216, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santarem (225, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Castle of Beja (228, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Guadiana river (211, 204, 1) ***Sign*** Message: University of Coimbra (212, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Leiria (216, 201, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Castelo Branco (204, 202, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Porto--Cidade Invicta (207, 197, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Vila Real (231, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Funchal,Madeira (245, 179, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We are shoemaker of Elche. Do you want some high-quality shoes? You are welcome to customize your shoes. (160, 185, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cambrian mountains (163, 188, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Severn river (156, 185, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Snowdon (158, 185, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Glaslyn (157, 185, 1) ***Sword of Judgement*** Message: You came to asks the Lady of the Lake for the sword Excalibur, but you see the Afanc. (165, 186, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bristol (141, 177, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Grampian mountains (139, 175, 1) ***Sign*** Message: BEN NEVIS(1,345 m) (164, 187, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Glastonbury Tor (162, 187, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cardiff Castle (160, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: River Great Ouse (160, 182, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Birmingham--"the first manufacturing town in the world" Lunar Society of Birmingham is waitting for its member James Watt. The Watt steam engine is ready. (160, 174, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Norwich (161, 176, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cambridge (162, 181, 1) ***Sign*** Message: University of Oxford (157, 177, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Nottingham--Vivit post funera virtus, lit. 'Virtue outlives death' (141, 170, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Aberdeen (144, 173, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Dundee (147, 186, 1) ***Sign*** Message: lough neagh (152, 195, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Blackwater (154, 193, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Waterford-a crystal origin (153, 196, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cork--The Rebel City, Leeside, The Real Capital (150, 194, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Limerick (7, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mississippi river (4, 192, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mississippi river (1, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Red river (8, 187, 1) ***Event*** Message: Wisconsin river (15, 195, 1) ***Event*** Message: Des Plaines River (20, 214, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ohio river (35, 208, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ohio river (60, 197, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ohio river (24, 202, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Wabash River (37, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cumberland River (33, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tennessee River (25, 227, 1) ***Event*** Message: Tombigbee river (50, 216, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tennessee River (31, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Alabama River (59, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Oconee River (55, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ocmulgee River (69, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Altamaha River (147, 193, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Galway (79, 221, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Marion (84, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santee River (63, 216, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Broad River (72, 212, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pee Dee River (86, 214, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cape Fear River (79, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roanoke River (97, 192, 1) ***Event*** Message: Hudson River (99, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Kennebec River (100, 180, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bath--City of Ships (109, 174, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Skmaqn-Port-la-Joye-Fort Amherst,an important role as a colonial outpost in the French-British struggle for dominance in North America (121, 170, 1) ***Event*** Message: Let's catch some Atlantic Northwest cods! (119, 170, 1) ***Event*** Message: Oh,you are interested in the Atlantic northwest cod fishery right? (120, 171, 1) ***Event*** Message: It's the season to catch cods again. (104, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint John River (Bay of Fundy) (46, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Chattahoochee River (44, 203, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Scioto River (54, 208, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Boulders and snags on the lower river prevented Kanawha River's use for transportation. (80, 177, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Lawrence River (71, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Savannah River (61, 220, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Savannah River (69, 220, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saluda River (66, 220, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort.ninety six (73, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Charlotte--"a hornet's nest of rebellion" (100, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Hatteras, North Carolina (64, 204, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Monongahela River (82, 196, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Augusta (48, 169, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Abitibi (41, 173, 1) ***Event*** Message: Ishpatina Ridge(693 m) (32, 168, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Moose river (42, 177, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Sudbury (44, 188, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tribal leaders of Council of Three Fires now agree to negotiate with the British Crown. The guards here in Sarnia will only let those who fly the red flag pass. (43, 187, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Fort Niagara now enters into force. Pay your distributed goods of this treaty :12 thousand blankets, 23,500 yards of cloth; 5,000 silver ear bobs; 75 dozen razors and 20 gross of jaw harps,and continue the cooperation with indigenous peoples Tribal leaders of Council of Three Fires will recruit local indigenous people to assist the British Empire militarily (57, 176, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ottawa River (70, 182, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Brockville (73, 175, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mont-Tremblant(968m) (83, 178, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Drummondville (86, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Hyatt's Mills (88, 169, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saguenay River (97, 170, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Jacques-Cartier (1,268 m) (102, 169, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Anticosti Island--Cemetery of the Gulf (98, 173, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Miramichi Highlands (108, 170, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Magdalen Islands (110, 180, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Halifax (129, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Magdalena River (170, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Amazonas (154, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Amazonas (153, 247, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Maranón (157, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Rio Negro (142, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Orinoco River (147, 238, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Rio Negro (171, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Madeira (184, 237, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Mamore (180, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Xingu (185, 225, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Tocantins (202, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Paraguay (224, 236, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Paraguay (209, 230, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Paraná (214, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Grand (204, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Sao Francisco (132, 237, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Merida--Ciudad de los Caballeros,Non potest civitas abscondi supra montem posita (128, 236, 1) ***Event*** Message: At the mouth of the Catatumbo River where it empties into Lake Maracaibo,a continuous lightning hits your ship. In the marshy delta of Catatumbo River, during 140 - 160 days and nights (10 hours mainly in the afternoons) a year there is almost continuous powerful lightning. This location is the world's most powerful generator of tropospheric ozone. (124, 240, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cartagena--a main port for trade between Spain and its overseas empire (153, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Paramaribo (152, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Nassau (160, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cayenne (167, 243, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Ucayali (173, 242, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Coricancha,Cuzco (204, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: S.Salvador (212, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Vila Rica--one of the main areas of the Brazilian Gold Rush (212, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Espírito Santo (223, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: S.Miguel (221, 247, 1) ***Event*** Message: When you sprint towards the summit of Aconcagua, those Incan capacocha mummies wake up from the snow canyon and pounce on you, it looks like they are guarding the sacred summit remains and the ancient Incan rituals. (3, 237, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Grande (10, 242, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Tampaón (8, 250, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Balsas (23, 246, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pico de Orizaba(5636m) (31, 250, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Verde (0, 238, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Monclova (5, 246, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Nicolás College,Valladolid (1, 244, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Lerma (4, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Sebastian (32, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Antequera (56, 246, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Merida (57, 247, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The guards here are collecting Maya stones to build defences for protecting the residents (51, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Grijalva (72, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Castle of San Felipe de Lara (71, 247, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lake Izabal (70, 248, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: You saw an ancient sunken ship,while giant grebe birds, known as "poc" in Mayan is coming for you (65, 247, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Belize (75, 250, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Salvador (87, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Los Dolores Church,Tegucigalpa (91, 250, 1) ***Sign*** Message: León, Nicaragua (98, 247, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río San Juan (101, 249, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Jose, Costa Rica (114, 249, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tabasará Mountains (95, 237, 1) ***Sign*** Message: La Cabana,Havana (108, 231, 1) ***Event*** Message: When you come to the stake of Baracoa that once burned Hatuey to death, you hear something grinning grimly: If heaven is where the dead Spaniards go, they would rather go to hell. (99, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: La Isabela cemetery (110, 239, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Kingston (114, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Gonave Island (114, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tortuga Island--a major center and haven of Caribbean piracy (127, 230, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Isla Saona (84, 245, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roatán (94, 246, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bluefields--Mosquito Coast (122, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Beata Island (97, 244, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Corn Islands (105, 244, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Providencia Island (107, 245, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Andres (106, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mayaguana (113, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Turks and Caicos Islands (104, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Crooked Island (98, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Rum Cay (99, 227, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "What's that?" "Bats!" (97, 230, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Exuma--provides many hideouts and stashes for pirates (96, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Watling's Island (91, 230, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Eleuthera (85, 231, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Abaco Islands (83, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Grand Bahama (86, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Moore's Island (86, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Key West --a communal graveyard of prior native inhabitants (128, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Juan, Puerto Rico--the "Walled City" (132, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Vieques (132, 221, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Culebra (135, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Danish West Indies (135, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: British Virgin Islands (137, 218, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Anguilla (139, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Martin (island) (140, 218, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Codrington,Barbuda (142, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Antigua (142, 221, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Montserrat (141, 216, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Leeward Islands (145, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Boiling Lake,Dominica (151, 221, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Barbados (149, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Lucia--"Land of the Iguanas" (151, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tobago (149, 225, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Trinidad (128, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Aruba (133, 230, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Curacao (136, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bonaire--"the islands of the giants" (139, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Isla de Margarita (190, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Castle of Moinhos,Angra doHeroísmo (187, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Sao Jorge Island (184, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Corvo Island--Island of the Marine Crow (183, 211, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Flores Island (185, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Faial Island (187, 210, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Graciosa Island--an important point along trans-Atlantic navigation (196, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Sao Miguel Island (243, 213, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Martial,Lanzarote (244, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fuerteventura Island (238, 219, 1) ***Event*** Message: According to legend, Guayota (the devil) kidnapped Magec (the god of light and the sun) and imprisoned him inside the volcano, plunging the world into darkness.Now You decide to find the truth. (237, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: La Gomera (241, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: El Hierro (245, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Sal (244, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Maio (242, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Praia,Santiago, Cape Verde (239, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fogo (238, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roman Catholic Diocese of Santiago de Cabo Verde，Sao Nicolau (237, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santa Luzia (93, 192, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Delaware River (63, 214, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Mitchell(2,037 m) (75, 235, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: St. Augustine (17, 247, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Puebla (66, 250, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Acatenango (66, 249, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santiago de Guatemala (70, 31, 1) ***Halberdier*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (71, 32, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (50, 75, 1) ***Skull Helmet*** Message: Jacques Pierre Brissot's head (50, 77, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Revolutionary Tribunal sentences Girondins leader Jean Pierre Brissot to death on October 31,1793 The Revolutionary Tribunal sentences Girondins leader Jean Pierre Brissot to death on October 31,1793 Brissot conducted his own defense, attacked point by point the absurdities of the charges against him and his fellow Girondins. (49, 77, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Revolutionary Tribunal sentences the 20 Girondins deputies to death . The Revolutionary Tribunal sentences the 20 Girondins deputies to death . "Liberty, what crimes are committed in your name!"-- Madame Roland.The 20 Girondins deputies are guillotined on October 31,1793. (51, 76, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: “Allons enfants de la Patrie, Le jour de gloire est arrive ! Contre nous de la tyrannie L'etendard sanglant est leve” “Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Mugir ces feroces soldats ? Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras egorger vos fils, vos compagnes !” “Aux armes, citoyens, Formez vos bataillons, Marchons, marchons ! Qu'un sang impur Abreuve nos sillons !”--Jacques Pierre Brissot (53, 73, 1) ***Skull Helmet*** Message: George Jacques Danton's head (52, 74, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "I leave it all in a frightful welter", Danton said. "Not a man of them has an idea of government. Robespierre will follow me; he is dragged down by me. Ah, better to be a poor fisherman than to meddle with the government of men!" April 5,1794, Danton and Desmoulins are convicted and guillotined the same day. (52, 75, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Danton, Camille Desmoulins and their supporters arrested on March 30,1794 Danton, Camille Desmoulins and their supporters arrested on March 30,1794 Trial of Danton before the Revolutionary Tribunal. He uses the occasion to ridicule and insult his opponents. (66, 23, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Mouscron Win Battle of Mouscron Battle of Tourcoing (68, 24, 1) ***Vampire Lord*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (67, 24, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (182, 201, 1) ***Wyvern Monarch*** Message: Rear-Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse at your service (183, 201, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: British Channel Fleet under Admiral Lord Howe (184, 201, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Glorious First of June Win Siege of Toulon first to rebuild French Navy force We need secure the passage of a vital French grain convoy from the United States to Brest! (75, 37, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Fleurus Win Battle of Tourcoing Battle of Fleurus (75, 38, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need Carnot and his guns We need Carnot and his guns Thanks Carnot! (76, 40, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (94, 1, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant-Colonel Louis Joseph Lahure and his men launched the assault. The ice did not break, and the hussars and infantrymen were able to board the Dutch ships. We captured the Dutch admiral and the vessels' crews; neither side suffered any casualties.What a capture of ships by horsemen is an extremely rare feat in military history! (93, 1, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Fleurus Win Battle of Fleurus We find out that a Dutch fleet was anchored at Den Helder, approximately eighty kilometers north from Amsterdam.We can send hussars to capture it (60, 62, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The church of Saint-Roch, rue Saint-Honore. (60, 61, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On the orders of Paul Barras, in charge of the defense of Paris, General Bonaparte will lead the army against the uprising Murat,fetch the cannons!We will give the royalists a "Whiff of Grapeshot" (83, 25, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Hasselt We Belgians are not satisfied that the Treaty of Campo Formio ceded Flanders to France and were required to perform military service.. This is our revolution (69, 31, 1) ***Firebird*** Message: Jean-Baptiste Jourdan joins you (71, 23, 1) ***Faerie Dragon*** Message: General Louis Charles Antoine Desaix at your command (62, 78, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Arriving in tunnels, Arno met Bellec who brought him before the Assassin Council of the Parisian Brotherhood composed of Mirabeau, Sophie Trenet, Guillaume Beylier, Herve Quemar and Bellec himself. Before them, Arno expressed his desire to join the Brotherhood to redeem his mistakes. As some like Trenet weren't inclined to let Arno joined the Brotherhood due to his guilt, Bellec vouched for him. Mirabeau authorized Arno to pass the a ceremony known as the Eagle path. During the induction ceremony, Arno drank in a chalice containing a hallucinogenic brewage. Seeing visions of his life, Arno experienced once again the deaths of his father and Francois, who were killed by the same hooded figure. Arno tracked the killer and end his life. Seeing himself as the killer, Arno paid the last rites before waking from the hallucinations.Opening his eyes, Arno was surrounded by the Council who recited the tenets of The Creed. Bellec gave to Arno the Hidden Blade, the signature weapon of the Brotherhood. Mirabeau stated that Arno was dead with his sins and failures and that he was reborn as a novice of the Assassin Brotherhood. Arno activated his Hidden Blade, officializing his induction (61, 76, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pont Neuf(New Bridge),which connects the left and right banks of the Seine by passing over the Ile de la Cite (63, 78, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Assassinate Chretien Lafrenière In fact, it was Germain who used Arnold's hand to remove the dissidents Now Various records prove that Germain was behind the murder of Francois de la Serre. In addition to conspiring to kill the Supreme Master, he also eliminated dissidents within the Templar Order.After arriving at Mirabeau’s mansion, Arno saw elise, who had arrived before him, standing in front of the mentor’s bed. Mirabeau on the couch had stopped breathing. (64, 78, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is the clue to Mirabeau's death Suspecting someone was attempting to pin the blame on elise, the two investigated the murder and discovered that Mirabeau was poisoned with aconite (55, 81, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Arnault sneaked into the catacombs under the old church. The dotted sewers made it an underground kingdom. Arnault used the Phantom Blade to quietly disintegrate the defenses here and successfully assassinated the King of Beggars Arnault used the Phantom Blade to quietly disintegrate the defenses here and successfully assassinated the King of Beggars (62, 82, 1) ***Ogre's Club of Havoc*** Message: While the crown was new, the sceptre was reputed to have belonged to Charles V (61, 82, 1) ***Sword of Hellfire*** Message: and the sword to Philip III. (62, 81, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Pope Pius VII agreed to come to Paris to officiate at Napoleon's coronation Pope Pius VII agreed to come to Paris to officiate at Napoleon's coronation Pope Pius VII was present at the coronation of Napoleon I on Sunday, December 2, 1804 (55, 17, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sword of Honour (55, 19, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Trumpets of honour assigned to the bugle and trumpeters (55, 14, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Drumsticks of honour for the drummers (63, 14, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Golden grenades to artillery assigned to the accuracy of their shots (61, 14, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Guns and swords awarded to soldiers and grenadiers (57, 14, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Whips of honour awarded to the drivers of artillery (55, 21, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Pistols of Honour awarded to officers (55, 13, 1) ***Ogre's Club of Havoc*** Message: Drumsticks of honour for the drummers (57, 13, 1) ***Bowstring of the Unicorn's Mane*** Message: Whips of honour awarded to the drivers of artillery (59, 14, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Guns and swords awarded to soldiers and grenadiers (59, 13, 1) ***Red Dragon Flame Tongue*** Message: Guns and swords of honour awarded to soldiers and grenadiers (63, 13, 1) ***Golden Bow*** Message: Golden grenades to artillery assigned to the accuracy of their shots (54, 17, 1) ***Sword of Hellfire*** Message: Sword of Honour (54, 19, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Trumpets of honour assigned to the bugle and trumpeters (54, 21, 1) ***Badge of Courage*** Message: Pistols of Honour awarded to officers (56, 16, 1) ***Giant*** Message: "OK,I am responsible for continuing to train an Army here that pretends to be attacking Britain."Marshal Guillaume Brune says. (62, 80, 1) ***Archangel*** Message: Grand Marshal of the Palace--Geraud Duroc at your command (107, 118, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Memmingen (106, 119, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (111, 109, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Ulm Soult,cross the Danube here at Donauworth,then occupy Augsburg. We caught a lot of prisoners of war，Marshal! (149, 128, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Davout, the main force of the Austro-Russian coalition forces rushed to the right flank of our army, and you must hold on until Lannes and Murat break through the enemy line Davout，hold Sokolnitz! (155, 121, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Murat,it's your time,disperse the Prince of Liechtenstein’s 82 cavalry squadrons, and then chase the prince of Bagration until the Austerlitz castle! (148, 126, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Austerlitz Finish Battle of Trafalgar first The fiasco of the naval battle calls for the success of the war against Austria as soon as possible (152, 130, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Are Friant and his men here? You are such a warrior Friant! It’s 70 kilometers from Vienna, and you rushed over in less than two days. (152, 120, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (148, 128, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Austerlitz Massena in Italy has to delay Charles Massena succeeded, Charles’s army has no time to support the Austrian-Russian coalition forces (148, 125, 1) ***Event*** Message: "Sire, why do you want to do this? Didn't so many bonfires reveal our position? ""You don't understand this, the enemy must think we are going to retreat! They will inevitably do the opposite to attack our right wing!" (153, 130, 1) ***Goblin*** Message: The Austrian-Russian coalition forces were completely defeated, they are fleeing towards the ice lake (151, 120, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Lannes!Break through the enemy's left wing (150, 124, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Success or failure depends on whether you can occupy the Pratzen hights! Soult remember! You have to wait for Lannes and Murat to make a breakthrough before you can act let our legendary 'Sun of Austerlitz' rip the mist,take Pratzen Heights! (153, 127, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (158, 125, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (1, 0, 1) ***Tower*** Name: Valhalla Timed events: Name: Heroes arrival Message: Prepare to aid Odin during the events of Ragnarok (152, 34, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Prussian military tribunal sentenced Friedrich Gisbert Wilhelm Freiherr von Romberg to life imprisonment for the surrender We should arrest Romberg immediately. Nice job!Give him to us. (195, 32, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Friedland (187, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Artillery general Alexandre-Antoine Hureau de Senarmont will lead an artillery charge! (188, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Marshal Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno and his 1er Corps d'Armee at your command (186, 30, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (188, 35, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (186, 35, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (195, 37, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (194, 36, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (193, 36, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (192, 36, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (193, 37, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (192, 37, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (196, 32, 1) ***Ogre Mage*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (191, 35, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (189, 34, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Friedland The battle began when Bennigsen noticed the seemingly isolated reserve corps of Marshal Lannes at the town of Friedland Lannes skillfully held his ground against determined Russian attacks until Napoleon could bring additional forces onto the field. (193, 194, 1) ***Black Knight*** Message: "I hope the people of England will be satisfied.I hope my country will do me justice."The last words of Sir John Moore (197, 194, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Austria mobilising once more for war.Marsha Soult and Second Corps will finish off the British (196, 194, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The terrain was so bad for horses that our dragoons must choose to dismount and fight on foot The terrain was so bad for horses that our dragoons must choose to dismount and fight on foot The terrain was so bad for horses that our dragoons must choose to dismount and fight on foot (195, 194, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Our French dragoons will not lose their combat effectiveness after dismounting (194, 194, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (198, 195, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Corunna Force march troops over the Guadarama Pass in the midst of a blizzard Battle of Corunna (192, 195, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: A small Spanish garrison held Coruna,waiting until the British fleet had escaped to sea before surrenderring (127, 110, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Regensburg Lannes' men could not bring themselves to advance into the maelstrom a fourth time and so, exasperated, Lannes grabbed a scaling ladder and renewed his appeal. Then, amid an embarrassed silence, he angrily shouted: "I will let you see that I was a grenadier before I was a marshal and still am one." (129, 109, 1) ***Medusa Queen*** Message: The last 300 defenders surrendered soon after (128, 109, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Austrian garrison of Ratisbon fires at you (126, 112, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Sigismond Frederic de Berckheim and his division join you (64, 62, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Eugène Rose de Beauharnais at your service (64, 63, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Engineer General Henri Gatien Bertrand at your service (148, 123, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lean Le Marois at your service (153, 126, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Louis-Vincent-Joseph Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire's division join you (159, 125, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Austerlitz castle (148, 124, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Rapp,lead Mounted Chasseurs and the Mounted Grenadiers of the Guard and the Guard Mameluks ,decimate the Chevalier Guards of the Russian Imperial Guard!""Sure,sire!"--General Count Jean Rapp (149, 125, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: etienne Tardif de Pommeroux de Bordesoulle and his soldiers at your command (190, 32, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "That man is a lion!"Said Napoleon,watching Ney's Sixth Corp advancing (232, 51, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: On the afternoon of November 18, a thick mist prevented Ney’s troops from seeing anything in front of them. Consequently the advance guard of the small band ran headlong into Russian batteries. Eventually, General Miloradovitch sent a messenger under a flag of truce. Ney, checking this impulse but yielding to his own, shouted to the Russian, “A Marshal never surrenders!” (232, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "All the Cossacks and the Russians in the worlt shall not prevent me from rejoining the army." Marshal Ney 17th,November,Smolensk (245, 232, 1) ***Event*** Message: Boa Vista (187, 81, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In July 1807 the Duchy of Warsaw was created. Joachim Murat and his forces entered Warsaw and quickly became friends with Poniatowski In its government Poniatowski on 7 October became Minister of War and Head of Army of the Duchy of Warsaw (120, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pico Duarte(3,098 m ) (154, 222, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Jean-Baptiste Philibert Willaumez and his fleet at your command (153, 191, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: United Irishmen Rebellion(France parts) Meet the Irish leader Wolf Tone in Paris and study the details of the uprising against the UK "As Irishmen, We too have a country, and we hold it very dear—so dear... that we wish all Civil and Religious Intolerance annihilated in this land." (101, 189, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Boston (102, 186, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: Some British tax collectors on the ship encouraged slave boatmen to attack you (88, 183, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Capture of Fort Ticonderoga Win Battles of Lexington and Concord first "In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!" (86, 183, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Ticonderoga (93, 199, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Declaration of Independence The members decided that Thomas Jefferson should write the first draft. "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."--Delegates of The thirteen colonies (91, 197, 1) ***Sign*** Message: valley forge (92, 198, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Valley Forge-- located in the southeastern corner of Pennsylvania around 25 miles northwest of Philadelphia Win Battles of Saratoga George Washington chose to make the winter camp at Valley Forge.It was here that the American forces became a true fighting unit. Valley Forge is often called the birthplace of the American Army. (90, 186, 1) ***Black Knight*** Message: Surrender of General Burgoyne (246, 214, 1) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (246, 215, 1) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (49, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Colonel Arthur Campbell suggested the confluence of the Clinch and Tennessee as a possible site for a fort to the governor of Virginia Fort Southwest Point is now been built (51, 215, 1) ***Boar*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (55, 209, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (55, 212, 1) ***Skeleton*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (54, 219, 1) ***Gnoll*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (48, 220, 1) ***Troll*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (29, 213, 1) ***Boar*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (27, 219, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (24, 223, 1) ***Mummy*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (42, 223, 1) ***Ogre*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (86, 187, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Oriskany--A party of Loyalists and several hundred Indigenous allies across several nations ambushed us (92, 184, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Bennington.Defeat Baum's detachment, mixed force of 700, composed primarily of dismounted Brunswick dragoons, Canadians, Loyalists and Indians , capture supplies and horses from enemy. (94, 194, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Arnold's Tavern,Morristown (97, 197, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Battle of Princeton--leading many recruits to join the Continental Army in the spring. (31, 208, 1) ***Event*** Message: Siege of Fort Vincennes (10, 208, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mississippi river (67, 63, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Dragons de la Garde Imperiale Finish Invasion of Naples The Dragons de la Garde imperiale (Dragoons of the Imperial Guard) was a heavy cavalry unit formed by Napoleon I through the decree of April 15, 1806. (100, 199, 1) ***Event*** Message: The Capture of La Croyable, or the Action of July 7, 1798, occurred when the French privateer schooner La Croyable was taken by the American sloop-of-war USS Delaware on 7 July 1798 during the Quasi-War. (139, 222, 1) ***Event*** Message: USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente, or the Action of 9 February 1799, was a single-ship action fought between frigates of the French Navy and the United States Navy during the Quasi-War, an undeclared war that lasted from 1798 to 1800. (112, 232, 1) ***Event*** Message: Action of 1 January 1800--A French-aligned Haitian general, Andre Rigaud, had instructed his forces to attack all foreign shipping within their range of operations. (120, 226, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Puerto Plata Harbor--one of the few land battles during the Quasi-War. (142, 220, 1) ***Event*** Message: The Action between the USS Boston and Berceau, was a single ship action off Guadeloupe, during the Quasi-War with France. (146, 218, 1) ***Event*** Message: USS Enterprise vs Flambeau was a single ship action fought in October 1800 during the Quasi-War, and the final battle between French and American forces. (26, 178, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Johnstons，Sault Ste. Marie (34, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santa Rosa Island--Watch out for the hurricanes (16, 231, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pearl River (17, 235, 1) ***Green Dragon*** Message: "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank."-- Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Francois Barbe-Marbois (0, 232, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The sovereignty of Louisiana region is disputed So what was the result of the Louisiana purchase? What a bargain sale! (2, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Antonio--Founded as a Spanish mission and colonial outpost (13, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Baton Rouge--a red pole marking the boundary between the Houma and Bayagoula tribal hunting grounds. (36, 235, 1) ***Air Elemental*** Message: Hurricane hit you (0, 188, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The sovereignty of Louisiana region is disputed So what was the result of the Louisiana purchase? What a bargain sale! (6, 192, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The sovereignty of Louisiana region is disputed So what was the result of the Louisiana purchase? What a bargain sale! (11, 213, 1) ***Fortress*** Name: St. Louis (16, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The sovereignty of Louisiana region is disputed So what was the result of the Louisiana purchase? What a bargain sale! (0, 205, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (20, 211, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Kaskaskia (18, 212, 1) ***Event*** Message: "Conqueror of the Old Northwest"--George Rogers Clark and his men join you (15, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After Jefferson won the 1800 presidential election, Madison served as Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. In that position, he supervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States. Madison (the "Father of the Constitution") assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. (12, 233, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Baton rouge owes its historical importance to its strategic site upon the Istrouma Bluff, the first natural bluff upriver from the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. This allowed development of a business quarter safe from seasonal flooding (17, 206, 1) ***Event*** Message: Kaskaskia River (15, 211, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The sovereignty of Louisiana region is disputed So what was the result of the Louisiana purchase? What a bargain sale! (15, 208, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cahokia (81, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Charleston (96, 197, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (89, 207, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Richmond, Virginia (98, 198, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lee took control of Marquis de Lafayette's contingency forces at Monmouth and ordered a full retreat, while abandoning his post, leaving them unprepared against the advancing British forces. (99, 198, 1) ***Faerie Dragon*** Message: Battle of Monmouth (98, 199, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Lee managed to escape, taking a ferry up the Charles River to Monmouth and rested at the Conestoga Inn. Connor once again followed and caught up with him, neither in any condition to fight. Lee silently offered and shared his drink, to which Connor accepted. Welcoming his end, Lee gave Connor a slight nod, and Connor proceeded to stab Lee in the heart. After the Assassin took the amulet from around Lee's neck, Charles fell forward against the table and finally passed away. (98, 200, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: By 1781,Charles Lee knew that Connor sought his death Win Battle of Yorktown,finish the independence war first,then go chase Lee Connor intercepted Lee at Boston pier, leading to a chase through the dockyards. Lee attempted to lose Connor by running through a ferry under construction, during which an accident had caused it to set ablaze. After a dangerous pursuit, both Lee and Connor crashed through a collapsed floor, with Connor impaling himself on a wooden splinter through his abdomen Lee approached Connor, looking down on him, before asking why the Assassins fought an endless and futile cause against the Templars. Catching Lee off guard, Connor quickly raised his pistol and shot Lee in the stomach. (103, 188, 1) ***Event*** Message: Green Dragon Tavern,Boston (97, 186, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Springfield Armory (97, 185, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Springfield Armory, located in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, was the primary center for the manufacture of United States military firearms from 1777 until its closing in 1968 In 1777 while the army was in winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, Knox returned to Massachusetts to improve the Army's artillery manufacturing capability. He raised an additional battalion of artillerymen and established an armory at Springfield, Massachusetts，remained valuable sources of war material for the rest of the war. (95, 180, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Connecticut River (93, 191, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Hazelwood planned for and participated in the defense of the Delaware River approach to Philadelphia in 1777 before and during the Siege of Fort Mifflin, which lasted approximately three weeks He was soon appointed to oversee the building of and command of fire rafts, which were used to prevent passage of British ships bringing badly needed supplies to British in Philadelphia. During the weeks spent engaging the British navy on the Delaware River Hazelwood innovated many naval tactics and many river obstructions,like Cheval de frise,kept the British navy at bay for weeks and played a major role in the development of riverine warfare for the American navies. (29, 207, 1) ***Event*** Message: French and Indian inhabitants thanks you for removing themselves from the very shadowy political rule of the British. (85, 182, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Lake Champlain (64, 57, 1) ***Event*** Message: Inside of the Temple (95, 248, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lake Nicaragua (119, 168, 1) ***Sign*** Message: St. John's--"Avancez" (122, 168, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Newfoundland expedition(1796) The combined fleets of France and Spain had destroyed upwards of 100 merchant vessels, and taken a great number of prisoners. (121, 169, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Newfoundland expedition(1796) The combined fleets of France and Spain had destroyed upwards of 100 merchant vessels, and taken a great number of prisoners. (121, 168, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We caught british prisoners of war,and Confiscated British supplies here (115, 228, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (128, 238, 1) ***Event*** Message: Maracaibo-- "La Tierra del Sol Amada", "Muy noble y leal" (14, 247, 1) ***Event*** Message: When you came to the Popocatepetl, an old man,Gregorio warns you that the eruption will not happen this year. (140, 243, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bogotá--“ La Atenas Suramericana” (121, 232, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1815，Bolívar fled to Haiti Bolívar befriended Alexandre Petion, the president of the recently independent southern republic (as opposed to the Kingdom of Haiti in the north), and petitioned him for aid，only demanding in return that Bolívar promise to abolish slavery in any of the lands he took back from Spain. Alexandre Petion provided the South American leader with a multitude of provisions consisting of ships, men and weapons (225, 249, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santiago--"The City of the Island Hills" (227, 247, 1) ***Event*** Message: Mendoza (139, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Angostura--a major riverport (138, 242, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Boyacá(1819) Win Battle of Chacabuco first After this battle,New Granada acquired its definitive independence from the Spanish Monarchy, although fighting with royalist forces would continue for years (137, 232, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Carabobo Win battle of Boyacá first Bolívar's decisive victory at Carabobo led to the independence of Venezuela and establishment of the Republic of Gran Colombia. (136, 232, 1) ***Pit Fiend*** Message: Royalist forces, led by Spanish Field Marshal Miguel de la Torre (141, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Quito--Carita de Dios (141, 249, 1) ***Event*** Message: Port Guayaquil (166, 245, 1) ***Devil*** Message: You capture Viceroy de la Serna (166, 246, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Royalists attack on you (25, 246, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Juan de Ulúa,Veracruz (228, 233, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: La Plata mercenaries with complex composition shouting slogans of independence or loyalty,and attack you. (226, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Uruguay (16, 243, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Tampico (Mexico) Finish Battle of Ayacucho It is the last attempt of Ferdinand VII of Spain to reconquer Spanish America. (228, 247, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Curved saber of San Martín San Martín acquired the curved saber during his stay in London, shortly after he left Spain and before embarking for South America. Later, San Martin would arm his mounted grenadiers cavalry unit with similar weapons, which he deemed ideal for cavalry charges. (177, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Para (182, 223, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Luis (119, 245, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Porto-bello (204, 244, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Copiapó (201, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Bermejo (215, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Salado (179, 240, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Isla del Sol--"Island of the Sun",Lake Titicaca (180, 240, 1) ***Sign*** Message: (183, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Arica--"City of the eternal spring" (219, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cordova (199, 190, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Lugo--the only city in the world to be surrounded by completely intact Roman walls (246, 181, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Murcia (231, 177, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cuenca Cathedral (79, 176, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Trois-Rivières (39, 191, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort.Detroit (146, 220, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Martinique (2, 238, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Monterrey (238, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Brava (93, 186, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Philip Schuyler and his men join you (91, 186, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (92, 186, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We need Daniel Morgan and his 500 sharpshooters (94, 186, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battles of Saratoga Win Battle of Monmouth win this battle to improve the morale of the Continental Army (91, 185, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Horatio Gates and his force join you from north (98, 193, 1) ***Event*** Message: Nathanael Greene joins you (92, 197, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben helps teaching the Continental Army in essentials of military drills, tactics, and discipline. (78, 224, 1) ***Event*** Message: Louis Lebègue Duportail will help evolve the primarily defensive military strategy (78, 41, 1) ***Harpy*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (80, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: József Alvinczi takes command of an Auxiliary army which support the British under the Duke of York and Albany, fighting at Landrecy and in the Battle of Fleurus,joins you (121, 121, 1) ***Champion*** Message: You found the enemy's flag bearer in this battle (122, 121, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We believing we were pursuing a beaten enemy, moved through heavily wooded terrain in four disconnected columns. Instead, Moreau ambushed tus as we emerged from the Ebersberg forest (124, 121, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Hohenlinden Finish Battle of Stockach and Engen Keep chase enemy (123, 121, 1) ***Red Dragon*** Message: Archduke John of Austria joins you (63, 56, 1) ***Event*** Message: Arno and elise arrived at the Temple. Arno reluctantly accepted to split up with elise to cover more areas. Even if he didn't find any weak spots, Arno infiltrated the Temple and located Germain on the top of the tower. Before Arno could assassinate him, however, Germain used the power of a Sword of Eden against him, forcing Arno to take cover. Discreetly approaching his target, Arno was thrown away by the power of the Sword before Germain disappeared. Locating him in the Temple undergrounds, Arno subsequently managed to find elise again, and together they entered the Templar crypt in the catacombs, where they once again confronted Germain. While elise was distracting Germain, Arno attempted to assassinate the Grand Master once more but failed due to a shield projected by the sword. After three more attempts, Arno managed to breakthrough, but the shock wave trapped him under rubble. elise came to Arno's aid but noticed Germain attempting to escape. Despite Arno's protests, elise left him behind to pursue Germain but failed to kill the Grand Master elise's sword was broken during the fight, while the Sword of Eden's power was rendered unstable. Arno managed to free himself and rushed to help elise, but was too late as the Sword of Eden exploded, killing elise and mortally wounding Germain in the process. (189, 82, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Royal Castle, Warsaw (188, 81, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Palace on the Isle (123, 64, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Although Prussia had begun its mobilization almost a month before France, Napoleon had kept a high state of readiness after the Russian refusal to accept defeat after the War of the Third Coalition. Finish Battle of Austerlitz Battle of Jena-Auerstedt. (126, 65, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Louis Nicolas Davout's III Corps attack on you (127, 64, 1) ***Crusader*** Message: You found the enemy's eagle flag bearer in this battle (231, 50, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: 7,000 Men Killed or Deserted in 24 Hours. 7,000 Men Killed or Deserted in 24 Hours Ney decided to lead the soldiers across the frozen Dnieper at night to get rid of the Russian armyAt midnight, the crossing began. Although most of the stragglers managed to cross the river, the carts with the wounded were not as fortunate. The marshal tried to get several of the carriages loaded with these poor creatures across, but in the middle of the river the ice gave way and split open. “The men on the opposite bank listened to the long drawn-out agonized shrieks that dwindled to intermittent moans, then fell into silence. All had disappeared!” Segur recalled in his memoir. (83, 52, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95).The siege of Luxembourg was a siege by France of the Habsburg-held Fortress of Luxembourg that lasted from 1794 until 7 June 1795, during the French Revolutionary Wars Sign the treaty of Peace of Basel first Luxembourg's long defence led Lazare Carnot to call Luxembourg "the best [fortress] in the world, except Gibraltar", giving rise to the city's nickname 'the Gibraltar of the North'. (18, 235, 1) ***Sign*** Message: New Orleans--"The Crescent City" (16, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Louisiana Purchase Purchase territory.The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment. On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony,commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to France, and then from France to the United States. (152, 184, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Isle of Man (83, 72, 1) ***Event*** Message: Louis Charles Folliot de Crenneville join you (92, 58, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Regimentde Royal-Allemand cavalerie led by Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc left French troops and join you (154, 127, 1) ***Thunderbird*** Message: We capture russian General of Cavalry Nickolay Grigorievich Repnin-Volkonsky!Napoleon offer to set him free honestly. - But I swore - said the prisoner - and you are my Motherland's enemies so I must fight against you. (91, 219, 1) ***Event*** Message: Wilmington--The Port City (239, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Teide(3,715 m),Tenerife Island (208, 184, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Convento de San Marcos,León (103, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santa María del Puerto del Príncipe (209, 192, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Braganca (186, 238, 1) ***Sign*** Message: La Plata (99, 175, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fredericton (90, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Charlotte (Nassau, The Bahamas) (93, 200, 1) ***Rampart*** Name: Philadelphia Timed events: Name: Ai主城满建 Message: Give buildings Name: e18120618-玩家增兵 Message: State defense forces at your call Name: eAmerican Irish Association Message: Irish Soldiers from American Irish Association are willing to be under your command to serve the Continental Army Name: eConstitutional_Convention_ Message: The Constitutional Convention (contemporarily known as the Federal Convention,the Philadelphia Convention,or the Grand Convention at Philadelphia)took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia. Although the convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the Articles of Confederation,the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington of Virginia, former commanding general of the Continental Army in the late American Revolutionary War (1775 -1783) and proponent of a stronger national government, to become President of the convention. The result of the convention was the creation of the Constitution of the United States, placing the Convention among the m ost significant events in American history. Name: eCollege_of_Physicians_of_Philadelphia Message: Founded by 24 Philadelphia physicians "to advance the Science of Medicine, The College of Physicians of Philadelphia is the oldest private medical society in the United States ,and thereby lessen human misery, by investigating the diseases and remedies which are peculiar to our country" and to promote "order and uniformity in the practice of Physick," it has made important contributions to medical education and research. The College hosts the Mütter Museum, a gallery of 19th-century specimens, teaching models, instruments, and photographs, as well as the Historical Medical Library, which is one of the country's oldest medical libraries. Name: ePhiladelphia_Stock_Exchange Message: Philadelphia Stock Exchange was founded Name: eMint building Message: In1792,Philadelphia Mint building constructed The Coinage Act of 1792 was entered into law on April 2. It proclaimed the creation of the United States Mint. Philadelphia at that time was the nation's capital; therefore the first mint facility was built there. The Coinage Act of 1792 also instituted a decimal system based on a dollar unit; specified weights, metallic composition and fineness; and required each United States coin feature "an impression emblematic of liberty". Name: e1793_Philadelphia_yellow_fever_epidemic Message: During the 1793 yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 5,000 or more people were listed in the official register of deaths between August 1 and November 9. The vast majority of them died of yellow fever, making the epidemic in the city of 50,000 people one of the most severe in United States history. By the end of September, 20,000 people had fled the city, including congressional and executive officials of the federal government. Name: elv3 Message: The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (PAFA) is a museum and private art school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.It was founded in 1805 and is the first and oldest art museum and art school in the United States. Name: elv4 Message: The Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, formerly the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, is the oldest natural science research institution and museum in the Americas. It was founded in 1812, by many of the leading naturalists of the young American republic with an expressed mission of "the encouragement and cultivation of the sciences". Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 200 美国ai增兵事件同乘以1.5倍 80’40' 30’25 15'5 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 300 140'50 40’30 20'10 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 800 370’140 100'85 55’30 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1000 430’170 120'115 85’45 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2500 930’420 370'315 235’145 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3000 1080’520 420'365 285’195 135 Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: “Don’t fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here.” Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: “In the name of the great Jehova and the Continental Congress!” Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: "I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country." Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: “Where liberty dwells, there is my country.” Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: “Duty, Glory, Country!" Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: “However weak our country may be, I hope we shall never sacrifice our liberties.” (230, 237, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Buenos Aires Timed events: Name: e18160709 Message: On July 9, 1816, The Congress of Tucumán-- the representative assembly, initially meeting in San Miguel de Tucumán, declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America (modern-day Argentina, Uruguay, part of Bolivia) from the Spanish Empire. Name: eUniversity_of_Buenos_Aires Message: In 1821,University of Buenos Aires was founded.Buenos Aires is a multicultural city that is home to multiple ethnic and religious groups, contributing to its culture as well as to the dialect spoken in the city and in some other parts of the country. Thus, Buenos Aires is considered one of the most diverse cities of the Americas Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 180 80’35' 25’20 10'5 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 280 140'45 35’25 15'10 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 780 370’135 95'80 50’30 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 980 430’165 115'110 80’45 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2480 930’420 365'310 230’140 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 2980 1080’520 415'360 280’190 135 Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: The American Revolution was a beginning, not a consummation. Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: He who serves a revolution ploughs a sea. Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: The remarkable protection granted to the Army of the Andes by its Patron and General, Our Lady of Cuyo, cannot fail to be observed. Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: The soldiers of our land know no luxury, but glory. Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: “We are attacked a great deal because of what we are. But we are attacked much, much more because we show to each nation of the Americas what it's possible to be.” Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: The old confidants have gone forever,and conspiracy and communication have turned into hostility and silence Name: AI主城满建 Message: (181, 201, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Grain transport fleet reached safely (181, 203, 1) ***Archangel*** Message: Captain of Barfleur Collingwood at your service (183, 203, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French Atlantic Fleet commanded by Rear-Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse (184, 203, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Glorious First of June Withdraw the Royal Navy safely from Toulon Prevent the passage of a vital French grain convoy from the United States (178, 206, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Successfully intercepted the French grain convoy (179, 206, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Searching for the whereabouts of the French grain convoy at sea Win Glorious First of June After defeating the French Atlantic Fleet, we spotted the French grain convoy in the west of the sea (149, 199, 1) ***Pikeman*** Message: French expeditionary force commanded by General Lazare Hoche (151, 201, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: French expedition to Ireland (1796) Win Glorious First of June first The French fleet was subject to confused orders as it left port and was scattered across the approaches to Brest: one ship was wrecked with heavy loss of life and the others widely dispersed. Separated, most of the French fleet managed to reach Bantry Bay late in December, but its commanders were driven miles off course and without them the fleet was unsure of what action to take, with amphibious landings impossible due to the weather conditions, which were the worst recorded since 1708. Within a week the fleet had broken up, small squadrons and individual ships making their way back to Brest through storms, fog and British patrols. (227, 220, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cape St. Vincent (227, 221, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: A larger Spanish fleet under Admiral Don Jose de Córdoba y Ramos carrying mainly mercury—necessary for gold and silver production (148, 192, 1) ***Event*** Message: Whiteboys--a secret Irish agrarian organisation in 18th-century Ireland who used violent tactics to defend tenant farmer land rights for subsistence farming attack on you.Their name derives from the white smocks that members wore in their nightly raids. (151, 194, 1) ***Event*** Message: Whiteboys--a secret Irish agrarian organisation in 18th-century Ireland who used violent tactics to defend tenant farmer land rights for subsistence farming attack on you.Their name derives from the white smocks that members wore in their nightly raids. (149, 185, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Belfast (145, 188, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On 22 August, nearly two months after the main uprisings had been defeated, about 1,000 French soldiers under General Humbert landed in the north-west of the country, at Kilcummin in County Mayo. Defeat main uprisings at Dublin The French were joined by up to 5,000 local rebels from the Whiteboys (144, 188, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: United Irish-French force commanded by General Humbert (148, 189, 1) ***Event*** Message: Whiteboys--a secret Irish agrarian organisation in 18th-century Ireland who used violent tactics to defend tenant farmer land rights for subsistence farming attack on you.Their name derives from the white smocks that members wore in their nightly raids. (148, 187, 1) ***Event*** Message: Some Peep o' Day Boys,whose rivals being the Catholic Defenders is now willing to be under British government (113, 168, 1) ***Mage*** Message: Am I appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the South Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour?--Sir Joseph Banks asked. (114, 169, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Joseph Banks went aboard the frigate HMS Niger to Newfoundland and Labrador with a view to studying their natural history. Banks was elected to the Royal Society "I noted a large number of "penguins" swimming around the ship on the Grand Banks, and a specimen he collected in Chateau Bay, Labrador, was later identified as the great auk."--Joseph Banks (144, 177, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The survey of Scotland--the compilation of a map of the Scottish Highlands Throughout the Survey of Scotland, Roy was appointed as a practitioner-engineer The map remained "in an unfinished state ... and is to be considered as a magnificent military sketch rather than a very accurate map of a country ... (240, 214, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The two British lines sailed through the French and Spanish line, splitting it, and was able to cause great damage to its ships using their cannons (241, 214, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Trafalgar(France part) Win battle of Ulm first As part of Napoleon's plans to invade England, the French and Spanish fleets combined to take control of the English Channel and provide the Grande Armee safe passage. The allied fleet, under the command of French Admiral Villeneuve, sailed from the port of Cádiz in the south of Spain on 18 October 1805. (237, 218, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Miguel de La Palma (239, 214, 1) ***Dread Knight*** Message: Nelson's own HMS Victory led the front column,Victory locked masts with the French Redoutable, whose crew, including a strong infantry corps (with three captains and four lieutenants), gathered for an attempt to board and seize Victory. A musket bullet fired from the mizzentop of Redoutable struck Nelson in the left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches below his right scapula in the muscles of his back. Nelson exclaimed, "They finally succeeded, I am dead." (240, 212, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The battle progressed largely according to Nelson's plan Nelson's solution to the problem was to cut the opposing line in three. Approaching in two columns, sailing perpendicular to the enemy's line, one towards the centre of the opposing line and one towards the trailing end, his ships would surround the middle third, and force them to fight to the end.Nelson hoped specifically to cut the line just in front of the French flagship, Bucentaure; the isolated ships in front of the break would not be able to see the flagship's signals, which he hoped would take them out of combat while they re-formed. At 11:45, Nelson sent the flag signal, "England expects that every man will do his duty" (241, 212, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Trafalgar(Britain part) After the signing of the Treaty of Amiens, Britain and France continued to be hostile in areas such as Italy, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, etc. The treaty was not well observed. At last Treaty of Amiens is over.Britain declared war on France on 18 May, thus starting the Napoleonic Wars, which would rage in Europe for the following 12 years. (123, 230, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Fortaleza Ozama,Santo Domingo Sign the treaty of Peace of Basel first Entry into force of the treaty,France receives Santo Domingo from Spain the western portion of the island of Hispaniola (55, 75, 1) ***Sign*** Message: New Bridge (55, 74, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Upper-class British visitors flocked to Paris in the second half of 1802.The curious and the fans of the revolution flocked across the channel to ogle the new treasures in the Louvre and to glimpse the great man himself. Sign The Treaty of Amiens In booths and temporary arcades in the courtyard of the Louvre, the third French exposition des produits francais took place on 18-24 September. (59, 82, 1) ***Crusader*** Message: Old Guard at your commmand!And Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Imperiale led by Jean-BaptisteBessières are at your command! (56, 82, 1) ***Pit Lord*** Message: Arno succeeded in assassinating Le Roi des Thunes, and learned of his grudge against de la Serre from his memories. He also learned that both Le Roi des Thunes and Sivert were instructed by a hooded figure to kill Fran?ois (163, 178, 1) ***Event*** Message: River Thames (124, 233, 1) ***Archer*** Message: Captured hundreds of French sailors (125, 233, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French ships of the line commanded by Vice-Admiral Corentin-Urbain Leissègues (126, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of San Domingo Just four months after the success at Trafalgar, Mere rumours of Leissègues' presence had stifled trade and caused panic among the merchant houses of the West Indies, particularly in the Caribbean. The battle of San Domingo was the last fleet engagement of the war between French and British capital ships in open water. (145, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: St. George's,Grenada (144, 225, 1) ***Devil*** Message: We capture Julien Fedon's deputy, Philip.But Julien Fedon, the leader, was never captured, and his whereabouts after the revolt are unknown. Some historians believe he tried to flee the island by canoe, which may have sunk in poor weather.Other voices think that he was transformed from "revolutionary soldiers into legendary outlaws" and may have gone to Cuba (145, 225, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (147, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (146, 226, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Fedon's rebellion Fedon's rebellion(also known as the Brigands' War,or Fedon's Revolution).The Slaves Predominantly led by free mixed-race French-speakers the majority being on the side of Fedon and his forces (115, 234, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Years of war, terror, massacre ，Malaria and yellow fever have turned this place into an inferno.Saint-Domingue, no more the "Pearl of the Antilles"...Many residents have become zombies and demons. It is time to end this violent revolution. But before true freedom and republic come, the violence will never stop, those already crazy slaves and Creoles are attacking you (117, 233, 1) ***Event*** Message: "the power of France in these pestilent islands ... only to discover when it was too late, that they practically destroyed the British army" (116, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The British "great push" to conquer Saint-Domingue Suppress Fedon's rebellion first Within two months of arriving in Saint-Domingue, the British had lost 40 officers and 600 men to yellow fever. (116, 233, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon wished to restore French authority of Saint-Domingue, and so organized an expedition. He put General Leclerc at its head, appointing him Governor-General of the island.Leclerc, Dermide, and Pauline embarked for the colony from Brest on 14 December 1801 (114, 234, 1) ***Event*** Message: On 20 September 1793, about 600 British soldiers from Jamaica landed at Jeremie to be greeted with shouts of "Vivent les Anglais!" from the French population.The British and Spanish supplied the rebels with food, ammunition, arms, medicine, naval support, and military advisors. (77, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Montreal--Concordia Salus (80, 180, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Saint-Jean,Richelieu River (99, 195, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: Battle of Long Island.George Washington relocated the Continental Army to defend the port city of New York, located at the southern end of Manhattan Island. Washington understood that the city's harbor would provide an excellent base for the Royal Navy, so he established defenses there and waited for the British to attack. (100, 194, 1) ***Event*** Message: Chapter 1:American Revolutionary War (98, 192, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of White Plains.Following the retreat of George Washington's Continental Army northward from New York City, British General William Howe landed troops in Westchester County, intending to cut off Washington's escape route. (94, 201, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The First Continental Congress 1.We need send a letter to King George III explaining the issues the colonies had with the way we were being treated. We demanded that the King stop the Intolerable Acts or We would boycott English goods. 2. We make a plan to meet again in May of 1775 if the British do not meet our demands. Where is the delegate of Province of Massachusetts Bay John Adams?--President of the Continental Congress,Peyton Randolph (93, 197, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Germantown (86, 195, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Wyoming.Iroquois and Butler's Rangers join you (87, 195, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Wyoming. (67, 222, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Augusta is used by Native Americans as a place to cross the Savannah River. You need to find some Indian guides to guide you across the river You have found some Indian warriors willing to lead the way! (75, 227, 1) ***Event*** Message: Savannah--"The Hostess City of the South" (77, 226, 1) ***Pikeman*** Message: Siege of Charleston (70, 216, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Wateree River (73, 219, 1) ***Champion*** Message: You captured injured Franconian-French military officer Johann de Kalb (74, 219, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The numerically superior U.S. forces led by Major General Horatio Gates (80, 213, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Guilford Court House (79, 213, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Guilford Court House (250, 214, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tangil--The blue and white city (245, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: "Agadir,a ghost town"-- a European traveler gave a brief description in 1789 (246, 217, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mogador (248, 216, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Seven Saints of Marrakesh,Morocco-"Red City" (251, 216, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fortifications of Fez (251, 217, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Ahmad al-Tijani (peace and blessing be upon him) (245, 221, 1) ***Sign*** Message: St.Louis--merchant community characterized by bourgeois women entrepreneurs (243, 223, 1) ***Event*** Message: Dakar (246, 225, 1) ***Event*** Message: Grain Coast (248, 225, 1) ***Event*** Message: Ivory Coast (249, 225, 1) ***Event*** Message: Gold Coast (249, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fernando Pó (248, 228, 1) ***Event*** Message: Sao Tome and Príncipe (248, 236, 1) ***Event*** Message: Benguela (250, 243, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: See that treaty tree? It will witness the Anglo-Dutch Peace Treaty, Cape Town, the Castle, and circumjacent fortifications were surrendered to Great Britain; the garrison became prisoners of war, but officers who were colonists or married to colonists could remain at liberty as long as they behaved themselves; officers who were to be repatriated to Europe would be paid up to the date of embarkation and would be transported at British expense..... (248, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Blaauwberg.Because the sea route around the Cape was important to the British, they decided to seize the colony in order to prevent it—and the sea route—from also coming under French control The battle was an incident in Europe's Napoleonic Wars,following Battle of Trafalgar The colony was governed by Lieutenant General Jan Willem Janssens, who was also commander-in-chief of its military forces. The forces were small and of poor quality, and included foreign units hired by the Batavian government. They were backed up by local militia units. (247, 239, 1) ***Event*** Message: Walfisch.B (168, 196, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lizard Point, Cornwall-- a notorious shipping hazard. (89, 232, 1) ***Event*** Message: Major Deveaux and seventy Loyalist followers join you after the Capture of the Bahamas (1783) (159, 183, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Birmingham Riots of 1791 King George III commented, "I cannot but feel better pleased that Priestley is the sufferer for the doctrines he and his party have instilled, and that the people see them in their true light." The national government forced the local residents to pay restitution to those whose property had been damaged: the total eventually amounted to ￡23,000. Famous Dissenter Joseph Priestly's house is sacked in Birmingham by a "Church and King" mob，then these thugs secretly joined the Pitt government (162, 177, 1) ***Monk*** Message: "Wanna go walking tours at holiday? Pass the exam first!"St John's College of Cambridge said to Wordsworth (150, 181, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Wordsworth returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape Wordsworth always returned to his home of Cumbria and to nature during his summer vacations of 1788 and 1789 (150, 182, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: In 1790 Wordsworth decided to go on a walking tour of Europe, during which he would toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy (145, 220, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of the Saintes(1782).The French suffered heavy casualties at the Saintes and many were taken prisoner (101, 242, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cayman Islands (104, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Wreck of the Ten Sail--a historic shipwreck event that occurred off the East End of Grand Cayman on 8 February 1794. Residents of the Cayman Islands enjoy a tax-free existence; local legend has it that the reason for the absence of taxation is related directly to the Wreck of the Ten Sail. According to the legend, a member of the passenger list for the 10 vessels included a royal prince, one of the sons of Britain’s King George III. Today, a park exists as a remembrance of the night of the shipwreck and the heroism of the residents who came to rescue those on-board all the ships. (228, 221, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797) Defeat French expedition to Ireland (1796) first After the signing of the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1796 allying Spanish and French forces against Great Britain, the British navy blockaded Spain in 1797, impairing communications with its Spanish Empire (226, 221, 1) ***Wyvern*** Message: Both Spanish vessels were successfully captured. This manoeuvre was so unusual and so widely admired in the Royal Navy that using one enemy ship to cross to another became known facetiously as "Nelson's patent bridge for boarding enemy vessels."A group of commanders on the enemy flagship surrendered to you (199, 200, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: On Santa Brigida were trade cocoa, sugar, indigo and cochineal worth in total about ￡5,000 as well as 446 boxes containing 3,000 dollars each, 59 bags and three kegs of dollars and numerous loose coins, for a total value of at least 1,338,000 silver dollars or ￡301,350. (199, 201, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Aboard Thetis was found a quantity of trade cocoa and a series of boxes containing coin, including 333 boxes of 3,000 dollars each, four boxes of 2,385 dollars each, 94 boxes containing 4,000 dollars each and two golden doubloons and 90 golden half-doubloons. This totalled 1,385,292 silver dollars, with a sterling value of ￡311,690. (199, 202, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Action of 16 October 1799 "The coincidental appearance of four frigates in the vast Atlantic testifies to the enormous resources the British put into the prosecution of the war. That the four frigate captains proceeded to act in such perfect concert is further evidence, if it were needed, of the shared standards of mutual help and assistance". The Spanish ships were a treasure convoy, carrying silver specie and luxury trade goods across the Atlantic Ocean from the colonies of New Spain to Spain. (200, 203, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Action of 16 October 1799 Win Battle of Cape St Vincent (1797) first Action of 16 October 1799 (160, 172, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Great Yarmouth--main supply base for the North Sea Fleet (162, 171, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Yarmouth Roads (159, 172, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Inspired by his witnessing the ship HMS Snipe (1801) run aground off Great Yarmouth in 1807,Captain George William Manby invented the Manby mortar --a maritime lifesaving device originated at the start of the 19th-Century, comprising a mortar capable of throwing a line to a foundering ship within reach of shore, such that heavier hawsers could then be pulled into place and used either to direct a rescue-boat to the ship, or, later, to mount a Breeches buoy. (167, 180, 1) ***Rogue*** Message: Some thugs in the City of London took the opportunity to instigate the political rally (166, 180, 1) ***Zombie*** Message: Sometimes the king fantasizes about being attacked by ghosts in his head (168, 176, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: On October 29, 1795, the King's coach is mobbed in London,King George pelted with stones by an angry mob as bread riots continue. (164, 173, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Gillingham (164, 175, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1802, after the Treaty of Amiens, Marie Tussaud first exhibits her wax sculptures in {Freemason}s' Hall ，London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror in France to make death masks of the victims. MadamTussaude founded a wax museum near the Grand Temple，{Freemason}s' Hall(the Grand Temple is where Many non-Masonic organisations also use for numerous events as diverse as Fashion shows and Polytechnic award ceremonies,meeting place for Grand Lodge, Grand Chapter and a majority of the lodges in the Metropolitan Grand Lodge of London, as well as the annual meetings of a number of the Home Counties Provincial Grand Lodges, and for other Masonic degrees and orders to hold their annual meetings). (81, 174, 1) ***Event*** Message: British Army of regular units and fencibles, Canadians Loyalists and British Indian allies open fire on you (66, 138, 1) ***Sign*** Message: L'Union，the most important Genevan masonic lodge in the 19th century (83, 175, 1) ***Pikeman*** Message: Battle of Quebec (1775).American forces numbered 1,200, commanded by Major General Richard Montgomery (147, 182, 1) ***Genie*** Message: "We want us to be recognized as the oldest lodge in Scotland"--stonemasons of Lodge Mother Kilwinning (148, 181, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lodge Mother Kilwinning (149, 175, 1) ***Event*** Message: Edinburgh--"Athens of the North" (152, 175, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Newcastle upon Tyne--a major coal mining area (150, 174, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Grand Lodge of Scotland, together with the United Grand Lodge of England and the Grand Lodge of Ireland, is one of the three senior Regular Masonic jurisdictions, commonly known as the Home Grand Lodges. It was founded in 1736,has 32 Provincial Grand Lodges in Scotland itself, and 26 District Grand Lodges overseas The usual and more complex masonic titles are used in Scotland, but attach to the office, not the individual, the scope for elaboration is considerable, with numerous interesting additions. Since Scottish Lodges have the right to choose the colours of the Lodge regalia, meetings are very colourful, especially if visitors from other Lodges are present. Grand Master of {{Freemason}ry} in Scotland promise to unite with you.You got one part of the Home Grand Lodges (149, 176, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Masonic Lodge The Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel), No.1,Edinburgh, Scotland Reject the petition of Lodge Mother Kilwinning for the lodge's original records had been lost and the claim as the oldest lodge in Scotland could not be proven. Grand Lodge of Scotland of Edinburgh is holding a colourful meeting,it is a chance to become a candidate for {{Freemason}ry} (147, 174, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of The Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland Degrees of Fellowcraft of The Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (148, 174, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of The Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland Degrees of Entered Apprentice of The Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (145, 180, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A Masonic Lodge was named after Watt in his home town of Glasgow - Lodge James Watt, No.1215. A Masonic Lodge was named after Watt in his home town of Glasgow - Lodge James Watt, No.1215. James Watt was Initiated into Scottish {{Freemason}ry} in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No.77, in 1763. The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810 (153, 188, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: United Irishmen Rebellion(France parts) Defeat French expedition to Ireland (1796) first By 1797 reports began to reach Britain that a secret revolutionary army was being prepared in Ireland by Tone's associates (151, 189, 1) ***Green Dragon*** Message: You captured United Irishman Sir Edward Crosbie, 5th Baronet (164, 179, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The story of Mary Jones and her Bible inspired the founding of the British and Foreign Bible Society--often known in England and Wales as simply the Bible Society, is a non-denominational Christian Bible society with charity status whose purpose is to make the Bible available throughout the world. The Society was formed on 7 March 1804 by a group of people including William Wilberforce and Thomas Charles to encourage the "wider circulation and use" of the Scriptures The British and Foreign Bible Society is working to circulate the Scriptures,The Bible,the holy cross and orther holy items across the world, in the church and through the culture. (167, 176, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sign The Treaty of Amiens Britain had almost drifted into peace by accident.This dichotomy is explained by the other cornerstone of English foreign policy; namely the Balance of Power. Cynically we might say that Britain stood for imbalance of power outside Europe where she remained ascendant, but Balance of Power on the Continent where she was just another player. There is no need to strictly abide by this hypocritical peace treaty. Now the Royal Navy is ordered to establish superiority in the wider continents, seas and theaters. (165, 175, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Pitt returned to the premiership on 10 May 1804. He had originally planned to form a broad coalition government, but faced the opposition of George III to the inclusion of Fox. Moreover, many of Pitt's former supporters, including the allies of Addington, joined the Opposition. Thus, Pitt's second ministry was considerably weaker than his first The British government began placing pressure on the French Emperor, Napoleon I. Thanks to Pitt's efforts, Britain joined the Third Coalition, an alliance that included Austria, Russia, and Sweden. In October 1805, the British Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, won a crushing victory in the Battle of Trafalgar, ensuring British naval supremacy for the remainder of the war. At the annual Lord Mayor's Banquet toasting him as "the Saviour of Europe", Pitt responded in a few words that became the most famous speech of his life: I return you many thanks for the honour you have done me; but Europe is not to be saved by any single man. England has saved herself by her exertions, and will, as I trust, save Europe by her example (164, 176, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Geological Society of London--known commonly as the Geological Society,is a learned society based in the United Kingdom. It is the oldest national geological society in the world and the largest in Europe.The mission of the society is: "Making geologists acquainted with each other, stimulating their zeal, inducing them to adopt one nomenclature, facilitating the communication of new facts and ascertaining what is known in their science and what remains to be discovered" Fellows are entitled to the postnominal FGS (Fellow of the Geological Society), over 2,000 of whom are Chartered Geologists (CGeol),and the 13 founder members: William Babington, James Parkinson, Humphry Davy, George Bellas Greenough, Arthur Aikin, William Allen, Jacques Louis, Comte de Bournon, Richard Knight, James Laird, James Franck, William Haseldine Pepys, Richard Phillips, and William Phillips The Geological Society was founded on 13 November 1807 at the {Freemason}s' Tavern, Great Queen Street, in the Covent Garden district of London (164, 177, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Holy Royal Arch degree of {{Freemason}ry} of The United Grand Lodge of England--Goose and Gridiron, where the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster, later called the Grand Lodge of England, was founded Pure ancient Masonry" can be seen as a journey of self-knowledge and discovery with the Royal Arch completing the practical lessons of the Craft by a contemplation of man's spiritual nature." You win your Degrees of Supreme Grand Chapter of Royal Arch Masons of England,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Royal Arch Mason Master"! (149, 172, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Wernerian Natural History Society--commonly abbreviated as the Wernerian Society, was an offshoot of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and from its beginnings it was a rather elite organization. The Wernerian Natural History Society was a learned society interested in the broad field of natural history, and saw papers presented on various topics such as mineralogy, plants, insects, and scholarly expeditions. The Society was founded on 12 January 1808, and the first meeting of the Society occurred on 2 March 1808， named after Abraham Gottlob Werner, a German geologist who was a creator of Neptunism, a theory of superposition based on a receding primordial ocean that had deposited all the rocks in the crust，proposing that rocks formed from the crystallisation of minerals in the early Earth's oceans. The theory took its name from Neptune, the ancient Roman god of the sea. (36, 233, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pensacola--"The City of Five Flags" (218, 250, 1) ***Event*** Message: I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. ----A huts on Robinson Crusoe Island writes,somehow like a Promised Land (239, 211, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cadiz--the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet (241, 217, 1) ***Event*** Message: Gran Canaria--"land of the brave" (85, 119, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peace of Basel Win Battle of Bascara (1795) These representatives will jointly sign the Peace of Basel (192, 190, 1) ***Wight*** Message: The assault had to be abandoned due to an outbreak of yellow fever among British troops (192, 191, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Under the superintendence of Sir Edward Pellew, the British effected a landing at a small opening near Cape Prior. (82, 119, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peace of Basel Call Rear-Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse back after Glorious First of June Villaret will take command of the naval component of the Saint-Domingue expedition (82, 120, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Fleurus Win Battle of Fleurus These representatives will jointly sign the Peace of Basel (82, 121, 1) ***Mage*** Message: In the second treaty of Peace of Basel,on 22 July, Spain ceded the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola to France in exchange for keeping Gipuzkoa (85, 120, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: In the second treaty of Peace of Basel,on 22 July, Spain ceded the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola to France in exchange for keeping Gipuzkoa (219, 183, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "I am pursuing the English,sword to their kidneys."Napoleon,2rd January 1809 (218, 183, 1) ***Sharpshooter*** Message: Britain's rearguard --etile 95th Rifles attack in you (218, 185, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Royal School of Artillery，Segovia (219, 182, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "En avant, Vive l'Empereur!" (Forward, long live the Emperor!")--Polish lancers led by Jan Kozietulski (220, 183, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Guadarrama Pass (222, 184, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Godoy quickly became a favourite of Charles IV and of his wife, Queen Maria Luisa. On 30 December 1788, he was given the office of "Cadete supernumerario" in the royal palace and in May 1789, he was promoted to the rank of colonel. In November 1789, he was named a knight of the Order of Santiago and in August 1790, he advanced to the rank of commander in the same order. In 1791, he was Adjutant-General (Ajudante-General) of the Bodyguard, in February he was named Field-Marshal (Mariscal de Campo), in March Gentleman of the Chamber (Gentilhombre de la Cámara), and in July Lieutenant-General (Teniente-General) and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III in 1791. Godoy's frequent promotions were signs of his increasing influence over the King and Queen Godoy continued Spain's neutral policy towards the French Republic.Sign the treaty of Peace of Basel to win the title of "Prince of the Peace" for Godoy Although Godoy was widely criticized for the treaty, he received after its conclusion the title of "Prince of the Peace" (Príncipe de la Paz) and the grandeeship of Spain (215, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On 19 November 1807, Junot set out for Lisbon Enter Salamanca in western Spain after , take notes about all fortresses and strategic points on line of march Though the we occupied Lisbon without firing a shot, their quarry had escaped (222, 182, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Godoy, Queen Maria Luisa of Parma wants to eat oranges from Olivenza. To fulfill her wish. Godoy, Queen Maria Luisa of Parma wants to eat oranges from Olivenza. To fulfill her wish. Godoy picked oranges from the outside of Elvas and sent them to the Queen of Spain.Queen is very glad,and decide to give the title of Most Serene Highness to Godoy and make him The Prince of the Peace (168, 178, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Theatre Royal was in need of updating by the end of the 18th century and was demolished in 1791 For building a new,Theatre ,New technology would facilitated the expansion: iron columns replaced bulky wood, supporting five tiers of galleries. 12 March,1794, rebuilt Theatre Royal, Drury Lane opens in London.Except for churches, it was the tallest building in London.The stage was large, too: 83 feet (25 m) wide and 92 feet (28 m) deep. Holland, the architect, said it was "on a larger scale than any other theatre in Europe." (239, 210, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Lautaro Lodge,Cadiz. It was initially known as the Lodge of Rational Knights (Spanish: Logia de los Caballeros Racionales). Its initial purposes were to apply the goals of the Spanish Enlightenment, and when Spain began the Absolutist Restauration they promoted instead the emancipation of the South American colonies.Cádiz was by then a very active city, with discussions about Jovellanos, Flórez Estrada, the French and British democratic advances, popular intervention in politics, the role of the Juntas and the military leaders.They initiated planned revolutionary steps within this lodge, while the war against the French occupation continued. San Martín became involved into the democratic revolution that moves across Europe, entered The Lautaro Lodge San Martín entered The Lautaro Lodge and joined the {{Freemason}ry} (226, 184, 1) ***Nomad*** Message: the Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon fought residents of Madrid in the Puerta del Sol, wearing turbans and using curved scimitars (224, 182, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Joseph will be the King of Spain"--Napoleon As was typical in war of this era,most died from disease,but more died fighting guerrillas than in battle against British and Spanish armies (224, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Guadalajara (227, 185, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Aranjuez (227, 183, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Second of May 1808 The Second of May 1808, by Goya, also known as The Charge of the Mamelukes , is a painting by the Spanish painter Francisco Goya. It is a companion to the painting The Third of May 1808 and is set in the Calle de Alcalá near Puerta del Sol, Madrid, during the Dos de Mayo Uprising. It depicts one of the many people's rebellions against the French occupation of Spain that sparked the Peninsular War. The Second of May 1808 depicts the beginning of the uprising when the Mamelukes of the French Imperial Guard are ordered to charge and subdue the rioting citizens. The crowd sees the Mamelukes as Moors, provoking an angry response. Instead of dispersing, the crowd turned on the charging Mamelukes, resulting in a ferocious melee. (226, 183, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Third of May 1808 The Third of May 1808 is set in the early hours of the morning following the uprising and centers on two masses of men: one a rigidly poised firing squad, the other a disorganized group of captives held at gunpoint. Executioners and victims face each other abruptly across a narrow space; according to Kenneth Clark, "by a stroke of genius [Goya] has contrasted the fierce repetition of the soldiers' attitudes and the steely line of their rifles, with the crumbling irregularity of their target." A square lantern situated on the ground between the two groups throws a dramatic light on the scene. The brightest illumination falls on the huddled victims to the left, whose numbers include a monk or friar in prayer.To the immediate right and at the center of the canvas, other condemned figures stand next in line to be shot. The central figure is the brilliantly lit man kneeling amid the bloodied corpses of those already executed, his arms flung wide in either appeal or defiance. His yellow and white clothing repeats the colors of the lantern. His plain white shirt and sun-burnt face show he is a simple laborer. The painting's content, presentation, and emotional force secure its status as a groundbreaking, archetypal image of the horrors of war. Although it draws on many sources from both high and popular art, The Third of May 1808 marks a clear break from convention. Diverging from the traditions of Christian art and traditional depictions of war, it has no distinct precedent, and is acknowledged as one of the first paintings of the modern era. According to the art historian Kenneth Clark, The Third of May 1808 is "the first great picture which can be called revolutionary in every sense of the word, in style, in subject, and in intention" (222, 211, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Roman Temple of evora (221, 210, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Louis Henri Loison commanded a force that included the 4th and 5th Provisional Dragoons (1,248), two battalions of converged grenadiers (1,100), 12 companies from the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 86th Line (1,667), 1st Battalion of the Hanoverian Legion (804), and the 3rd Battalions of the 12th Light (1,253), 15th Light (1,305), and 58th Line (1,428). Though the numbers add up to 8,805 (222, 210, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of evora (1808) the Spanish Dos de Mayo Uprising against the French in May 1808 was quickly followed by a Portuguese revolt. French force under Louis Henri Loison is heading towards here (213, 215, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Vimeiro Sir Arthur Wellesley’s victory over the French army of Marshal Junot in Portugal on 21st August 1808, his first major victory in the Peninsular War, which nearly ruined his military career. The French Army comprised 1 cavalry division of 2,000 men, 5 infantry brigades of 12,000 men and 23 guns. (236, 192, 1) ***Champion*** Message: Dupont had agreed to surrender.Handing his sword to Casta?os, Dupont exclaimed, "You may well, General, be proud of this day; it is remarkable because I have never lost a pitched battle until now—I who have been in more than twenty." The Spaniard's biting reply: "It is the more remarkable because I was never in one before in my life." (144, 249, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: San Martín arrived in Guayaquil on July 25, where he was enthusiastically greeted by Bolívar. San Martín, after meeting with Bolívar for several hours on July 26, stayed for a banquet and ball given in his honor. After the conference, San Martín abdicated his powers in Peru and returned to Argentina. Soon afterward, he left South America entirely and retired in France. (230, 249, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Plaza de la Independencia,Concepción (248, 156, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Committee of 300 The Committee of 300, also known as The Olympians, is a conspiracy theory that claims a powerful group was founded by the British aristocracy in 1727 and rules the world.Proponents of the theory alleging the Committee's existence believe it to be an international council that organizes politics, commerce, banking, media, and the military for centralized global efforts. Arthur Cherep-Spiridovich wrote that the group may also be known as the "Hidden Hand",Three hundred men, all of whom know one another, guide the economic destinies of the Continent and seek their successors from their own milieu. The Committee has countless front organizations all over the world, and is said to secretly control the world from the shadows. Their power spreads not only to the politics of all major world powers, but also religion, the economy, science, and military and intelligence agencies, among other things. (245, 158, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After the storming of the Bastille in 1789, Louis Joseph de Bourbon fled France with his son and grandson After the storming of the Bastille in 1789, Louis Joseph de Bourbon fled France with his son and grandson Go find Ney,fulfill your last destiny to The Revolutionary France (242, 173, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Júcar river (193, 192, 1) ***Event*** Message: Soult stormed the Spanish naval base at Ferrol on 26 January 1809, capturing eight ships of the line, three frigates, several thousand prisoners and 20,000 Brown Bess muskets, which were used to re-equip the French infantry (203, 200, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Braga (1809) an Imperial French corps led by Marshal Nicolas Soult attack a Portuguese army commanded by Baron Christian Adolph Friedrich von Eben. (226, 189, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Toledo (207, 203, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of the Douro This battle, also known as the Second Battle of Oporto, saw Sir Arthur Wellesley’s (later the Duke of Wellington) successful passage of the River Douro at Oporto in Portugal, on 12th May 1809 during the Peninsular War, forcing Marshal Soult’s French army into headlong and disastrous retreat to Spain (214, 206, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Busaco Wellington’s highly successful holding battle fought on 27th September 1810 in Western Portugal against Marshal Massena’s invading French army, as the British and Portuguese withdrew to Lisbon and the Lines of Torres Vedras, during the Peninsular War (215, 214, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lines of Torres Vedras (210, 185, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Sahagun.The dawn attack in the snow by the British 15th Hussars, on 21st December 1808, routing a French cavalry brigade and setting the standard for British cavalry in the Peninsular War; 'Success to the Fifteenth; and 'God Save the King’ (102, 241, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Caymanians living on the East End and in Bodden Town came to the aid of the 10 ships and rescued the crews and passengers.While none of the guns were salvaged, the mail carried on Convert was saved, along with a large proportion of the cargo from all the wrecked ships. Among the cargo salvaged from the merchant ships were loads of rum, cotton, and wood. (227, 190, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: After this battle Wellesley was created Viscount Wellington of Talavera. (226, 190, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Talavera The British-Spanish victory south of Madrid on 28th July 1809 over Joseph Bonaparte, the King imposed on Spain by Napoleon, and his French army in the Peninsular War (230, 188, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Ocana French forces under Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult, Duke of Dalmatia The strategic consequences were also devastating, as it destroyed the only force capable of defending southern Spain; the area was overrun over the winter in the Andalusia campaign (229, 201, 1) ***Crusader*** Message: French force under General Jean-Baptiste Girard (230, 201, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: For his conduct of the Battle of Arroyo Molinos, General Hill became Sir Rowland Hill with a Knighthood of the Bath. Pleasure at this honour was expressed by all those who knew the general. An officer of the King’s German Legion stated: 'The man seems to be beloved by all.’ (230, 202, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Arroyo Molinos The destruction of Girard’s French Division by General Rowland Hill on 28th October 1811 in the Peninsular War (192, 194, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Corunna The battle, also known as the Battle of Elvina, that ensured the escape of the British army from Spain on 16th January 1809, during the Peninsular War, with the death of Sir John Moore at the moment of success (214, 196, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ciudad Rodrigo (223, 194, 1) ***Halberdier*** Message: The bridge was protected by two French garrisons at either end. (222, 194, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Almaraz Rowland Hill’s resourceful destruction of the fortified French bridge of boats at Almaraz over the River Tagus on 19th May 1812, during the Peninsular War The action was swift-moving, deceptive, and daring. (215, 190, 1) ***Champion*** Message: General Bertrand Clausel, third in seniority, assumed command and ordered a counter-attack by the French reserve toward the depleted Allied centre. (216, 192, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tormes river (224, 184, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: win Battle of Salamanca win Battle of Salamanca The Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat for the French in Spain, and while they regrouped, Anglo-Portuguese forces moved on Madrid, which surrendered on 14 August. 20,000 muskets, 180 cannon and two French Imperial Eagles were captured (214, 192, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Salamanca Wellington’s victory on 22nd July 1812 over the French army of Marshal Marmont, during the Peninsular War, leading to the re-capture of Madrid; also known as the Battle of Los Arapiles or Les Arapiles win Battle of Almaraz first As a consequence of Wellington's victory, his army was able to advance to and liberate Madrid for two months, before retreating to Portugal. The French were forced to abandon Andalusia permanently while the loss of Madrid irreparably damaged King Joseph's pro-French government. (237, 170, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: the French instituted reforms in Valencia, which became the capital of Spain when the Bonapartist pretender to the throne, Jose I (Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's elder brother), moved the Court there in the middle of 1812. (240, 173, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Valencia (238, 172, 1) ***Angel*** Message: Marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet's French Army (239, 172, 1) ***Royal Griffin*** Message: Marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet's French Army (215, 169, 1) ***Event*** Message: Francisco Espoz y Mina's guerrilla group levy customs dues on all goods imported into Spain, except contraband of war, which they would not allow to pass without fighting. They also capture convoys and couriers (215, 194, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lanceros de Castilla led by Julián Sánchez "El Charro" attack on you (218, 169, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ebro river (212, 173, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Vitoria. Win Battle of Bailen 1st phrase of allied counteroffensive (212, 171, 1) ***Swordsman*** Message: 3,000 vehicles were crammed into the area of Vitoria, filled with goods being removed by Joseph’s army, together with herds of livestock. These were extensively looted by troops of all nationalities involved in the battle.Many British soldiers turned aside to plunder the abandoned French wagons, containing "the loot of a kingdom". It is estimated that more than ￡1 million of booty (225, 185, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Disasters of War-- a series of 82 prints created between 1810 and 1820 by the Spanish painter and printmaker Francisco Goya Grouping 2:Famine The second group, plates 48 to 64, detail the effects of the famine which ravaged Madrid from August 1811 until after Wellington's armies liberated the city in August 1812 Goya's focus is on the darkened masses of dead and barely alive bodies, men carrying corpses of women, and bereaved children mourning for lost parents.Hughes believes plate 50, Madre infeliz! (Unhappy mother!), to be the most powerful and poignant of the group. He suggests that the space between the small girl sobbing and the corpse of her mother represents "a darkness that seems to be the very essence of loss and orphanhood". (71, 36, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: win Siege of Valenciennes (1793) win Siege of Valenciennes (1793) 2/2.The conditions of the Battle of Wattignies are now formed. (72, 37, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Siege of Mainz. Finish Siege of Mainz. 1/2 (150, 146, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Treaty of Schonbrunn (149, 145, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Schonbrunn The Treaty of Schonbrunn (French: Traite de Schonbrunn; German: Friede von Schonbrunn), sometimes known as the Peace of Schonbrunn or Treaty of Vienna, was signed between France and Austria at Sch?nbrunn Palace near Vienna on 14 October 1809. The treaty ended the Fifth Coalition during the Napoleonic Wars, after Austria had been defeated at the decisive Battle of Wagram on 5-6 July. France imposed harsh peace terms: Austria had to cede the Duchy of Salzburg to Bavaria and lost its access to the Adriatic Sea by waiving the Littoral territories of Gorizia and Gradisca and the Imperial Free City of Trieste, together with Carniola, the March of Istria, western ("Upper") Carinthia with East Tyrol, and the Croatian lands southwest of the river Sava to the French Empire (see Illyrian provinces). West Galicia was ceded to the Duchy of Warsaw, and Tarnopol district to the Russian Empire. (148, 145, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Schonbrunn These attempts ultimately failed, after French forces occupied Vienna in May 1809. The Austrians under Archduke Charles were able to repulse them at the Battle of Aspern on 21-22 May; however, Napoleon withdrew his forces and crushed Charles' army at Wagram a few weeks later. Austria also had to apply Napoleon's Continental System, as Britain remained at war with France. One contemporary British view on the treaty was: This Treaty is certainly one of the most singular documents in the annals of diplomacy. We see a Christian King, calling himself the father of his people, disposing of 400,000 of his subjects,like swine in a market. We see a great and powerful Prince condescending to treat with his adversary for the brushwood of his own forests.We see the hereditary claimant of the Imperial Sceptre of Germany not only condescending to the past innovations on his own dominions, but assenting to any future alterations which the caprice or tyranny of his enemy may dictate with respect to his allies in Spain and Portugal, or to his neighbours in Italy.-We see through the whole of this instrument the humiliation of the weak and unfortunate Francis, who has preferred the resignation of his fairest territories to restoring to his vassals their liberties, and giving them that interest in the public cause which their valour would have known how to protect.—O, the brave and loyal, but, we fear, lost Tyrolese! —?The Gentleman's Magazine (1809) (151, 143, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Burgtheater Beethoven made his public debut in Vienna over three days, beginning with a performance of one of his own piano concertos on 29 March at the Burgtheater (139, 64, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Leipzig(Battle of the Nations) Win Battle of Kulm first Troops kept coming from every direction. The roads and meadows were crowded with marching infantry and cavalry, rolling artillery and ammunition wagons. From a distance the troops looked like fields of colorful flowers. The dragoons wore green uniforms, the hussars blue, red, and black, the infantry wore dark blue (French and Prussian), white (Austrians) and green (Russians). The heavy cavalry was clad in white (Allies) and dark blue (French). The daughter of the vicar of Seifertshaim writes: "The view from the church tower showed us that the entire area towards Leipzig was covered with soldiers. The roads as far as we could see were black with marching troops, guns, ammunition wagons, pouring in endless streams towards the battlefield. An Austrian officer warned us that we should prepare to flee at all costs. ... The danger seemed to come closer by the minute." (138, 64, 1) ***Master Gremlin*** Message: The Russian monarch admonished Schwarzenberg, who plan he thought poor. Tsar Alexander said: "Well, Marshal, since you insist, you will do what you like with the Austrian army, but as for the Russian troops of Grand Duke Constantine and Barclay de Tolly they will go to the right of the Pleisse River where they ought to be and nowhere else !" (91, 57, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: At the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition in the early summer of 1792, Ferdinand was poised with military forces at Coblenz. Finish Polish-Russian War of 1792 first The "Brunswick Proclamation" or "Brunswick Manifesto" that he now issued from Coblenz on July 25, 1792 (139, 63, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Leipzig(Battle of the Nations) Win Battle of the Katzbach first Troops kept coming from every direction. The roads and meadows were crowded with marching infantry and cavalry, rolling artillery and ammunition wagons. From a distance the troops looked like fields of colorful flowers. The dragoons wore green uniforms, the hussars blue, red, and black, the infantry wore dark blue (French and Prussian), white (Austrians) and green (Russians). The heavy cavalry was clad in white (Allies) and dark blue (French). The daughter of the vicar of Seifertshaim writes: "The view from the church tower showed us that the entire area towards Leipzig was covered with soldiers. The roads as far as we could see were black with marching troops, guns, ammunition wagons, pouring in endless streams towards the battlefield. An Austrian officer warned us that we should prepare to flee at all costs. ... The danger seemed to come closer by the minute." (212, 172, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (137, 63, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Leipzig(Battle of the Nations) Win the Battle of Victoria to win a decisive victory in the Peninsular War Troops kept coming from every direction. The roads and meadows were crowded with marching infantry and cavalry, rolling artillery and ammunition wagons. From a distance the troops looked like fields of colorful flowers. The dragoons wore green uniforms, the hussars blue, red, and black, the infantry wore dark blue (French and Prussian), white (Austrians) and green (Russians). The heavy cavalry was clad in white (Allies) and dark blue (French). The daughter of the vicar of Seifertshaim writes: "The view from the church tower showed us that the entire area towards Leipzig was covered with soldiers. The roads as far as we could see were black with marching troops, guns, ammunition wagons, pouring in endless streams towards the battlefield. An Austrian officer warned us that we should prepare to flee at all costs. ... The danger seemed to come closer by the minute." (229, 236, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: San Martín, Alvear and Zapiola established a local branch of the Lodge of Rational Knights, along with morenists. This lodge sought to promote liberal ideas; its secrecy hides whether it was a real Masonic lodge, or a lodge with political goals. This lodge was more of a collection of like-minded men who wished to promote the ideals of the Spanish Enlightenment; ideals of liberty and equality under the guise of a Masonic gathering. (228, 237, 1) ***Gorgon*** Message: Granaderos a Caballo at your command (15, 243, 1) ***Basilisk*** Message: Spanish expeditionary force led by Isidro Plácido Del Rosario Barrada y Valdez (210, 9, 1) ***Master Gremlin*** Message: Action between main elements of the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian squadron led by Balle started at 10:00 on 24 August and the artillery duel continued for six hours (208, 14, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (208, 13, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (42, 92, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Hall of Mirrors,The Grand Gallery (42, 93, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The King Governs by Himself, 1661,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles On the death of Mazarin, in March 1661, Louis assumed personal control of the reins of government and astonished his court by declaring that he would rule without a chief minister: "Up to this moment I have been pleased to entrust the government of my affairs to the late Cardinal. It is now time that I govern them myself. You [he was talking to the secretaries and ministers of state] will assist me with your counsels when I ask for them. I request and order you to seal no orders except by my command . . . I order you not to sign anything, not even a passport . . . without my command; to render account to me personally each day and to favor no one". At the start of his reign, before turning to more political allegories, Louis XIV chose the sun as his personal emblem. The sun is the symbol of Apollo, god of peace and the arts; it is also the star which gives life to all things, rising and setting with unfailing regularity. Like the god, Louis XIV was a warrior fighting to restore peace; he was also a patron of the arts and the source of all privileges. Though the unstinting regularity of his life and with the public getting-up and going-to-bed ceremonies, he hammered home the symbolic parallels. The Palace of Versailles is replete with representations and allegorical allusions to the sun god (laurel wreathes, lyres, tripods) combined with royal portraits and emblems. (42, 94, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peace agreement at Aix-La-Chapelle, 1668,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle or Aachen ended the War of Devolution between France and Spain. It was signed on 2 May 1668 in Aachen (French: Aix-la-Chapelle). Spain acceded on 7 May 1669. The treaty was mediated and guaranteed by the Triple Alliance of the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden at the First Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. (43, 93, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Order restored in the Kingdom's finances, 1662,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Louis began his personal reign with administrative and fiscal reforms. In 1661, the treasury verged on bankruptcy. To rectify the situation, Louis chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Controller-General of Finances in 1665. However, Louis first had to neutralize Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances, in order to give Colbert a free hand.With Fouquet dismissed, Colbert reduced the national debt through more efficient taxation. Reform proved difficult because the taille was levied by officers of the Crown who had purchased their post at a high price: punishment of abuses necessarily lowered the value of the post. Nevertheless, excellent results were achieved: the deficit of 1661 turned into a surplus in 1666. The revenues of the royal domain were raised from 80,000 livres in 1661 to 5.5 million livres in 1671 (55, 60, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: You have no right to visit the the Temple Prison Unless you are the judge of the Revolutionary Tribunal So,Mr.Carrier, haven't you killed enough people in the Nantes? What do you want to do to Queen Marie Antoinette? (41, 90, 1) ***Event*** Message: Fountain of the Chariot of Apollo (46, 90, 1) ***Event*** Message: You visit Queen Marie Antoinette at the QUEEN'S BOUDOIR and the queen says she wants to see your Swedish uniform and wants you to wear it (45, 90, 1) ***Naga*** Message: "Louis just decided to go to Paris with the guardsmen to show his personal goodwill towards the revolution. The Queen recovered from the most violent convulsions. At last, coming to herself, requesting you to follow the king to Paris. Again and again she implored you, in case the king should be detained, to interest himself with all the foreign ministers to interpose for his liberation."--elisabeth of France and Princess Marie Therèse Louise of Savoy (52, 61, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) At 11:15 p.m. the royal children were brought out without difficulty. (53, 60, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: Royal children Louis Charles and Marie Therèse (149, 173, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of The Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland Grand Master title of honour of The Grand Lodge of Antient, Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland You win your Degrees of Master Mason of Grand Lodge of Scotland ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (185, 0, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (184, 0, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (183, 0, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge Royal Palace, Stockholm Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (187, 1, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Female adoption lodge: Le veritable et constante amitie,Royal Palace, Stockholm The Grand Master of the Swedish {Freemason}ic Order, Duke Charles, had his spouse, Hedvig Elisabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp, inaugurated as the Grand Mistress of a female lodge of adoption to his own lodge at the Royal Palace, Stockholm, named Le veritable et constante amitie. The Woman's Lodge of Adoption was organized by rules set by Duchess Charlotte in three grades with a ritual in five grades after a French role model, and had their meetings in the same rooms in the apartments of Duke Charles in the Royal Palace where the male lodge also had their meetings. (189, 3, 1) ***Naga*** Message: Her Majesty Queen Charlotte, three ladies-in-waiting Augusta von Fersen, Ulla von Hopken and Louise Meijerfeldt for you (209, 14, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant-colonels Carl Olof Cronstedt and his brigade joined King Gustav (209, 12, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1790, Smith applied for permission to serve in the Royal Swedish Navy in the war between Sweden and Russia. King Gustav III appointed him to command the light squadron and to be his principal naval adviser Smith led his forces in clearing the Bay of Viborg of the Russian fleet, known as the Battle of Svensksund (Finnish: Ruotsinsalmi, Russian: Rochensalm). The Russians lost sixty-four ships and over a thousand men. The Swedes lost four ships and had few casualties. For this, Smith was knighted by the king and made a Commander Grand Cross of the Swedish Svardsorden (Order of the Sword)The Royal Order of the Sword (officially: Royal Order of the Sword; Swedish: Kungliga Svardsorden) is a Swedish order of chivalry and military decoration created by King Frederick I of Sweden on February 23, 1748, together with the Order of the Seraphim and the Order of the Polar Star. Awarded to officers, and originally intended as an award for bravery and particularly long or useful service, it eventually became a more or less obligatory award for military officers after a certain number of years in service. There were originally three grades, Knight, Commander and Commander Grand Cross, but these were later multiplied by division into classes. The motto of the order is in Latin: Pro Patria (which means "For Fatherland"). (210, 0, 1) ***Tower*** Name: Helsinki Timed events: Name: ecapital1812 Message: On 8 April 1812,Russian Emperor Alexander I of Russia moved the Finnish capital from Turku to Helsinki (207, 1, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Sveaborg--Naval base of the Swedish archipelago fleet (208, 0, 1) ***Orc Chieftain*** Message: Russian Colonel Vuich and his men (205, 173, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Division of the North (Spanish: División del Norte) was a Spanish infantry division that existed in 1808. Spain was, at that time, an ally of France and the division, composed of 15,000 men under the command of the Marquis de la Romana, Pedro Caro y Sureda,was initially deployed, between 1807 and 1808, to perform garrison duties in Hamburg under Marshal Bernadotte. In March 1808, along with a Franco-Belgian unit of approximately the same size, the unit was deployed to Denmark, with the two-fold objective of protecting that country, also an ally of Napoleon, and preparing for an invasion of Sweden. While the Division was in Denmark, the Peninsular War broke out on 2 May 1808 Once Caro y Sureda learned of the changed situation, he made plans with the British to return the Division to Spain. The Marquis contacted Rear-Admiral Keats in his flagship Superb, and on 9 August 1808 the Spaniards seized the fort and town of Nyborg. Keats' squadron then took possession of the port and organized the transportation of the Spanish back to their home country.Some 9-12,000 men of the 15,000-strong division were immediately able to board British ships on 27 August and ultimately escape to Spain. (205, 172, 1) ***Gnoll Marauder*** Message: Marquis of La Romana and his men arrived at Santander, Spain, where he was appointed Commander of the Galician Armada. (190, 1, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Coup of 1809 The coup was provoked by the disastrous Finnish War.After Sweden was driven out of northern Germany in 1807(Pomeranian War/Franco-Swedish War), she became subject to attacks from Denmark-Norway and the Russian Empire in 1808(Finnish War).Military mismanagement and lack of support led to Gustav IV Adolf being arrested on 13 March 1809 in the course of an insurrection. The Coup of 1809 (Swedish: Statskuppen 1809) also referred to as the Revolution of 1809 (Swedish: Revolutionen 1809) was a Swedish coup d'etat by a group of noblemen resulting in the deposition of King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden and the introduction of the Instrument of Government (1809).The leaders of the coup are known in history collectively as 1809 ?rs m?n ('Men of 1809'). (189, 0, 1) ***Giant*** Message: Seven of the conspirators led by Carl Johan Adlercreutz broke into the royal apartments in the palace on 13 March, seized the King Gustav IV Adolf, and imprisoned him and his family in Gripsholm castle. (138, 63, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Leipzig(Battle of the Nations) Win Battle of Dennewitz first Troops kept coming from every direction. The roads and meadows were crowded with marching infantry and cavalry, rolling artillery and ammunition wagons. From a distance the troops looked like fields of colorful flowers. The dragoons wore green uniforms, the hussars blue, red, and black, the infantry wore dark blue (French and Prussian), white (Austrians) and green (Russians). The heavy cavalry was clad in white (Allies) and dark blue (French). The daughter of the vicar of Seifertshaim writes: "The view from the church tower showed us that the entire area towards Leipzig was covered with soldiers. The roads as far as we could see were black with marching troops, guns, ammunition wagons, pouring in endless streams towards the battlefield. An Austrian officer warned us that we should prepare to flee at all costs. ... The danger seemed to come closer by the minute." (80, 226, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Charleston - 1776 British abandoned its attempts to capture the city. Lee was acclaimed as the "hero of Charleston" (229, 238, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: San Martín resigned from the Spanish army, for controversial reasons, and moved to South America, where he joined the Spanish American wars of independence. Historians propose several explanations for this action: the common ones are that he missed his native land, that he was in the employ of the British and the congruence of the goals of both wars. The first explanation suggests that when the wars of independence began San Martín thought that his duty was to return to his country and serve in the military conflict. The second explanation suggests that Britain, which would benefit from the independence of the South American countries, sent San Martín to achieve it. The third suggests that both wars were caused by the conflicts between Enlightenment ideas and absolutism, so San Martín still waged the same war; the wars in the Americas only developed separatist goals after the Spanish Absolutist Restoration. A few days after his arrival in Buenos Aires in the United Provinces , San Martín was interviewed by the First Triumvirate(which formed after May Revolution) (229, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Montevideo--Con libertad ni ofendo ni temo (231, 234, 1) ***Hydra*** Message: The expeditionsailed down to Río de la Plata, and stopped in Montevideo, in order to prepare a report on the political situation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. (95, 250, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Granada (20, 250, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Jose María Morelos join you (19, 250, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Acapulco, Mexico. The expedition then continued north, mapping the coast, to Acapulco, Mexico. A team of officers was then sent to Mexico City to investigate the archives and political situation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. (11, 247, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After the arrest of the early revolutionary leaders, the Mexican War of Independence was plunged into prolonged guerrilla warfare and military deadlock. Win Battle of Carabobo to Strike and weaken the Spanish royalist army Spain recognizes Mexico's independence. Mexico forms a constitutional monarchy. (0, 243, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After departing Nootka Sound the two ships sailed south, stopping at the Spanish settlement and mission at Monterey, California, before returning to Mexico. The expedition made contact and exchanges with the indigenous peoples (145, 245, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Humboldt had hopes of connecting with the French sailing expedition of Baudin, now finally underway, so Bonpland and Humboldt hurried to Ecuador.They crossed the frozen ridges of the Cordillera Real, they reached Quito on 6 January 1802, after a tedious and difficult journey The 1797 Riobamba earthquake occurred at 12:30 UTC on 4 February. It devastated the city of Riobamba and many other cities in the Interandean valley, causing between 6,000-40,000 casualties. It is estimated that seismic intensities in the epicentral area reached at least XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and that the earthquake had a magnitude of 8.3, the most powerful historical event known in Ecuador.The earthquake was studied by Prussian geographer Alexander von Humboldt, when he visited the area in 1801-1802 (144, 245, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The 1797 Riobamba earthquake occurred at 12:30 UTC on 4 February. It devastated the city of Riobamba and many other cities in the Interandean valley, causing between 6,000-40,000 casualties. It is estimated that seismic intensities in the epicentral area reached at least XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and that the earthquake had a magnitude of 8.3, the most powerful historical event known in Ecuador. (240, 209, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Truth, Time and History--Allegory of the Constitution of 1812,by Francisco de Goya Truth, Time and History (Spanish: La Verdad, el Tiempo y la Historia) is an oil-on-canvas painting by the Spanish artist Francisco de Goya. The painting is also known by the titles Spain, Time, and History and Allegory of the Constitution of 1812.[1][2] It has been assigned dates ranging from 1797 to 1812,[3] though it is most commonly dated between 1804 and 1808. It is currently in the collection of the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm.[4] The painting is often thought to have been commissioned in conjunction with a second piece titled Poetry (Spanish: la Poesia) for Manuel Godoy. Godoy was the First Secretary of State of Spain at the time, and the paintings may have decorated his palace in Madrid History sits nude on a rock in the front center of the painting, holding a white quill with an open book in her lap. Wrapped around her waist is a green cloth, and another book lies open at her feet. Time appears behind History, to the right. He is an elderly, bearded man holding an hourglass. His face looks upward so that most of the details of his features are obscured from view. Time bears large, white wings that extend outward, off the canvas on the right and on the left, behind the body of the third figure, who he grips by the arm. There are conflicting interpretations of the identity of the woman dressed in white on the left of the painting. Most often labeled Truth, she faces the viewer with her breasts partially exposed, holding a scepter in her left hand and a gray book in her right.[citation needed] The background of the painting is light on the left behind Truth and dark on the right side surrounding Time. Eleanor Sayre, an art historian and Goya scholar, dates the painting much later, arguing that it was created in 1812. This interpretation stems from Sayre's belief that the painting refers to the Spanish Constitution of 1812.[2] Sayre's argument leads to her to title the work Allegory of the Constitution of 1812.[6] Those who follow this interpretation state that the third figure in the painting is representative of the law. Time's hourglass has just been turned over, "indicating that a new era begins."[2] Juan Luna, in his description written for the Stockholm National Museum catalog, posits that the standing woman holding a book represents Spain as well as Truth. It could be an allegory of the Spanish Constitution, adopted in 1812 during Spain's liberation from Napoleonic rule, and the twofold symbolism may be designed to underscore the legitimacy of the new constitution. (241, 209, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish Constitution of 1812-- also known as the Constitution of Cádiz (Spanish: Constitución de Cádiz) and as La Pepa, was the first Constitution of Spain and one of the earliest constitutions in world history. Among the most debated questions during the drafting of the constitution was the status of the native and mixed-race populations in Spain's possessions around the world. Most of the overseas provinces were represented, especially the most populous regions. Both the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru had deputies present, as did Central America, the islands of the Spanish Caribbean, Florida, Chile, Upper Peru and the Philippines.The total number of representatives was 303, of which thirty-seven were born in overseas territories, although several of these were temporary, substitute deputies [suplentes] elected by American refugees in the city of Cádiz: seven from New Spain, two from Central America, five from Peru, two from Chile, three from the Río de la Plata, three from New Granada, and three from Venezuela, one from Santo Domingo, two from Cuba, one from Puerto Rico and two from the Philippines. The Constitution was ratified on 19 March 1812 by the Cortes of Cádiz, the first Spanish legislature that included delegates from the entire nation, including Spanish America and the Philippines. "It defined Spanish and Spanish American liberalism for the early 19th century." With the notable exception of proclaiming Roman Catholicism as the official and sole legal religion in Spain, the constitution was one of the most liberal of its time: it affirmed national sovereignty, separation of powers, freedom of the press, free enterprise, abolished corporate privileges (fueros), and established a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. It was one of the first constitutions that allowed universal male suffrage, with some exceptions, through a complex indirect electoral system. It extended political rights for representation to Spanish America and the Philippines, a significant step for the demands of American-born Spaniards (84, 172, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Commander-in-chief of all British forces in North America Guy Carleton at your service (109, 173, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Charlottetown--"Birthplace of Confederation" (98, 210, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of the Chesapeake (97, 209, 1) ***Archer*** Message: a French fleet led by Rear Admiral Francois Joseph Paul, the Comte de Grasse. (96, 209, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood 's fleet arrived off the entrance to the Chesapeake (246, 224, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Friendly Society of Sierra Leone-a local mutual-aid merchant group dedicated to furthering prosperity and industry among the free people in the colony (245, 224, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Freetown--served as the base for the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron Visit Guy Carleton at Province of Quebec Carleton assigned Samuel Birch to create the Book of Negroes.and he oversaw the evacuation of British forces, Loyalists and more than 3,000 freedmen from New York City in 1783 to transport them to a British colony. Some freedmen later migrated from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone, where they formed the original settlers of Freetown, under the auspices of the Sierra Leone Company. They are among the ancestors of the Krio ethnic group (206, 205, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Duero river (210, 194, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Miguel Ricardo de álava y Esquivel, KB, MWO (7 July 1770 - 14 July 1843) was a Spanish General and statesman who served as Prime Minister of Spain in 1835. He was born in the Basque Country, at Vitoria-Gasteiz, in 1770. álava holds the distinction of having been present at both Trafalgar and Waterloo, fighting against the British at the former and with them at the latter. Alava served as a naval aide-de-camp during the time of Spain's alliance with France but switched sides in 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain.The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary (military attache) at the British Army Headquarters, and the Duke of Wellington, who regarded him with great favour, made him one of his aides de camp. Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank of brigadier-general. Later he joined the headquarters of the British Peninsular Army as a military attache and became a close friend of the Duke of Wellington. During the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, Alava was the Spanish ambassador to The Hague at the court of King William I of the Netherlands, which allowed him to attend the Duchess of Richmond's ball and to be at Wellington's side during the Battle of Waterloo. (194, 197, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Balmis Expedition, officially called the Real Expedición Filantrópica de la Vacuna (Royal Philanthropic Vaccine Expedition) was a Spanish healthcare mission that lasted from 1803 to 1806, led by Dr Francisco Javier de Balmis, which vaccinated millions of inhabitants of Spanish America and Asia against smallpox. Vaccination, that is inoculation with cowpox material, is a much safer way to prevent smallpox than older methods such as variolation, inoculation with smallpox material, which ran the risk of itself spreading smallpox. King Charles IV of Spain supported his royal doctor Balmis since his Infanta Maria Teresa, his daughter, had died from the illness. The expedition set off from A Coruna in northwest Spain on 30 November 1803. It may be considered the first international healthcare expedition in history. Jenner himself wrote, "I don't imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this." (193, 197, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: The expedition sailed on Maria Pita and carried 22 orphan boys (aged 3 to 10) as successive carriers of the virus (148, 246, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Balmis Expedition The expedition set off from A Coruna in northwest Spain on 30 November 1803 The mission took the vaccine to Ecuador (35, 232, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Spanish Marine Infantry at your service (188, 2, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Yellow Rose (society),Royal Palace, Stockholm The Yellow Rose society (Swedish: Gula Rosen) was the name of a Swedish Masonic adoption lodge within the {Freemason}s, active from 1802 until 1803. It was founded by Karl Adolf Boheman upon the mutual wish of the royal couple Duke Charles and Duchess Charlotte of Sudermannia, and open to both sexes. The Yellow Rose society--run by Carl Adolf Andersson ,has a strong connecetion with the Illuminati (108, 46, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Rothschild's coin business grew to include a number of princely patrons, and then expanded through the provision of banking services to Crown Prince Wilhelm, who became Wilhelm IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel in 1785. Business expanded rapidly following the French Revolution when Rothschild handled payments from Britain for the hire of Hessian mercenaries. By the early years of the 19th century, Rothschild had consolidated his position as principal international banker to Wilhelm IX and began to issue his own international loans, borrowing capital from the Landgrave. In 1810, Mayer entered into a formal partnership agreement with his three eldest sons. The youngest son Jacob was sent to Paris in 1811, enhancing the family's ability to operate across Europe. This enabled them to profit from the opportunity of financing Wellington's armies in Portugal, requiring the sourcing of large quantities of gold on behalf of the British government. (166, 174, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1806, Napoleon invaded Hesse in response to Wilhelm's support for Prussia. The Landgrave went into exile in the Duchy of Holstein, but Rothschild was able to continue as his banker, investing funds in London. He also profited from importing goods in circumvention of Napoleon's continental blockade Rothschild became a naturalized citizen in 1804 and established a bank in the City of London (58, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Napoleon made Murat a Marshal of the Empire on 18 May 1804, and also granted him the title of "First Horseman of Europe". (91, 196, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On the topic of {{Freemason}ry}, it has been disputed for two centuries where Lafayette became a Mason. There are no definitive records showing exactly when and where Lafayette was initiated. Lafayette was a hero of both the American Revolutionary War and later two French revolutions. {Freemason}s from both countries are anxious to claim him as their own. French Masonic scholars believe he was made a Mason in France prior to coming to American and enlisting in the Continental army. However, the most widely accepted and best supported belief is that Lafayette was made a Mason after coming to America, most likely after meeting George Washington. This version is supported by Lafayette’s own writings. American Masonic scholars place the time of the initiation during the winter of 1777-78 when Washington’s army was wintering over at Valley Forge. It is believed that General George Washington himself may have acted as Master of the Lodge during Lafayette’s initiation ceremony. Dr. George W. Chaytor was a noted Masonic scholar and past master. Addressing the Lafayette Lodge No. 14 in Wilmington, Delaware, on January 18, 1875, on the occasion of the lodge’s fiftieth anniversary of its constitution, he made the following statement on the subject of Lafayette’s admission into the Masonic order: He [Lafayette] was not a Mason when he landed in America, nor was he a Mason at the Battle of Brandywine. The Army under Washington, in December, 1777, retired to Valley Forge, where they wintered. Connected with the Army was a Lodge. It was at Valley Forge that he was made a Mason. On this point there should be no second opinion—for surely Lafayette knew best where he was made a Mason. Lafayette’s own remarks do support the fact he was made a Mason in America, after having met General George Washington. Lafayette said, “After I was made a Mason, General Washington seemed to have received a new light—I never had, from that moment, any cause to doubt his entire confidence. It was not long before I had a separate command of great importance.” (95, 199, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Throughout the 1780s, Madison advocated for reform of the Articles of Confederation. He became increasingly worried about the disunity of the states and the weakness of the central government after the end of the Revolutionary War in 1783 Win Battle of Yorktown Before a quorum was reached at the Philadelphia Convention on May 25, 1787, Madison worked with other members of the Virginia delegation, especially Edmund Randolph and George Mason, to create and present the Virginia Plan.The Virginia Plan was an outline for a new federal constitution; it called for three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial), a bicameral Congress (consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives) apportioned by population, and a federal Council of Revision that would have the right to veto laws passed by Congress. (94, 198, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Virginia Plan (also known as the Randolph Plan, after its sponsor, or the Large-State Plan) ,was a proposal to the United States Constitutional Convention for the creation of a supreme national government with three branches and a bicameral legislature. The plan was drafted by James Madison while he waited for a quorum to assemble at the Constitutional Convention of 1787. From May 25 to September 17, 1787, the Constitutional Convention gathered in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, the first plan of government of the United States. The Articles were widely criticized for creating a weak central government—the Confederation Congress—that was powerless to solve the nation's problems. Under the Articles, Congress was unable to raise taxes to pay for a military or pay off foreign debts. It also lacked the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. The Articles had no provision for executive and judicial branches, which meant the Confederation government lacked effective means to enforce its own laws and treaties against non-compliant states. James Madison, a delegate from Virginia, believed that the solution to America's problems was to be found in a strong central government. (87, 192, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Susquehanna River (79, 205, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On April 1, 1801, Lewis was appointed as Secretary to the President by President Thomas Jefferson, whom he knew through Virginia society in Albemarle County. Corps of Discovery is wait (81, 205, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In 1817, three Presidents (Jefferson, James Monroe, and James Madison) and Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court John Marshall joined 24 other dignitaries at a meeting held in the Mountain Top Tavern at Rockfish Gap. After some deliberation, they selected nearby Charlottesville as the site of the new University of Virginia Jefferson was a strong disciple of Greek and Roman architectural styles, which he believed to be most representative of American democracy. Each academic unit, called a pavilion, was designed with a two-story temple front, while the library "Rotunda" was modeled on the Roman Pantheon. Jefferson referred to the university's grounds as the "Academical Village," and he reflected his educational ideas in its layout. The ten pavilions included classrooms and faculty residences; they formed a quadrangle and were connected by colonnades, behind which stood the students' rows of rooms. Gardens and vegetable plots were placed behind the pavilions and were surrounded by serpentine walls, affirming the importance of the agrarian lifestyle. The university had a library rather than a church at its center, emphasizing its secular nature—a controversial aspect at the time Jefferson envisioned a university free of church influences where students could specialize in many new areas not offered at other colleges. He believed that education engendered a stable society, which should provide publicly funded schools accessible to students from all social strata, based solely on ability.He initially proposed his University in a letter to Joseph Priestley in 1800and, in 1819, the 76-year-old Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. He organized the state legislative campaign for its charter and, with the assistance of Edmund Bacon, purchased the location. He was the principal designer of the buildings, planned the university's curriculum, and served as the first rector upon its opening in 1825 (80, 205, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Yorktown Win Battle of Yorktown Following his retirement from the Political circle, Jefferson continued his pursuit of educational interests; he sold his vast collection of books to the Library of Congress, and founded and built the University of Virginia (91, 208, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Yorktown Win Battles of Saratoga first At the same time that the British Army under General Charles Cornwallis was retreating to Yorktown, General George Washington was marching his army down from the north. The French Navy, having defeated the British Navy, started to move to the coast near Yorktown as well. (95, 208, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The final American offensive was begun with a shot fired by Washington. The siege ended with a British surrender on October 19, 1781;Washington negotiated the terms of surrender for two days, and the official signing ceremony took place on October 19. As a gesture of goodwill, Washington held a dinner for the American, French, and British generals, all of whom fraternized on friendly terms and identified with one another as members of the same professional military caste (93, 208, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (94, 208, 1) ***Lich*** Message: General Cornwallis said he was sick and didn't show up to the surrender. He sent General Charles O'Hara to surrender his sword. (67, 218, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Kings Mountain (66, 218, 1) ***Wyvern*** Message: Battle of Cowpens.Tarleton's cavalrymen , called "Tarleton's Raiders" attack on you (66, 217, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Morgan's forces conducted a double envelopment of Tarleton's forces, the only double envelopment of the war. Tarleton's force of 1000 British troops were set against 2000 troops under Morgan. Morgan's forces suffered casualties of only 25 killed and 124 wounded. Tarleton's force was almost completely eliminated with almost 30% casualties and 55% of his force captured or missing, with Tarleton himself and only about 200 British troops escaping. Tarleton's brigade was wiped out as an effective fighting force, and, coupled with the British defeat at the Battle of Kings Mountain in the northwest corner of South Carolina, this action compelled Cornwallis to pursue the main southern American army into North Carolina, leading to the Battle of Guilford Court House, and Cornwallis's eventual defeat at the siege of Yorktown in Virginia in October 1781. The Battle of Cowpens was an engagement during the American Revolutionary War fought on January 17, 1781.In the opinion of John Marshall, "Seldom has a battle, in which greater numbers were not engaged, been so important in its consequences as that of Cowpens." (212, 197, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: When the Treaties of Tilsit ended the War of the Fourth Coalition, Emperor Napoleon of France had already expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom On 19 July 1807, Napoleon ordered his Portuguese ambassador to inform that country to close its ports to British shipping by 1 September. sign Treaties of Tilsit first Meanwhile, on 12 August 1807 the French and Spanish ambassadors delivered their ultimata to the Prince Regent of Portugal. (212, 199, 1) ***Pikeman*** Message: Unfortunately for Junot and his soldiers, the new route passed through an area with few inhabitants and very poor roads. On this rough road through hills and ravines, half of the army's horses died,one-quarter of the soldiers straggled, and all but six artillery pieces were left behind (214, 182, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Valladolid (210, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Pisuerga river (214, 181, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Medina de Rioseco (196, 196, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santiago de Compostela Cathedral (13, 250, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Balmis Expedition The expedition set off from A Coruna in northwest Spain on 30 November 1803 The mission took the vaccine to Mexico (12, 250, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Francisco Javier de Balmis persuaded the king to send an expedition to America to propagate the recently discovered vaccine against smallpox. Balmis was named head of the expedition, which sailed from Spain in 1804. He traveled to Puerto Rico, Puerto Cabello, Caracas, Havana, Merida, Veracruz and Mexico City. The vaccine was carried as far as Texas in the north and New Granada in the south. In Mexico City, he had to convince the viceroy, Jose de Iturrigaray, but he did so, and the viceroy had his son vaccinated.In 1806 Balmis sailed from Acapulco for Manila (57, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In August 1803, Soult was entrusted with the command-in-chief of the Camp of Boulogne. Soult, a former drill instructor, imposed a rigorous discipline there, which ensured the effectiveness of French troops during future campaigns, and also earned him the nickname "Bras de Fer" ("Iron Arm") Even Napoleon wondered if he was being too severe, to which assertions Soult replied: "Those who can't handle what I myself endure will be left behind in the depots. Those that can will be fit to conquer the world." (207, 20, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Battle of Svensksund. It was a naval battle fought in the Gulf of Finland outside the present day city of Kotka on 9 and 10 July 1790. The Swedish naval forces dealt the Russian fleet a devastating defeat that brought an end to the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-90. The battle is the biggest Swedish naval victory and the largest naval battle ever in the Baltic Sea At 08:00 on 9 July the Russian flagship signaled the attack. By 09:30 the first ships had reached firing distance in the western flank but soon after fighting spread throughout the battle lines. The Swedish right wing under Lieutenant Colonel Torning met with increasing resistance as the Russian left wing opposing him was reinforced. However, the Swedes were able to move ships from their reserves to support their right wing with a counterattack which managed to lead the Russian left wing into disorder.Meanwhile, an increasingly strong southwesterly wind forced the Russian center deeper between converging Swedish lines. (209, 20, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant-colonels Jakob Torning and his brigade joined King Gustav (208, 19, 1) ***Orc*** Message: You captured the flagship of Prince Charles of Nassau-Siegen, Commander of the Russian Coastal Fleet (208, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (209, 17, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant-colonels Claes Hjelmstjerna and his brigade joined King Gustav (208, 17, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (208, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (209, 15, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Lieutenant-colonels Victor von Stedingk and his brigade joined King Gustav (208, 15, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (209, 16, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Dorothea Maria Losch took over and commanded the ship Armida to safety after its officers had been killed or abandoned it during the Battle of Svensksund on 9 July 1790. For this act, she was awarded with the rank of a master mariner of the Swedish fleet, something unique for a woman of this period. Although this was a purely honorary, ceremonial title, she was nevertheless the first woman in such a position. (151, 145, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Most of the liberated Polish lands, with the exception of the Lvov region, became incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw through the peace treaty of 14 October 1809. Prince Józef himself, celebrated by the residents of the old royal capital of Poland, remained in Kraków until the end of December, supervising the provisional Galician government in existence from 2 June to 28 December. Most of the liberated Polish lands, with the exception of the Lvov region, became incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw through the peace treaty of 14 October 1809. Prince Józef himself, celebrated by the residents of the old royal capital of Poland, remained in Kraków until the end of December, supervising the provisional Galician government in existence from 2 June to 28 December. (97, 196, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: While in the field, Charles Willson Peale continued to paint, doing miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. (98, 183, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: While in the field, Charles Willson Peale continued to paint, doing miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. (96, 200, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: after The museum been founded,In 1786, Peale was elected to the American Philosophical Society (188, 0, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Following the overthrow and exile of King Gustavus IV in 1809, a dispute over the Royal succession divided the nobility and much of Swedish society. Von Fersen, now Earl Marshal of Sweden, led a political faction ("the Gustavians") which supported Gustavus' son against the popular Crown Prince Charles August (10, 248, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: After 1788,Fausto Elhuyar resided in Mexico City, where the crown founded the capital's School of Mines (January 1, 1792), with Elhuyar as its first director. During his tenure, he commissioned and directed the construction of that institution's seat, the Palacio de Minería, which was finished in 1813 and is considered one of the jewels of the Spanish American neoclassicism. He also visited and improved several of the existing Royal Mines of Mexico, dramatically increasing their productivity due to the introduction of new methods of exploitation. (22, 248, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: After 1788,Fausto Elhuyar resided in Mexico City, where the crown founded the capital's School of Mines (January 1, 1792), with Elhuyar as its first director. During his tenure, he commissioned and directed the construction of that institution's seat, the Palacio de Minería, which was finished in 1813 and is considered one of the jewels of the Spanish American neoclassicism. He also visited and improved several of the existing Royal Mines of Mexico, dramatically increasing their productivity due to the introduction of new methods of exploitation. (180, 1, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Uppsala University (176, 0, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Berzelius was a strict empiricist, expecting that any new theory must be consistent with the sum of contemporary chemical knowledge. He developed improved methods of chemical analysis, which were required to develop the basic data in support of his work on stoichiometry. He investigated isomerism, allotropy, and catalysis, phenomena that owe their names to him. Berzelius was among the first to articulate the differences between inorganic compounds and organic compounds.Vitalism had first been proposed by prior researchers, although Berzelius contended that compounds could be distinguished by whether they required any organisms in their manufacture (organic compounds) or whether they did not (inorganic compounds). However, in 1828, Friedrich W?hler accidentally obtained urea, an organic compound, by heating ammonium cyanate. This showed that an organic compound such as urea could be prepared synthetically and not exclusively by living organisms. Berzelius corresponded with W?hler on the urea synthesis findings. However, the notion of vitalism continued to persist, until further work on abiotic synthesis of organic compounds provided overwhelming evidence against vitalism Among the many minerals and elements he studied, he is credited with discovering cerium and selenium, and with being the first to isolate silicon and thorium. Following on his interest in mineralogy, Berzelius synthesized and chemically characterized new compounds of these and other elements. (175, 1, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Berzelius graduated as a medical doctor in 1802. He worked as a physician near Stockholm until the chemist and mine-owner Wilhelm Hisinger recognized his abilities as an analytical chemist and provided him with a laboratory Berzelius is credited with discovering the chemical elements cerium and selenium and with being the first to isolate silicon and thorium. Berzelius discovered cerium in 1803and selenium in 1817. Berzelius discovered how to isolate silicon in 1824, and thorium in 1824.Students working in Berzelius's laboratory also discovered lithium, lanthanum, and vanadium. (191, 0, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After the deposition of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden in 1809,Carl August, prince of Augustenburg, was chosen.Like her brother Axel, Sophie fell under false and unfounded suspicion of involvement in crown prince Karl August's death in 1810 ,and she therefore left Stockholm the same night disguised as a maid and sought refuge at Rydboholm Castle. Eva Sophie Piper, nee Eva Sophie von Fersen (30 March 1757 - 2 February 1816, Lofstad Slott), was a Swedish countess and lady in waiting. She was the daughter of count Axel von Fersen the Elder and Hedvig Catharina von Fersen and the sister of Axel von Fersen the Younger, Hedvig Eleonora von Fersen and Fabian von Fersen (1762-1818). She is foremost known for her close friendship with Queen Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte, who dedicated her famous diary to her. Duchess Charlotte dedicated her famous journal, written between 1775 and 1817, to her friend Sophie Piper, and until 1800, the journal is formally written in the form of letters to her. The letters were never sent, but written in this way as a dedication to Sophie Piper. The diary has been published between 1902 and 1942, and regarded as a valuable reference work of contemporary Sweden. The two friends also upheld a vast correspondence, which has been partially published. Duchess Charlotte once referred to Sophie Piper as the only true friend she ever owned, and upon the death of Piper in 1816, Charlotte wrote a biography of her. Sophie Piper was known for her love life in contemporary high society life.Sophie Piper is known to be one of five women to have been a member of the {Freemason}s in Sweden during the 18th century (192, 0, 1) ***Faerie Dragon*** Message: "I am not the poisoners of the crown prince!"--Sophie Piper (193, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte is known for her famous diary, which is a valuable historical source that describes the Swedish Royal Court between August 1775 and October 1817. The massive diary was written in French and initially (until March 1798) in the form of letters to her close friend, Countess Sophie von Fersen, sister of Axel von Fersen. The letters were never sent, but written in this form as a tribute to Sophie von Fersen. It was translated to the Swedish language and published in nine parts between 1902 and 1942: the first three parts translated by Carl Carlsson Bonde, the remaining parts by Cecilia af Klercker. The diary of Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte is used as a valuable source of reference within Swedish historical research. It describes events both nationally and internationally, treats various subjects such as gossip, plots and social events taking place within the Swedish royal court and aristocracy as well as political subjects, and provides personal character portraits of contemporaries. It describes events such as the French Revolution of 1789, the Regicide of Gustav III in 1792, the Napoleonic Wars and the deposition of Gustav IV Adolf in 1809. The collection of Hedvig Elizabeth Charlotte also include her correspondence as well various other documents, some of which are quoted in the published diary. The diaries were written with the intent to be published, as stipulated by the Queen, fifty years after her death. (184, 1, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Henrik Gustaf Ulfvenklou (1756-28 September 1819), was a Swedish mystic and medium who gained a great influence in the circles of Charles XIII of Sweden by claiming to communicate with the spirits of the dead. Lieuntenant Ulfenklou arrived in Stockholm in 1783, where he made success in the esoteric circle around Duke Charles. He claimed he stood in contact with the duke's dead mother, Louisa Ulrika of Prussia, whose spirit he sent to observe Charles's brother the king, Gustav III of Sweden, who was in Italy at that time (1784). He sent a warning with a prediction to Gustav, which is said to have caused damage in the relationship between Charles and Gustav. Reuterholm disliked him and had him sent away, and when he returned in 1785, Reuterholm was to have "exposed" him to Charles. His public career then ended, but he continued to have influence over Charles through correspondence. (89, 5, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon，Amsterdam--Mother lodge to Marshal Nicolas Charles Oudinot, Duke of Reggio Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon，Amsterdam--Mother lodge to Marshal Nicolas Charles Oudinot, Duke of Reggio Loge Saint Napoleon is a French Masonic lodge in Amsterdam founded on October 15, 1810 under the Grand Orient de France (GODF) with Maarschalk Oudinot as chairman. (94, 5, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (60, 81, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: "Fouche, I appoint you to remain the Minister of Police!"-Napoleon After the proclamation of the First French Empire, Fouche again became head of the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804), and later of Internal Affairs, with activities as important as those carried out under the Consulate. (138, 237, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Boves was convicted of smuggling in Venezuela and sentenced to prison, but because of the intercession of fellow Asturian residents in Venezuela, who also worked for Pla y Portal, his sentence was commuted to internal exile in Calabozo. There he became a merchant, and once his sentence was finished, he dealt in livestock, a business which allowed him to become very familiar with the vast Venezuelan grasslands and its people. (139, 237, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (118, 233, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Chapter 1:Haitian Revolution Brothers and friends, I am Toussaint Louverture; perhaps my name has made itself known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want Liberty and Equality to reign in St. Domingue. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers and fight with us for the same cause (120, 232, 1) ***Imp*** Message: "Freedom!" (155, 179, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society In 1794, shortly after his arrival in Manchester, Dalton was elected a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, the "Lit & Phil" and a few weeks later he communicated his first paper on "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours", in which he postulated that shortage in colour perception was caused by discoloration of the liquid medium of the eyeball. As both he and his brother were colour blind, he recognised that the condition must be hereditary. Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his lifetime, the thorough and methodical nature of his research into his visual problem was so broadly recognised that Daltonism became a common term for colour blindness.Examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton had a less common kind of colour blindness, deuteroanopia, in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing (rather than functioning with a mutated form of pigment, as in the most common type of colour blindness, deuteroanomaly).Besides the blue and purple of the optical spectrum he was only able to recognise one colour, yellow, or, as he said in a paper, That part of the image which others call red, appears to me little more than a shade, or defect of light; after that the orange, yellow and green seem one colour, which descends pretty uniformly from an intense to a rare yellow, making what I should call different shades of yellow. (154, 181, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Liverpool (152, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Scafell Pike ( 978 m) (141, 174, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ordnance Survey--military purpose to map Scotland (157, 181, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Watt was much honoured in his own time. In 1784 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam in 1787. In 1789 Watt was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. In 1806 he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow. The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814 (158, 182, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory. Gradually the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines. The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. the firm made a total of 41 engines. Excellent! You have found the 41 Air Elementals as steam engines. (164, 188, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Royal Lodge of Faith and Friendship No. 270 Edward Jenner became a master mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith and Friendship #449. From 1812-1813, he served as worshipful master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith and Friendship. (166, 97, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Scharnhorst, recalled to the king's headquarters, refused a higher post but became chief of staff to Blücher, in whose vigour, energy, and influence with the young soldiers he had complete confidence. Russian Prince Wittgenstein was so impressed by Scharnhorst that he asked to borrow him temporarily as his chief of staff, and Blücher agreed. The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a royal edict of 17 March 1813 by Scharnhorst, which called up all men capable of bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and not serving in the regular army, for the defense of the country. (56, 191, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Chateaubriand arrived in America on 10 July 1791. He then followed the Mohawk Trail up the Niagara Falls where he broke his arm and spent a month in recovery in the company of a Native American tribe. Chateaubriand then describes Native American tribes' customs, as well as zoological, political and economic consideration. This experience provided the setting for his exotic novels Les Natchez (written between 1793 and 1799 but published only in 1826), Atala (1801) and Rene (1802).These novels were written in a style that was very innovative for the time and spearheaded what later became the Romantic movement in France (40, 89, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Legend has it that it was the ill-fated French queen herself who commissioned Breguet's masterpiece, the "Marie Antoinette" (No. 160), which is now widely regarded as one of the most important and valuable timepieces ever made. In fact, it was commissioned in 1783 by a member of the Marie-Antoinette Guards, possibly as a gift for the queen, and it took almost twenty years to complete—work stopped for around seven years (1789-1795) during the period of Breguet's exile—and it was not finished until around 1802. Even by the standards of the day it was an astronomically expensive piece; the commission specifically called for every watch function and complication known at that time and the use of the most valuable materials (including gold, platinum, rubies and sapphires), with no limit placed on time or cost. Breguet company records indicate that the factory costs eventually came to the colossal sum of 30,000 francs - more than six times the cost of Breguet's other major work, (No. 92), which was sold to the Duc De Preslin for 4800 francs. The "Marie Antoinette" remained in the possession of the Breguet company until it was sold to Sir Spencer Brunton in 1887, eventually finding its way into the collection of Breguet expert David Lionel Goldsmid-Stern-Salomons in the 1920s. (39, 89, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Breguet No. 160 "The Grand Complication," more commonly known as the Marie-Antoinette or the Queen, is a case watch designed by Swiss watchmaker Abraham-Louis Breguet, and was his 160th watch.It has been called 'a poem in clockwork'. The watch is thought to have been commissioned in 1783 by Count Hans Axel von Fersen, an admirer and alleged lover of the French Queen, Marie Antoinette.Work on the watch was begun in 1782 and completed by Breguet's son in 1827, four years after Breguet's death. Nowadays the watch is valued at around $30 million (232, 236, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: June 23, 1806, a British expeditionary force of 1,700 men landed on the left bank of the Río de la Plata and invaded Buenos Aires, which had been abandoned by the Viceroy. Liniers remained in the city in disguise, staying in the Dominican convent. At the altar of the Virgin, he vowed to return with the colours (flags) of the British. He escaped to Montevideo and, with the help of its governor Pascual Ruiz Huidobro, galvanized the people, raising a force of 1,200 volunteers.He embarked with this liberation army on a few schooners, which joined a French privateer corvette. (231, 238, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: British invasions of the River Plate In 1805 Popham received orders to escort the David Baird-led expedition against the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good Hope, which was allied with Napoleon. With nearly 6,300 men they took it in January 1806. Popham received new orders from the admiralty to patrol the east coast of South America, from Rio de Janeiro to the Río de la Plata, in order to detect any attempt to counterattack the Cape. However, Popham had the idea of taking the Río de la Plata with a military action similar to the one made at the Cape. The British took Quilmes, near Buenos Aires, on 25 June 1806, and reached and occupied Buenos Aires on 27 June. (232, 237, 1) ***Demon*** Message: the Spain-Clios force attack on you (8, 210, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: St. Charles Lewis and Clark Expedition President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the expedition shortly after the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 to explore and to map the newly acquired territory, to find a practical route across the western half of the continent, and to establish an American presence in this territory before European powers attempted to establish claims in the region. The campaign's secondary objectives were scientific and economic: to study the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and to establish trade with local Native American tribes. The expedition returned to St. Louis to report its findings to Jefferson, with maps, sketches, and journals in hand. (77, 204, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Lewis was a {Freemason}, initiated, passed and raised in the "Door To Virtue Lodge No. 44" in Albemarle, Virginia, between 1796 and 1797.On August 2, 1808, Lewis and several of his acquaintances submitted a petition to the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania requesting dispensation to establish a lodge in St. Louis. Lewis was nominated and recommended to serve as the first Master of the proposed Lodge, which was warranted as Lodge No. 111 on September 16, 1808. William Clark is also a member of the {Freemason}s, a secret fraternal group. The records of his initiation do not exist, but on September 18, 1809, Saint Louis Lodge No. 111 issued a traveling certificate for Clark. (145, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The two men could not come to an agreement, despite their common goals and mutual respect, even when San Martín offered to serve under Bolívar. Both men had very different ideas about how to organize the governments of the countries that they had liberated. Bolívar was in favor of forming a series of republics in the newly independent nations, whereas San Martín preferred the European system of rule and wanted to put monarchies in place. San Martín was also in favor of placing a European prince in power as King of Peru when it was to be liberated. Bolívar proposed a toast to “the two greatest men in South America: the general San Martín and myself” (Por los dos hombres más grandes de la America del Sur: el general San Martín y yo), whereas San Martín drank to “the prompt conclusion of the war, the organization of the different Republics of the continent and the health of the Liberator of Colombia (161, 247, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Similarly to some others in the history of American Independence (George Washington, Miguel Hidalgo, Jose de San Martín, Bernardo O'Higgins, Francisco de Paula Santander, Antonio Nari?o, and Francisco de Miranda), Simón Bolívar was a {Freemason}. He was initiated in 1803 in the Masonic Lodge Lautaro, which operated in Cádiz, Spain. It was in this lodge that he first met some of his revolutionary peers, such as Jose de San Martín. In May 1806 he was conferred the rank of Master Mason in the "Scottish Mother of St. Alexander of Scotland" in Paris. During his time in London, he frequented "The Great American Reunion" lodge in London, founded by Francisco de Miranda. In April 1824, Simón Bolívar was given the 33rd degree of Inspector General Honorary. Simón Bolívar founded the Masonic Lodge No. 2 of Peru, named "Order and Liberty" Intrepid, hopeful, farsighted, indomitable, and profound in his thinking for the welfare of mankind, Bolivar proclaimed, to those who had the vision to see, the following Masonic principles as his life ebbed to the shores beyond: "all of you must work for the inestimable good of the Union; the people obeying the government in order to avoid anarchy; the ministers praying to heaven for guidance; and the military using its sword in defense of social guaranties. If my death contributes to the end of partisanship and the consolidation of the Union, I shall be lowered in peace into my grave." (146, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Guayaquil Conference Win Battle of Carabobo to guarantee the independence of Venezuela The Guayaquil Conference (Spanish: Conferencia de Guayaquil) was a meeting that took place on July 26, 1822, in Guayaquil, Ecuador, between Jose de San Martín and Simón de Bolívar, to discuss the future of Perú (and South America in general). (145, 247, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Antonio Jose de Sucre at your service (227, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Crossing of the Andes(January 19 to February 13, 1817)--one of the most important feats in the Argentine and Chilean wars of independence Capture Buenos Aires in May revolution first Army of the Andes led by Jose de San Martín, the crossing took 21 days. (223, 249, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: O'Higgins remained concerned about the threat of invasion, and had declared after the battle of Chacabuco that "this victory and another hundred shall be of no significance if we do not gain control of the sea". Alongside the Military Academy, he founded the modern Chilean Navy under the command of the Scottish officer Lord Cochrane, establishing the First Chilean Navy Squadron, the Academy for Young Midshipmen (the predecessor of the current Naval Academy), and the Chilean Marine Corps. O'Higgins continued in his desire to see independence across Latin America, utilising his new forces to support San Martín, sending the Liberating expedition to Perú. (215, 180, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Battle of Medina de Rioseco With the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808, Bessières had his first opportunity at independent command He did well against the Spanish, scoring a crushing victory in the Battle of Medina del Rio Seco.The Battle of Medina de Rioseco, also known as the Battle of Moclín, was fought during the Peninsular War on 14 July 1808 when a combined body of Spanish militia and regulars moved to rupture the French line of communications to Madrid.But in the event, Medina de Rioseco proved to be the solitary French triumph in an invasion of Spain (199, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Goyaz (188, 232, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira undertook an extensive journey which crossed the interior of the Amazon Basin to Mato Grosso, between 1783 and 1792. During this journey, he described the agriculture, flora, fauna, and native inhabitants.He went up the Amazon River and the Rio Negro to the border with Spanish lands, and navigated up the Branco River to the mountain of Cananauaru. He went up the Madeira River and the Guapore River to Vila Bela da Santíssima Trindade, then capital of Mato Grosso. Ferreira inventoried the flora and fauna, the indigenous communities and their customs, evaluated the economic opportunities and possible places for centers of population. His was the most important voyage of discovery in Brazil during the colonial period.He continued through the town of Cuiabá, crossing from the Amazon watershed into the marshes of Mato Grosso, in the Prata River watershed. He followed the Cuiabá, S?o Louren?o and Paraguai Rivers. He returned to Belem do Pará in January 1792. (11, 207, 1) ***Event*** Message: Camp Wood(Winter camp) (222, 180, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Humboldt's Spanish American expedition, 1799-1804 Meet Wilhelm von Humboldt at Jena first When Humboldt requested authorization from the crown to travel to Spanish America, most importantly, with his own financing, it was given positive response. Spain under the Habsburg monarchy had guarded its realms against foreigner travelers and intruders. The Bourbon monarch was open to Humboldt's proposal. Spanish Foreign Minister Don Mariano Luis de Urquijo received the formal proposal and Humboldt was presented to the monarch in March 1799. (222, 181, 1) ***Mage*** Message: "Good luck !"Spanish Foreign Minister Don Mariano Luis de Urquijo says. (140, 230, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Cumaná Armed with authorization from the King of Spain, Humboldt and Bonpland made haste to sail, taking the ship Pizarro from A Coru?a, on 5 June 1799. The ship stopped six days on the island of Tenerife, where Humboldt climbed the volcano Teide, and then sailed on to the New World, landing at Cumaná, Venezuela, on 16 July. At Cumaná, Humboldt observed, on the night of 11-12 November,1799, a remarkable meteor shower (the Leonids). (7, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: San Luis Potosí (7, 243, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Humboldt and Bonpland had not intended to go to New Spain, but when they were unable to join a voyage to the Pacific, they left the Ecuadorian port of Guayaquil and headed for Acapulco on Mexico's west coast. meet Spanish Foreign Minister Don Mariano Luis de Urquijo at Madrid first Humboldt spent time at the Valenciana silver mine in Guanajuato, central New Spain, at the time the most important in the Spanish empire. (94, 238, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On their way back to Europe from Mexico on their way to the United States, Humboldt and Bonpland stopped again in Cuba Meet Andres Manuel del Río at Guanajuato City first Humboldt is considered to be the "second discoverer of Cuba" due to the scientific and social research he conducted on this Spanish colony. (93, 238, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: On their way back to Europe from Mexico on their way to the United States, Humboldt and Bonpland stopped again in Cuba, leaving from the port of Veracruz and arriving in Cuba on 7 January 1804, staying until 29 April 1804. In Cuba, he collected plant material and made extensive notes. During this time, he socialized with his scientific and landowner friends, conducted mineralogical surveys, and finished his vast collection of the island's flora and fauna that he eventually published as Essai politique sur l'?sle de Cuba. (6, 243, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Spanish-Mexican scientist, naturalist and engineer Andres Manuel del Río (6, 242, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although Humboldt was himself a trained geologist and mining inspector, he drew on mining experts in Mexico. One was Fausto Elhuyar, then head of the General Mining Court in Mexico City, who, like Humboldt was trained in Freiberg. The Bourbon monarchs had established the mining court and the college to elevate mining as a profession, since revenues from silver constituted the crown's largest source of income. (164, 178, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The {Freemason}s' Tavern,61-65 Great Queen Street, West End of London Prince Edward became Grand Master of the Antient Grand Lodge of England,while his brother Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, became Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England.That year, the Moderns(Premier Grand Lodge of England) formally told the Ancients(Antient Grand Lodge of England) that they had resolved to return to the older ritual, and the process of union began On 27 December 1813 the United Grand Lodge of England at {Freemason}s' Hall, London was constituted of Antient Grand Lodge of England and Premier Grand Lodge of England with the Duke of Sussex as Grand Master.You got one part of the Home Grand Lodges (237, 206, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: MacDonnell was admitted to the military hospital in Cadiz from June 1815 to June 1816.In 1817 he was promoted to vice-admiral and appointed a Minister of the Supreme Council of the Admiralty. In 1820 MacDonnell subdued a mutiny in Cadiz. (226, 232, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental In 1816 Carlos Frederico Lecor led the successful Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental against the Liga Federal of Jose Gervasio Artigas, who had liberated the Banda Oriental (present-day Uruguay) from Spanish rule the year before. The Río de la Plata was strategic because it is the starting point of a large river basin, the fifth in the world, that goes to the heart of South America, from near mining areas in Potosi (current Bolivia), through Paraguay, Mato Grosso and reaching Sao Paulo. Additionally, the Banda Oriental, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, was an area of major agricultural wealth, which was organized on the old dairy and beef production, a staple of African slaves who constituted the Brazilian economic base (226, 235, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A second British invasion aimed to capture Montevideo, which was captured in the Battle of Montevideo. Artigas was taken prisoner, but he managed to escape and returned to the countryside. He organized groups of gauchos and began a guerrilla war against the British. (139, 220, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Saint Kitts and Nevis Alexander Hamilton was born and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis in the Leeward Islands (then part of the British West Indies). Hamilton returned to his homeland and found some valuables including some household silver in the coastal manor where his mother used to be (99, 191, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Robert Townsend (November 25, 1753 - March 7, 1838) was a member of the Culper Ring during the American Revolution. He operated in New York City with the aliases "Samuel Culper, Jr." and "723" and gathered information as a service to General George Washington. He is one of the least-known operatives in the spy ring and once demanded Abraham Woodhull ("Samuel Culper") never to tell his Alias to anyone, even to Washington. Here are Washington's instructions for Woodhull (Culper, Sr.) and Townsend (Culper, Jr.): Culper Senior's station to be upon Long Island to receive and transmit the intelligence of Culper Junior... There can be scarcely any need of recommending the greatest caution and secrecy in a business so critical and dangerous. The following seem to be the best general rules: To entrust none but the persons fixed upon to transmit the business. To deliver the dispatches to none upon our side but those who shall be pitched upon for the purpose of receiving them and to transmit them and any intelligence that may be obtained to no one but the Commander-in-Chief. (96, 195, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tallmadge was in charge of bringing intelligence from British-controlled New York to the Continental army, and he did so by assembling a network of spies known as the Culper Spy Ring, with the help of Abraham Woodhull and Robert Townsend. The Culper Ring was involved in revealing the betrayal of Benedict Arnold. (97, 195, 1) ***Rogue*** Message: You captured Benedict Arnold's British contact Major John Andre.Now we know that Arnold will betray the Continental Army and lead the force of Loyalist to attack Richmond. (96, 193, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Tallmadge then set up a spy network in New York, with Abraham Woodhull as the lead agent. Woodhull began spying in October 1778 and sent his first "Samuel Culper" letter on October 29, 1778 after he had sworn an oath of loyalty to the Crown as cover. (100, 193, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Caleb Brewster (September 12, 1747 - February 13, 1827) was a member of the Culper spy ring during the American Revolutionary War, reporting to General George Washington through Major Benjamin Tallmadge. He carried messages across Long Island Sound between Major Tallmadge and the ring's main spies on Long Island, New York, and in New York City. Brewster served as a courier in what became the Culper spy ring, carrying messages between Woodhull and Tallmadge,and he ran regular trips in whaleboats across the Sound on a variety of smuggling and military missions. Under his arrangement,many spies of Culper Ring join you,carrying military information about New York (91, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: James River (88, 208, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: defeat Arnold's force of Loyalist "green-coats", consisting of infantry, dragoons, and artillery,and protect Richmond's military supplies and the foundry of (89, 208, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: capture Benedict Arnold's British contact Major John Andre first capture Benedict Arnold's British contact Major John Andre first From the 1st to the 3rd of January, Arnold's fleet sailed up the James River,aiming at Richmond.But due to our .Due to our intelligence work and the success of the culper ring, we are well prepared (153, 180, 1) ***Event*** Message: An event that can be triggered infinitely by red players -- the cloud of eternal loneliness The inspiration for the poem came from a walk Wordsworth took with his sister Dorothy around Glencoyne Bay, Ullswater, here in the Lake District.Throughout this period many of Wordsworth's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief.He then known as the "Lake Poets" I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine and twinkle on the Milky Way, They stretched in never-ending line along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced; but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, in such a jocund company: I gazed—and gazed—but little thought what wealth the show to me had brought: For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils. (156, 140, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1796, Numbered bank accounts originated during the Hapsburg era. clients must pass a multi-stage clearance procedure and prove to the bank the lawful origins of their assets. Numbered bank accounts are bank accounts wherein the identity of the holder is replaced with a multi-digit number known only to the client( beneficial owner) and select private bankers. (74, 236, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Adams-Onís Treaty The Adams-Onís Treaty was negotiated under U.S. President James Monroe,find him in Louisiana Purchase Spain ceded Florida to the United States in 1819, and St. Augustine was designated the capital of the Florida Territory upon ratification of the Adams-Onís Treaty in 1821. (58, 163, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (59, 163, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix Degrees of Fellowcraft of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (57, 163, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Military Lodge Chevaliers de la Croix Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (58, 164, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Portuguese Military Lodge, Chevaliers de la Croix (Knights of the Cross),Grenoble Gomes Freire de Andrade belonged to the Portuguese Military Lodge, Chevaliers de la Croix (Knights of the Cross) in Grenoble, between 1808 and 1813. And even today Freire is revered as one of the great Masons and a martyr for liberty, having numerous lodges named after him and many initiates choosing his as their symbolic name.Freire was initiated into {{Freemason}ry} before 1785, probably in the Vienna Masonic lodge Zur gekr?nten Hoffnung (To Hope Crowned) an organization to which he is known to have belonged together with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart by 1790, attaining the rank of Worshipful Master of the Regeneration. In 1801 a meeting was held in his home which led to the organization of Portuguese {{Freemason}ry}, with the subsequent creation in 1802 of the Grande Oriente Lusitano, the oldest Portuguese Masonic order, of which he became the 5th Grand Master, c. 1815-1817. Freire also belonged to the Portuguese Military Lodge, Chevaliers de la Croix (Knights of the Cross) in Grenoble, between 1808 and 1813. (249, 3, 1) ***Master Genie*** Message: Leading figure of the Russian Enlightenment Alexander Labzin met you in front of his influential St. Petersburg masonic lodge, The Dying Sphinx. (248, 3, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (246, 3, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (247, 3, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (250, 2, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge Lodge Aux trois Etoiles,St.Petersburg--Mother lodge to Count Alexandre Vasilievecu Suvorov Masonic lodge Lodge Aux trois Etoiles,St.Petersburg--Mother lodge to Count Alexandre Vasilievecu Suvorov Suvorov became a Member of {Freemason} in Lodge Aux trois Etoiles, St. Petersburg. (250, 3, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Masonic Lodge of the Dying Sphinx, St Petersburg Alexander Fyodorovich Labzin developed an idiosyncratic mystical system and founded an influential St. Petersburg masonic lodge, The Dying Sphinx.{{Freemason}ry} in Russia included many well-known Russian figures including Alexander Suvorov, Mikhail Kutuzov.The Decembrists was also sprung from the Masonic lodges. (91, 204, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} was a widely accepted institution in the late 18th century, known for advocating moral teachings.Washington was attracted to the Masons' dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason, and brotherhood. The American Masonic lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective of the controversial European lodges A Masonic lodge was established in Fredericksburg in September 1752, and Washington was initiated two months later at the age of 20 as one of its first Entered Apprentices. Within a year, he progressed through its ranks to become a Master Mason In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges asked him to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia (93, 205, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Virginia Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Virginia You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Virginia ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (94, 205, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of Virginia Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of Virginia Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (92, 205, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of Virginia Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of Virginia Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (95, 207, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: While in the field, Charles Willson Peale continued to paint, doing miniature portraits of various officers in the Continental Army. (91, 206, 1) ***Sign*** Message: College of William & Mary,Williamsburg,Virginia (96, 206, 1) ***Event*** Message: Chesapeake Bay (93, 206, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Flat Hat Club The Flat Hat Club formally named the "F.H.C. Society" was founded in 1750 at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia.The initials of the F.H.C. Society stand for a secret Latin phrase, likely "Fraternitas, Humanitas, et Cognitio" or "Fraternitas Humanitas Cognitioque" (two renderings of "brotherhood, humanity, and knowledge").The "brothers" of the original F.H.C. devised and employed a secret handshake, wore a silver membership medal, issued certificates of membership, and met regularly for discussion and fellowship The F.H.C. Society is the first recorded collegiate secret society in the United States of America. (95, 206, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: William & Mary alumnus and third American president Thomas Jefferson may be the most famous member of the Flat Hat Club Other notable members of the original group included Colonel James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. (59, 87, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Conspiracy of the Equals The Conspiracy of the Equals (French: Conjuration des egaux) of May 1796 was led by Francois-Noel Babeuf, who wanted to overthrow the Directory and replace it with an egalitarian and proto-socialist republic, inspired by Jacobin ideals.The ultimate goal of Fran?ois-No?l Babeuf and his comrades was absolute equality. The purpose of the Conspiracy was to continue revolution and to lead it to the collectivisation of lands and the means of production to 'put an end to civil dissension and public poverty.’ The universal misery gave point to virulent attacks by Babeuf on the existing order, and gained him a hearing. He gathered around him a small circle of followers known as the Societe des egaux, soon merged with the rump of the Jacobin Club, who met at the Pantheon (59, 86, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: A cry went up that national bankruptcy had been declared, and thousands of the lower class of ouvriers began to rally to Babeuf's flag (58, 86, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: From 11 April, Paris was placarded with posters headed Analyse de la Doctrine de Baboeuf [sic], Tribun du Peuple, of which the opening sentence ran: "Nature has given to every man the right to the enjoyment of an equal share in all property", and which ended with a call to restore the Constitution of 1793. The Jacobins are now united with the socialists of Conspiracy of the Equals and vowed to achieve fairness and justice for the Republic (213, 0, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Walhalla-orden--a secret society thought to have been instrumental in setting in motion forces that eventually caused Finnish independence (211, 1, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The society began on a strict loyalist foundation and stayed nominally in support of the constitution, but after a short time its membership became primarily composed of officers stationed there who had a grievance with Gustav III. This assumption is supported by the fact that nearly all of the people implicated in the Anjala conspiracy, including its leadership, were members of it.It is thought that the meetings of the Walhalla-orden may have been the first discussions in which Finnish independence was proposed as a serious idea. (233, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Garduna-a mythical secret criminal society in Spaincarried out the dirtywork oftheInquisition,involved with robberykidnapping, arson,murderforhire (245, 199, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Garduna-a mythical secret criminal society in Spaincarried out the dirtywork oftheInquisition,involved with robberykidnapping, arson,murderforhire (236, 183, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Garduna-a mythical secret criminal society in Spaincarried out the dirtywork oftheInquisition,involved with robberykidnapping, arson,murderforhire (135, 174, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of the 'second Gardener' --Noah Degrees of the 'second Gardener' --Noah Noah made the Companion symbolically accomplish a voyage that led him towards the Garden of Eden then towards that of Gethsemane. (135, 176, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Order of Free Gardeners--strongly influenced during the 19th century by that of {{Freemason}ry},Like numerous other friendly societies of the time (135, 175, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of The admission ritual of the Free Gardeners' apprentices-- Adam Degrees of The admission ritual of the Free Gardeners' apprentices-- Adam Adam could thus symbolically be the first Free Gardener. Use is made of the compass and the square, to which is added the pruning knife, presented as 'the simplest tool of gardening', allowing 'pruning the vices and propagating virtues by cuttings'. (134, 174, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The third degree made reference to Solomon, the 'third Gardener' The third degree made reference to Solomon, the 'third Gardener' The third degree made reference to Solomon, the 'third Gardener', and to the symbol of the olive tree (137, 171, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: the Horseman's Word was founded to cater to the growing number of individuals who worked with draft horses in north-eastern Scotland. Its members included horse trainers, blacksmiths, and ploughmen, all of whom were of lower economic and class status in Scottish society. "unmarried ploughmen lived hard lives, drank hard, played rough and chased women." The group also had a semi-religious dimension, teaching its members various rituals designed to provide them with the ability to control both horses and women. Membership of the society required an initiation ceremony, during which Horsemen read passages from the Bible backwards, and the secrets included Masonic-style oaths, gestures, passwords and handshakes. (137, 172, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Horseman's Word-- a fraternal secret society operating in Britain for those who work with horses established in north-eastern Scotland (156, 175, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Miller's Word--in imitation of the Mason's Word, its foundation was local groups with initiations, passwords, and secret trade knowledge (156, 174, 1) ***Devil*** Message: the Miller's Word identified members of a trade guild formed to restrict entry into and control the profession of grain milling, as well as to protect its members' interests The Miller's Word introduced an element of deliberate diabolism into its symbolism and ceremonies. Oaths sworn at its initiations apparently derive from oaths supposedly sworn by witches in making pacts with the devil.The word could allegedly set the workings of a mill into motion without the aid of human assistance. (71, 75, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Order of Saint Michael Awarded by the King of France Type:Dynastic order Established:1 August 1469 Royal house:House of France Religious affiliation:Roman Catholicism Ribbon:Black Motto:Latin: Immensi tremor oceani Status:Abolished by decree of Louis XVI on 20 June 1790 Reestablished by Louis XVIII on 16 November 1816 Founder :Louis XI of France Precedence Next (higher):Order of the Holy Spirit Next (lower):Order of Saint Louis Saint-Michel Order (1460-1830) can be considered as the precursor of the Order of the Arts and Lettres. Originally destined to the aristocracy, from 17th to 18th centuries it became an order of civil merit, which distinguished many artists, architects, collectors, and people of lettres By letters patent dated 15 August 1555, the seat of the Order was transferred to the royal Chateau de Vincennes outside Paris.As a chivalric order, its goal was to confirm the loyalty of its knights to the king. (152, 105, 1) ***Champion*** Message: "The 18th degree is called Knight of the Rose Croix." (115, 109, 1) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: The element of spirit does not have the same arrangements of correspondences as the physical elements since spirit is not physical. Various systems may associate planets, tools, and so forth to it, but such correspondences are far less standardized than those of the other four elements. The element of spirit goes by several names. The most common are spirit, ether or aether, and quintessence, which is Latin for "fifth element." There is also no standard symbol for spirit, although circles are common. Eight-spoked wheels and spirals are also sometimes used to represent spirit. Spirit is a bridge between the physical and the spiritual. In cosmological models, the spirit is the transitory material between the physical and celestial realms. Within the microcosm, the spirit is the bridge between body and soul. Golden Dawn Direction: Above, Below, Within Golden Dawn Color: Violet, Orange, White (114, 109, 1) ***Air Elemental*** Message: Air is the element of intelligence, creativity, and beginnings. Largely intangible and without permanent form, air is an active, masculine element, superior to the more material elements of water and earth. Qualities: Warm, Moist Gender: Masculine (active) Elemental: Sylphs (Invisible beings) Golden Dawn Direction: East Golden Dawn Color: Yellow Magical Tool: Wand, sometimes sword, dagger or athame Planets: Jupiter Zodiac Signs: Gemini, Libra, Aquarius Season: Spring Time of Day: Morning, Sunrise (116, 110, 1) ***Water Elemental*** Message: Water is the element of emotion and the unconscious, as opposed to the conscious intellectualism of air. Water is one of two elements that have a physical existence that can interact with all of the physical senses. Water is still considered less material (and thus superior) to earth because it possesses more motion and activity than earth. Qualities: Cold, Moist Gender: Feminine (passive) Elemental: Undines (water-based nymphs) Golden Dawn Direction: West Golden Dawn Color: Blue Magical Tool: Cup Planets: Moon, Venus Zodiac Signs: Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces Season: Fall Time of Day: Sunset (115, 112, 1) ***Fire Elemental*** Message: Fire is associated with strength, activity, blood, and life-force. It is also seen as highly purifying and protective, consuming impurities and driving back the darkness. Fire is traditionally seen as the most rarefied and spiritual of the physical elements because of its masculine properties (which were superior to female properties). It also lacks physical existence, produces light, and has a transformative power when it comes in contact with more physical material. Qualities: Warm, Dry Gender: Masculine (active) Elemental: Salamander (Here referring to a mythological lizard creature which could burst into flames) Golden Dawn Direction: South Golden Dawn ?Color: Red Magical Tool: Sword, athame, dagger, sometimes wand Planets: Sol (Sun), Mars Zodiac signs: Aries, Leo, Sagittarius Season: Summer Time of Day: Noon (115, 111, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Ingolstadt Illuminati lodge Class II of Ingolstadt Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (114, 111, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Ingolstadt Illuminati lodge Class III of Ingolstadt Illuminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (113, 111, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Ingolstadt Illuminati lodge Class I of Ingolstadt Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (113, 112, 1) ***Earth Elemental*** Message: Earth is the element of stability, groundedness, fertility, materiality, potential, and stillness. Earth can also be an element of beginnings and endings, or death and rebirth, as life comes from the ground and then decomposes back into the earth after death. Qualities: Cold, Dry Gender: Feminine (passive) Elemental: Gnomes Golden Dawn Direction: North Golden Dawn Color: Green Magical Tool: Pentacle Planets: Saturn Zodiac Signs: Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn Season: Winter Time of Day: Midnight (115, 107, 1) ***Event*** Message: University of Ingolstadt--upwards; The founding lodge of the Illuminati, Illuminati of Ingolstadt--downwards. The process of the establishment of the Illuminati was introduced by some people to some rituals of natural mysticism, related to the five elements (115, 110, 1) ***Archangel*** Message: You met German philosopher, professor of civil law and later canon law, and founder of the Illuminati Adam Weishaupt . Finding {{Freemason}ry} expensive, and not open to his ideas, he founded his own society which was to have a system of ranks or grades based on those in {{Freemason}ry}, but with his own agenda. (114, 112, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (7, 170, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort William (63, 168, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Hudson's Bay Company (1, 169, 1) ***Ogre*** Message: So you come for Fur trade? North West Company or Hudson's Bay Company ,which one do you work for?--Indian leader asked (4, 19, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Middle Temple --the western part of "The Temple" (7, 18, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Temple Church-- built by the Knights Templar as their English headquarters. (10, 18, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Temple, London (6, 20, 1) ***Giant*** Message: Inner Sanctum --Consisting of an elite group of nine Templars, the Inner Sanctum harbors direct knowledge of all of the order's plans and is the nucleus from which orders are relayed to the other Rites.May the father of understanding guide us (0, 25, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: During the Crusades the Knights Templar battle for God, gold and glory.The Knights Templar's fabled treasure has become the stuff of legends since their untimely demise in the early 1300s. Now you find the General of the Cross-- the true head of the Templar Order. Here he and his men ,those Templars ,are defending one of legends grail. (3, 19, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Holy Royal Arch --a degree of {{Freemason}ry}. The Royal Arch is present in all main masonic systems, though in some it is worked as part of Craft ('mainstream') {{Freemason}ry}, and in others in an appendant ('additional') order. Royal Arch Masons meet as a Chapter; in the Supreme Order of the Holy Royal Arch as practised in the British Isles, much of Europe and the Commonwealth, Chapters confer the single degree of Royal Arch Mason. In the British Isles, most of continental Europe (including the masonically expanding states of eastern Europe),and most nations of the Commonwealth (with the notable exception of Canada), the teachings of Royal Arch Masonry are contained in the "Supreme Order of the Holy Royal Arch" - a stand-alone degree of {{Freemason}ry} which is open to those who have completed the three Craft degrees. Until 1823, only {Freemason}s who had previously passed through the chair of a Craft lodge were allowed to join. Today, candidates for an English Holy Royal Arch Chapter are required to have been a Master Mason for four weeks or more. In {{Freemason}ry} in Scotland, the candidate for the Royal Arch must also be a Mark Master Mason, a degree which is part of the Royal Arch series. It can be worked in the Chapter, or more often has been worked in a Scottish Lodge. After the Mark degree, a candidate must receive the Excellent Master degree, before being exalted to the Royal Arch degree. In Ireland a candidate must be a Master Mason for one year before being admitted as a member of a Royal Arch Chapter. The Degree of Mark Master Mason is taken separately first and only then can the Royal Arch Degree be taken. In the United States, Canada, Brazil, Israel, Mexico, Paraguay and the Philippines, the Royal Arch is not worked as a stand-alone degree as described above, but forms part of the York Rite system of additional Masonic degrees. Royal Arch Masons in the York Rite also meet as a Chapter, but the Royal Arch Chapter of the York Rite confers four different degrees: 'Mark Master Mason', 'Virtual Past Master', 'Most Excellent Master', and 'Royal Arch Mason'. While the York Rite degree of 'Royal Arch Mason' is roughly comparable to the Supreme Order of the Holy Royal Arch as practised in England and Wales, the other degrees may have equivalents in other appendant orders. (2, 19, 1) ***Archangel*** Message: The Council of Elders--one of the guiding bodies of the Templar Order.It operates as a separate entity from the order's governing structure to ensure and maintain the integrity of the Templar government itself by influencing and guiding of the governing structures, having a similar function as the Black Cross. (1, 23, 1) ***Sword of Hellfire*** Message: The embellishing of the pommel, with its decorative cross, was common on Templar swords. As a medieval weapon, the Two handed Templar sword is an imposing, powerful yet elegant piece. Hefty, yet carefully balanced for optimum functionality, the sword is resilient, reliable and virtually indestructible. (0, 24, 1) ***Titan*** Message: The Guardian-- the bridge between the Inner Sanctum and the General of the Cross, the medium through which communication between the two exists. There are three Guardians. (1, 22, 1) ***Sandals of the Saint*** Message: The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomo (112, 85, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Teutonic Order--The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem(official names: Latin: Ordo domus Sanctae Mariae Theutonicorum Hierosolymitanorum; German: Orden der Brüder vom Deutschen Haus der Heiligen Maria in Jerusalem), commonly the Teutonic Order (Deutscher Orden, Deutschherrenorden or Deutschritterorden), is a Catholic religious order founded as a military order c.?1190 in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Teutonic Order was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to the Holy Land and to establish hospitals. Its members have commonly been known as the Teutonic Knights, having a small voluntary and mercenary military membership, serving as a crusading military order for the protection of Christians in the Holy Land and the Baltics during the Middle Ages. Purely religious since 1810, the Teutonic Order still confers limited honorary knighthoods.The Bailiwick of Utrecht of the Teutonic Order, a Protestant chivalric order, is descended from the same medieval military order and also continues to award knighthoods and perform charitable work The Order gradually lost control of these holdings until, by 1809, only the seat of the Grand Master at Mergentheim remained. The Grand Masters, often members of the great German families (and, after 1761, members of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine), continued to preside over the Order's considerable holdings in Germany. Teutonic Knights from Germany, Austria, and Bohemia were used as battlefield commanders leading mercenaries for the Habsburg Monarchy during the Ottoman wars in Europe. The Knights of Teutonic Order wore white surcoats with a black cross. A cross pattee was sometimes used as their coat of arms; this image was later used for military decoration and insignia by the Kingdom of Prussia and Germany as the Iron Cross and Pour le Merite. The motto of the Order was: "Helfen, Wehren, Heilen" ("Help, Defend, Heal"). (21, 17, 1) ***Bird of Perception*** Message: A unique diamond encrusted "eagle", referred to as the "Diamond Eagle", was gifted to George Washington by Admiral Comte d'Estaing, on behalf the officers of the French Navy. It was received by Washington on May 11, 1784 at the meeting of the General Society in Philadelphia. Upon Washington's death, in 1799, it was given by his heirs to Alexander Hamilton, who succeeded Washington as President of the Society. Upon Hamilton's death it was given to Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, who succeeded Hamilton as the Society's president. It has ever since served as the official insignia of the Society's president and is transferred when a new president takes office. In the late 20th century, a copy of the Diamond Eagle was made, which is worn by the president on occasions other than the Triennial Meeting (231, 154, 1) ***Chaos Hydra*** Message: "Hail, Hydra! Immortal Hydra! We shall never be destroyed! Cut off a limb and two more shall take its place! We serve none but the Master—as the world shall soon serve us! Hail Hydra!" (240, 149, 1) ***Chaos Hydra*** Message: "HYDRA created a world so chaotic that humanity is finally ready to sacrifice its freedom to gain its security. Once the purification process is complete, HYDRA's new world order will arise." (240, 156, 1) ***Chaos Hydra*** Message: "Hail, Hydra! Immortal Hydra! We shall never be destroyed! Cut off a limb and two more shall take its place! We serve none but the Master—as the world shall soon serve us! Hail Hydra!" (236, 154, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Over the millennia, the society grew and evolved, taking many different shapes and being called by many different names. Eventually, they society came in possession of the Monolith and started sending men through the portal, hoping to save or at least serve their leader on the other side. But none of them ever came back. As its symbols changed, the society became known as HYDRA, with its final and best-known symbol being inspired by the Inhuman's true form. "Cut off a head, two more will take its place." Centuries of Attempts "Will he come back?" "Our best minds are working to understand this. But as far as we know, in all of history... no one has ever returned." -Younger Lord and Thornally (240, 153, 1) ***Chaos Hydra*** Message: "HYDRA was founded on the belief that humanity could not be trusted with its own freedom. What we did not realize is that if you try to take that freedom, they resist. The war taught us much. Humanity needed to surrender its freedom willingly. And when history did not cooperate, history was changed." (241, 153, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "It's a head." "Cut off a limb." "Cut off a limb, two more will take its place." (242, 153, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Cut off a head." "Cut off a head." "Is it a head? I thought it was a limb." (142, 176, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Presbyterianism--a part of the Calvinist tradition within Protestantism that traces its origin to Church of Scotland. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists. Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble, but also cassock and surplice (typically a full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past. Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the Acts of Union in 1707,which created the Kingdom of Great Britain. Ruling elders are men and women who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to the full congregation. (103, 190, 1) ***Event*** Message: Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau in command of some French troops， landed at Newport, Rhode Island (66, 82, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: While the actual pitched battle was short, the French infantry, under Marshal Marmont, and most of all the cavalry, under General Emmanuel de Grouchy, launched a relentless pursuit that rode down the enemy.[5] Retreating in slow-moving square formations in broad daylight and along some excellent cavalry terrain, the Coalition forces suffered very heavy losses, with several squares broken by the French cavalry. At nightfall, combat ceased and Blücher opted for an exhausting night march in order to take his remaining forces to safety.On the morning of 14 February, Blücher, commanding a Prussian Corps and elements of two Russian Corps, resumed his attack against Marmont. (67, 82, 1) ***Champion*** Message: Grande Armee under Napoleon I (65, 137, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge L'Union Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge L'Union Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (244, 1, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Decembrist revolt In 1816, several officers of the Imperial Russian Guard founded a society known as the Union of Salvation, or of the Faithful and True Sons of the Fatherland. The society acquired a revolutionary cast after it was joined by the idealistic Pavel Pestel. The charter was similar to charters of the organizations of Carbonari. Two groups, function secretly: a Southern Society, based at Tulchin, a small garrison town in Ukraine, in which Pestel was the outstanding figure and a Northern Society, based at Saint Petersburg, led by guard officers Nikita Muraviev, Prince S. P. Trubetskoy and Prince Eugene Obolensky.When Tsar Alexander I died on 1 December [O.S. 19 November] 1825, the royal guards swore allegiance to the presumed heir, Alexander's brother Constantine. When Constantine made his renunciation public, and Nicholas stepped forward to assume the throne, the Northern Society acted. With the capital in temporary confusion, and one oath to Constantine having already been sworn, the society scrambled in secret meetings to convince regimental leaders not to swear allegiance to Nicholas. These efforts culminated in the Decembrist Revolt. The leaders of the society elected Prince Sergei Trubetskoy as interim ruler (243, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: On the morning of 26 December [O.S. 14 December], a group of officers commanding about 3,000 men (elements of Life-Guards Moscow Regiment, Grenadier Life Guards Regiment, and Naval Equipage of the Guard) assembled in Senate Square, where they refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar, Nicholas I, proclaiming instead their loyalty to Constantine. (152, 180, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Lake Poets The Lake Poets were a group of English poets who all lived in the Lake District of England, United Kingdom, in the first half of the nineteenth century. As a group, they followed no single "school" of thought or literary practice then known. They were named, only to be uniformly disparaged, by the Edinburgh Review. They are considered part of the Romantic Movement. The three main figures of what has become known as the Lakes School were William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey. They were associated with several other poets and writers, including Dorothy Wordsworth, Charles Lamb, Mary Lamb, Charles Lloyd, Hartley Coleridge, John Wilson, and Thomas De Quincey. For other writers, the region's pull was more uncertain. Coleridge followed Wordsworth to the Lakes and moved into Greta Hall in 1800.Coleridge was regarded by many as the greatest living writer on the demonic (93, 5, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (92, 5, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Saint Napoleon Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (109, 122, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (104, 122, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati of Ravensberg (Sparta) meet Adam Weishaupt,the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati at Ingolstadt Illuminati of Ravensberg (Sparta) established (107, 122, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Ravensberg Illuminati lodge Class II of Ravensberg Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (105, 122, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Ravensberg Illuminati lodge Class I of Ravensberg Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (106, 122, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Ravensberg Illuminati lodge Class III of Ravensberg Illuminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (237, 192, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (238, 193, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Bailen finish Dos de Mayo Uprising first Sick and burdened with wagons of loot, General Pierre Dupont de l'etang unwisely decided to await reinforcements from Madrid (237, 189, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Guadalimar river (238, 197, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Castle of Santa Catalina (Jaen) (236, 196, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Former Prime Minister of Spain ,Spanish statesman and diplomat Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda is confined here--Jaen After the imprisonment of Louis XVI (August, 1792) and the proclamation of the Republic in France (September), Aranda's Enlightenment leanings seemed incompatible with the total war that several European monarchies were about to declare against revolutionary France. Aranda was therefore replaced by Manuel Godoy in November. After the defeat of Spanish Army in Roussillon, Godoy and Aranda publicly quarreled in the Council of State. That same night Aranda was arrested and confined to Jaen. He used studied and lived in Paris, where he met Diderot, Voltaire and D'Alembert and studied the Encyclopedie and Enlightenment movements.He promoted many enlightened reforms and he supported the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767. (237, 196, 1) ***Zealot*** Message: I drafted a projected Commonwealth for the Spanish Empire: three independent kingdoms (Peru, Tierra Firme (New Granada and Venezuela) and Mexico) with three Spanish infantes in their thrones. The Spanish king would remain as the Spanish Emperor.--Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea y Jimenez de Urrea ，10th Count of Aranda，who studied the Encyclopedie and Enlightenment movements in early years. (187, 2, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Swedish order of {Freemason}'s states that "{{Freemason}ry} in Sweden has continued to develop under leadership of their Grand Masters, all of them belonging to the Royal House since more than 200 years".Duke Charles, the grand master of the Swedish {Freemason}s was known for his interest in the supernatural and mysticism. Find Swedish mystic, {Freemason}, merchant and royal secretary Carl Adolf Andersson Boheman.He was in Montmedy recently, where he was involved in assisting the Varena flight of the French royal family. Boheman came to Stockholm and was introduced to Duke Charles, the grand master of the Swedish {Freemason}s, acquired a great deal of influence upon Prince Charles and his consort, Duchess Charlotte, who were both interested in mystic and the occult (61, 87, 1) ***Sign*** Message: "A grateful nation honors its great men." (62, 88, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Revolution - The "Temple of the Nation" The Church of Saint Genevieve was nearly complete, with only the interior decoration unfinished, when the French Revolution began in 1789. In 1790, the Marquis de Vilette proposed that it be made a temple devoted to liberty, on the model of the Pantheon in Rome. "Let us install statues of our great men and lay their ashes to rest in its underground recesses." Interment in the crypt of the Pantheon is severely restricted and is allowed only by a parliamentary act for "National Heroes". "To the great men, from a grateful nation" ("Aux grands hommes la patrie reconnaissante") (59, 90, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: Tomb of Voltaire (59, 91, 1) ***Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment*** Message: The facade and peristyle on the east side, modeled after a Greek temple, features Corinthian columns and sculpture by David d'Angers, completed in 1837. The sculpture on this pediment, replacing an early pediment with religious themes, represents "The Nation distributing crowns handed to her by Liberty to great men, civil and military, while history inscribes their names". To the left are figures of distinguished scientists, philosophers, and statesmen, including Rousseau, Voltaire, Lafayette, and Bichat. (60, 91, 1) ***Sword of Judgement*** Message: To the right is Napoleon Bonaparte, along with soldiers from each military service and students in uniform from the ecole Polytechnique (108, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Inagua (203, 153, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 165, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (87, 163, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (217, 215, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Stormy weather induced Russian admiral Senyavin and his fleet to enter the Tagus River and cast anchor in Lisbon .Within several days, John VI of Portugal fled to the Portuguese colony of Brazil and the Royal Navy blockaded Lisbon,intercepting a Russian sloop as an enemy vessel: the Anglo-Russian War had been declared. In November, French forces under Jean-Andoche Junot overran the Portuguese capital and Senyavin found himself wedged between two warring powers and consequently professed his neutrality. (12, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Land at Acapulco, Mexico. Land the Malaspina Expeditionat Acapulco, Mexico. Being in Mexico, the expedition received an order from the new king of Spain Charles IV, to search for a Northwest Passage recently rumored to have been discovered, which forced Malaspina to abandon his plans to sail to Hawaii, Kamchatka, and the Pacific Northwest (39, 227, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tallapoosa river (42, 230, 1) ***Event*** Message: This group made up the majority of the Florida St.Augustine's population during the period of British rule, and remained when the Spanish Crown took control again was, and still is, referred to locally as "Menorcans", even though it also included settlers from Italy, Corsica and the Greek islands. (80, 238, 1) ***Event*** Message: Settlers from Corsica also made up t of the Florida St.Augustine's population during the period of British rule, and remained when the Spanish Crown took control again was, and still is (82, 238, 1) ***Zombie*** Message: because of the political sympathies of its British inhabitants, St. Augustine became a Loyalist haven during the American Revolutionary War (83, 238, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Local militia composed of Florida, Georgia, and Carolina inhabitants formed the East Florida Rangers in 1776 and were reorganized to form the King's Rangers in 1779 (55, 85, 1) ***Inexhaustible Cart of Ore*** Message: The mines of Paris (in French carrières de Paris — "quarries of Paris") comprise a number of abandoned, subterranean mines under Paris, France, connected together by galleries. Three main networks exist; the largest, known as the grand reseau sud ("large south network"), lies under the 5th, 6th, 14th and 15th arrondissements, a second under the 13th arrondissement, and a third under the 16th, though other minor networks are found under the 12th, 14th and 16th for instance. The commercial product was Lutetian limestone for use as a building material, as well as gypsum for use in "plaster of Paris".The entire subterranean network is commonly but mistakenly referred to as "the catacombs". Open-air quarrying became quite difficult and even costly when the desired minerals lay below the surface (47, 147, 1) ***Event*** Message: Traboules (from Latin transambulare via vulgar Latin trabulare meaning "to cross") -- a type of secret covered passageways primarily associated with the city of Lyon, France (214, 212, 1) ***Basilisk*** Message: The Sintra Mountains (Portuguese: Serra de Sintra), is a mountain range in western Portugal. Its highest point at (529 meters [1736 ft]) is near Sintra. The range covers about 16 kilometers (10 mi) from the resort town of Sintra to Cabo da Roca (Cape Roca) on the Atlantic Ocean. It was known to the Ancient World as Lunae Mons (mountain of the Moon) and was the legendary retreat of Diana the Huntress (known as Cynthia to the Romans, from the Greek Κ?νθια, hence ?intra). It has a rich fauna, foxes, genet, moles, salamanders, peregrine falcons, vipers and various species of scaly reptiles. (235, 208, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Guadalquivir river (168, 186, 1) ***Event*** Message: Portland Stone or Portland Stone Formation is a limestone formation from the Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset, England. The quarries are cut in beds of white-grey limestone separated by chert beds. It has been used extensively as a building stone throughout the British Isles, notably in major public buildings in London (151, 191, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: From 1778 onwards a number of local militias known as the Irish Volunteers were raised in response to the withdrawal of regular forces to fight in the American Revolutionary War. Thousands of middle- and upper-class Anglicans, along with a few Presbyterians and Catholics, joined the Volunteers, who became central to the growing sense of a distinct Irish political identity. Although the Volunteers were formed to defend Ireland against possible French invasion, many of their members and others in the "patriot" movement became strongly influenced by American efforts to secure independence, which were widely discussed in the Irish press. Close links with recent emigrants meant that northern Presbyterians were particularly sympathetic to the Americans, who they felt were subject to the same injustices (155, 193, 1) ***Event*** Message: A "gold rush" in the late 18th and early 19th centuries at Gold Mines River, Wicklow (117, 234, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The War of Knives (French: Guerre des couteaux), also known as the War of the South, was a civil war from June 1799 to July 1800 between the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture, a black ex-slave who controlled the north of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), and his adversary Andre Rigaud, a mixed-race free person of color who controlled the south. Louverture and Rigaud fought over de facto control of the French colony of Saint-Domingue during the war. Their conflict followed the withdrawal of British forces from the colony during the early stages of the Haitian Revolution. The war resulted in Toussaint taking control of the entirety of Saint-Domingue, and Rigaud fleeing into exile. In March 1801, Louverture appointed a constitutional assembly, composed chiefly of white planters, to draft a constitution for Saint-Domingue. He promulgated the Constitution on 7 July 1801, officially establishing his authority over the entire island of Hispaniola. It made him governor-general for life with near absolute powers and the possibility of choosing his successor. (118, 234, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The War of Knives (119, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The War of Knives (French: Guerre des couteaux), also known as the War of the South, was a civil war from June 1799 to July 1800 between the Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture, a black ex-slave who controlled the north of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti), and his adversary Andre Rigaud, a mixed-race free person of color who controlled the south. (227, 246, 1) ***Nomad*** Message: A gaucho or gaúcho is a skilled horseman, reputed to be brave and unruly. The figure of the gaucho is a folk symbol of Argentina, Uruguay, Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, and the south of Chilean Patagonia. (164, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Then they sailed over to the Falkland Islands, and from there they headed towards Cape Horn, crossing to the Pacific Ocean on November 13, and stopping at Talcahuano, the port of Concepción in present-day Chile, and again at Valparaíso, the port of Santiago. Visit Montevideo first Continuing north, Bustamante mapped the coast while Malaspina sailed to Juan Fernández Islands in order to resolve conflicting data on their location. The two ships reunited at Callao, the port of Lima, in Peru, where they carried out investigations about the political situation of the Viceroyalty of Peru. (83, 174, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Prince Edward requested to be transferred to present-day Canada, specifically Quebec, in 1791 Edward arrived in Canada in time to witness the proclamation of the Constitutional Act of 1791, become the first member of the Royal Family to tour Upper Canada and became a fixture of British North American society. (152, 143, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Burgtheater please offer financial support to Beethoven who recently developed a reputation as a performer and improviser in the salons of the Viennese nobility On Mar 29 ,1795,Beethoven (24) debuted as pianist in Vienna. (154, 144, 1) ***Monk*** Message: "We are the leaders of the ethnic Romanians of Transylvania ,and we represent Romanian intellectuals to deliver the petition Supplex Libellus Valachorum to the Emperor in Vienna." (153, 143, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Theater an der Wien The theatre was the brainchild of the Viennese theatrical impresario Emanuel Schikaneder, who is best known as Mozart's librettist and collaborator on the opera The Magic Flute (1791). Schikaneder's troupe had already been successfully performing for several years in Vienna in the smaller Theater auf der Wieden and this is where The Magic Flute had premiered. As the troupe's performances often emphasized spectacle and scenery, the librettist felt ready to move to a larger and better equipped venue. He had already been granted an imperial licence to build a new theatre in 1786, but it was only in 1798 that he felt ready to act on this authorization. The building was designed by the architect Franz J?ger in Empire style (it has since been remodeled). Construction was completed in 1801. The theatre has been described as "the most lavishly equipped and one of the largest theatres of its age.". The theatre opened on 13 June 1801 with a prologue written by Schikaneder followed by a performance of the opera Alexander by Franz Teyber. The new theatre proved to be a sensation. (152, 142, 1) ***Event*** Message: Spanish Riding School，Hofburg Palace (150, 101, 1) ***Mage*** Message: "concealed from the average man, provide insight into nature, the physical universe, and the spiritual realm." (152, 101, 1) ***Sign*** Message: "The thoughts attached to the real desire of the seeker will lead us to him and him to us." (147, 103, 1) ***Event*** Message: Charles Bridge，Prague (209, 1, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finnish War(Sweden part) Win The Battle of Svensksund first Nikolay Tuchkov, a Russian general who was dispatched to the north of Finland, left garrisons in every fort along his way. This reduced his unit to 4,000 troops, which proved insufficient to pacify the hostile country. The Finns rose up in guerrilla fighting as far east as Frederikshamn (Finnish: Hamina) within the Old Finland province of Russia. In May, the Russians suffered further setbacks when they were driven from Gotland and Aland, where a Swedish flotilla, supported by the local population, compelled the small Russian force left on the main island of Fasta Aland to surrender, and then invaded the island of Kumlinge where the bulk of the Russian garrison on the Aland Islands was based. (78, 235, 1) ***Event*** Message: Castillo de San Marcos (73, 225, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: the Swamp Fox Francis Marion and his South Carolina militia join you (144, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Pichincha The encounter, fought in the context of the Spanish American wars of independence, pitted a Patriot army under General Antonio Jose de Sucre against a Royalist army commanded by Field Marshal Melchor Aymerich. The defeat of the Royalist forces loyal to Spain brought about the liberation of Quito, and secured the independence of the provinces belonging to the Real Audiencia de Quito, or Presidencia de Quito, the Spanish colonial administrative jurisdiction from which the Republic of Ecuador would eventually emerge. (136, 241, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The British Albion Legion at your service (136, 238, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Balmis Expedition The expedition set off from A Coruna in northwest Spain on 30 November 1803 The mission took the vaccine to Colombia (244, 211, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: First Battle of Algeciras Win peace with Austrian first First Battle of Algeciras (246, 210, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: We Capture the HMS Hannibal! (245, 210, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (244, 210, 1) ***Power Lich*** Message: Capture the HMS Hannibal! (248, 212, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Second Battle of Algeciras Finish Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland The Admiralty had instructed Parker to frustrate the This British victory, coming so soon after Saumarez's defeat in Algeciras harbour, did much to restore parity in the region and the heavy casualties inflicted on the Spanish were to contribute to a weakening of the Franco-Spanish alliance which was a contributory factor in the signing of Treaty of Amiens, which brought the war to a temporary halt early the following year. (250, 208, 1) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (244, 208, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Gibraltar--one of four Imperial fortresses (248, 2, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The documents found out rather recently prove that Suvorov's participation in Masonic works was not casual. He has received dedication in the Petersburg lodge "Aux Trois Etoiles" ("To three Stars"). (112, 212, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bermuda--the 'Isle of Devils' (243, 239, 1) ***Event*** Message: Edmond Halley's aerial telescope,Saint Helena (240, 238, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Ascension Island The location of the island made it a useful stopping-point for ships and communications. The Royal Navy used the island as a victualling station for ships, particularly those of the West Africa Squadron working against the slave trade. A garrison of Royal Marines was based at Ascension and Colonel Edward Nicolls Known as "Fighting Nicolls", became the first commandant. (226, 225, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago--The islets expose serpentinized abyssal mantle peridotite and kaersutite-bearing ultramafic mylonite (220, 221, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fernando de Noronha --Once used for brazilwood trade."The whole island is one forest, this is so thickly intertwined" (114, 218, 1) ***Orb of Inhibition*** Message: The strength of the magnetic field in this sea area is so strong that all instruments including the compass are out of order. You salvaged a mysterious object by accident, it seems to be the source of some kind of interference (112, 214, 1) ***Event*** Message: The Bermuda Triangle, also known as the Devil's Triangle,is located in an area of the Atlantic Ocean where storms from multiple directions can converge, making terrible waves more likely to occur. The Bermuda Triangle's bad reputation started with Christopher Columbus. According to his log, on October 8, 1492, Columbus looked down at his compass and noticed that it was giving weird readings. He didn't alert his crew at first, because having a compass that didn't point to magnetic north may have sent the already on edge crew into a panic. This was probably a good decision considering three days later when Columbus simply spotted a strange light, the crew threatened to return to Spain. Others think that the Bermuda Triangle area is home to the lost city of Atlantis and remnants of its advanced technologies. Psychic Edgar Cayce said that Bimini was one of the mountaintops of ancient Atlantis and that Atlantis had some special crystals that radiated so much energy they could cause navigational equipment on ships and planes to malfunction (124, 199, 1) ***Conflux*** Name: Atlantis (71, 33, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Jemappes If you win Battle of Valmy firstly. Are you ready for conquering the Austrian Netherlands? (54, 59, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: THE GREAT FRENCH IMPERIAL COAT OF ARMS, DOOR HANGING FOR THE EMPEROR’S “GRAND CABINET” AT THE PALAIS DES TUILERIES The “grand cabinet” of his “grand appartement de representation” [great reception apartment] was, in Napoleon’s eyes, the most important room in the Tuileries Palace. It was here that he held the Council of Ministers and received the oaths of the dignitaries and great officers of the Empire. As he was never satisfied with the decor and furnishings of this room, he was constantly trying to enrich them throughout his reign. Among the surviving objects of this ensemble, this “portière” (a tapestry intended to be placed in front of a door to block draughts), woven at the Gobelins Manufactory (from a cartoon by Jacques Dubois after a design by Jacques-Louis de La Hamayde de Saint-Ange) is without doubt the most significant piece. This tapestry is a condensed version of the imperial symbols. The heraldic shield bearing the arms of the Empire, perfectly matching the description laid down by the decree of 10 July 1804: “of azure, with a gold eagle in the antique style, clutching a thunderbolt likewise gold”, is set against an imaginative background: the escutcheon itself is surrounded by the great necklace of the Legion d’Honneur (made up of sixteen gold eagles symbolising the sixteen cohorts of the Legion) and bears a helmet topped with an imperial crown. The escutcheon is set upon a purple mantle strewn with golden bees and bordered with a frieze of gold laurels and lined with ermine fur. The imperial sceptre and the “hand of justice” are placed in saltire behind the shield. Two horns of plenty, laden with fruit, are placed at the foot of the composition, superimposed upon a trophy of arms and cannons. The whole composition is set against a poppy-red ground dotted with golden bees. The border is decorated with palms alternating with bees and an “N” in each corner. The ensemble is reminiscent of the decoration designed by Percier and Fontaine for the canopy of the throne in the Throne Room, the space which preceded the Grand Cabinet. (189, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Pico(2,351 m),Pico Island (6, 24, 1) ***Event*** Message: After defeating the Black Cross, you found that some of its darkened members were secretly colluding with HYDRA--founded in ancient times, formerly as a cult centered around the fanatical worship of Hive, a powerful Inhuman that was exiled to the planet Maveth by ancient Inhumans. Ever since his banishment, the cult had been determined to bring him back to Earth to commence a planetary takeover. If The Order of the Knights Templar initially developed as a successor of the Order of the Ancients, The Templars only seek to create a perfect world ,key to their dream is the imposition of a New World Order, an enlightened society led by them. But the HYDRA is an authoritarian paramilitary-subversive terrorist organization bent on world domination. It was Before the evolution of mankind, a cabal of immortal hooded reptoids came to Earth, planning to start a legacy of evil.Millions of years later, they corrupted an secret society of geniuses known as the Brotherhood of the Spear, which resulted in that group being called "the Beast" by the Brotherhood of the Shield.The corrupted Brotherhood of the Spear spread out, ingraining itself like a multi-headed serpent into all facets of human society, from science to magic to politics. Evidence already shows that HYDRA carried out their evil plan by infiltrating the Templars. The forerunners have informed you through memory that your mission is no longer limited to the historical process of this Atlantic Revolution era, and defeating the HYDRA of this era will be another supre task for your . You must shoulder the mission of time and space, for the future of mankind,We must destory it. (62, 57, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Thwart the royalist conspiracy Thwart the royalist conspiracy of Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise First Consul is safe.This is your rewards,Arno. (57, 57, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Juliette meet Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand Chateaubriand was a constant visitor of her salon and, in a manner, master of the house. Before long, Juliette was in love with him and he was likewise attached to her. To the chagrin of other her admirers, Chateaubriand became foremost in her affections and attentions. Thus, Chateaubriand’s final years were spent with her living as recluse (58, 59, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: As an icon of neoclassicism, Recamier cultivated a public persona as a great beauty, and her fame quickly spread across Europe. The habitues of her house included many former royalists, with others, such as General Jean Bernadotte and General Jean Victor Moureau, more or less disaffected to the government. "I see my efforts perpetually paralyzed by a hidden force over which I can not prevail."--Bernadotte wrote to Napoleon (59, 59, 1) ***Breastplate of Brimstone*** Message: Jacques-Louis David --a French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era ,began his portrait of Recamier (57, 59, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1796, when Juliette was considered the social “Queen of Paris,” she met the famous Anne Louise Germaine de Stael-Holstein, better known as Madame de Sta?l. She was a French woman of letters of Swiss origin. The meeting was something Juliette, often called Madame Recamier, never forgot, and this meeting developed into a sincere friendship between the two women that was long lasting. (51, 73, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Lavoisier and the other Farmers General faced nine accusations of defrauding the state of money owed to it, and of adding water to tobacco before selling it. Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined on 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the age of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants. Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent annees peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable." ("It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not suffice to reproduce its like.") Due to your efforts,the appeal to spare Lavoisier's life so that he could continue his experiments finnally been passed! (50, 73, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Thank you for coming to save my life!"--Antoine Lavoisier Then he gave you his research results on air, and his observations and conclusions onthe burning of sulfur during his work at the Gunpowder Commission (50, 72, 1) ***Pikeman*** Message: "La Republique n'a pas besoin de savants ni de chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu." ("The Republic needs neither scholars nor chemists; the course of justice cannot be delayed.")These executioner of the National Guard Shouted. (168, 191, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Royal Citadel, Plymouth.Royal Regiment of Artillery. (168, 192, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: James Cook were the first man who in scientific, large scale, hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines (169, 192, 1) ***Sea Captain's Hat*** Message: Captain James Cook FRS (7 November 1728[NB 1] - 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to Australia in particular. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions. (170, 193, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Endeavour voyage-- a combined Royal Navy and Royal Society expedition to the south Pacific Ocean aboard HMS Endeavour. It was the first of three Pacific voyages of which James Cook was the commander. We need to find and appointed Banks to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the South Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour “Ambition leads me not only farther than any other man has been before me, but as far as I think it possible for man to go.”--James Cook (251, 247, 1) ***Event*** Message: You found the traces of the past that Cook and his crew rounded Cape Horn and continued westward (116, 169, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: While in Newfoundland, Cook also conducted astronomical observations, in particular of the eclipse of the sun on 5 August 1766. By obtaining an accurate estimate of the time of the start and finish of the eclipse, and comparing these with the timings at a known position in England it was possible to calculate the longitude of the observation site in Newfoundland. This result was communicated to the Royal Society in 1767 (228, 184, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dos de Mayo Uprising(2 May 1808) Goya witnessed the Charge of the Mamelukes. The Second of May 1808 depicts the beginning of the uprising when the Mamelukes of the French Imperial Guard are ordered to charge and subdue the rioting citizens. The crowd sees the Mamelukes as Moors, provoking an angry response. Instead of dispersing, the crowd turned on the charging Mamelukes, resulting in a ferocious melee. (229, 184, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: "We call on the traitor Godoy to step down! The Spanish throne belongs to Ferdinand VII!" (230, 185, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tumult of Aranjuez. Before the mutiny, Charles IV's valido, or prime minister, Prince of the Peace,Manuel de Godoy, a former member of the Royal Guard, had become unpopular among both the nobles and the Spanish people. Hand over your ribbon of the Prince of Peace! The uprising took place on 17 March 1808 in Aranjuez, about 48 kilometres (30 mi) south of Madrid, where the royal family and the government were staying while on their way south, anticipating a French invasion from the north. Soldiers, peasants, and members of the general public assaulted Godoy's quarters and captured him. The mutineers made King Charles dismiss Godoy, and, two days later, the court forced the King himself to abdicate in favor of his son and rival, who became King Ferdinand VII (3, 1, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Approaching the gate of Valhalla (2, 0, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Odin is waiting for you heroes (116, 10, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Hanseatic Legion-- a military unit, first formed of a group of citizens from Hamburg. They had met in 1813 on the instigation of General Friedrich Karl von Tettenborn, in order to fight in the War of the Sixth Coalition. This association of volunteers was joined immediately by volunteers from Hamburg's Hanseatic sister cities Bremen and Lübeck. The Legion should not be confused with the Hamburger Bürgermilit?r (Hamburg Citizen Militia). During their time of coexistence, the militia restricted itself to ejecting the French garrisons stationed in Hamburg and the other two Hanseatic cities, whereas the Legion also participated in the rest of the campaign under Russian overall command. “Gott mit uns”(=God with us) (67, 32, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (66, 32, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (68, 32, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge The Perfect Union Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (219, 29, 1) ***Psychic Elemental*** Message: Daugavpils, called Dvinsk by its Jewish inhabitants, was home to the most prominent Jewish community in eastern Latvia. (196, 41, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Cross the Nemunas river and go back to Poland and France Rejoin the army at Orsha You made it (195, 41, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Your troops were hit by Russia again and suffered losses Your troops were hit by Russia again and suffered losses “Ney Was the Last of the Grande Armee to Leave That Deadly Land”Sergeant Bourgogne wrote: “I shall never forget the Marshal’s commanding air at this moment, his splendid attitude towards the enemy, and the confidence with which he inspired the unhappy, sick and wounded around him. In this moment he was like one of the heroes of old time. In these last days of this disastrous retreat he was the savior of the remnant of the Army.” (194, 37, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (200, 34, 1) ***Event*** Message: During the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Grand Army of Napoleon passed through Kaunas twice (194, 41, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Then a day in Gumbinnen, General Mathieu Dumas of the Commissary was sitting down to breakfast when, in his own words, “a man in a brown great-coat entered. He had a long beard; his face was blackened, and looked as if it were burnt; his eyes were red and brilliant. 'At length I am here,’ said he. 'Why! General Dumas, don’t you know me?’ 'No,’ said Dumas, 'who are you then?’ 'I am the rear guard of the Grande Armee; I have fired the last musket-shot on the bridge of Kovno. I have thrown into the Nieman the last of our arms, and have come hither through the woods. I am Marshal Ney.’” (82, 90, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem，Nancy--Mother lodge to Michel Ney Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem，Nancy--Mother lodge to Michel Ney Michel Ney initiated {{Freemason}ry} in 1801 at the "St. John of Jerusalem" Lodge in Nancy, then a member of "The Candor" Lodge of the 6th Corps of the Grand Army (82, 89, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (80, 89, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (81, 89, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge St. John of Jerusalem ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (112, 86, 1) ***Shield of the Yawning Dead*** Message: "Helfen, Wehren, Heilen" ("Help, Defend, Heal") (0, 22, 1) ***Surcoat of Counterpoise*** Message: Templar knights, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were amongst the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. (0, 23, 1) ***Armor of Wonder*** Message: "A Templar Knight is truly a fearless knight, and secure on every side, for his soul is protected by the armour of faith, just as his body is protected by the armour of steel. He is thus doubly armed, and need fear neither demons nor men." -Bernard of Clairvaux, c.?1135, De Laude Novae Militae - In Praise of the New Knighthood (45, 147, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Lyon boasts many hidden mysteries and secrets… Geobiology tells us that the city is located at the crossroads of energy fields that converge at the high bishopric of St Jean. You will also be walking in the footsteps of such enigmatic characters as the astrologer Symon de Pharès, the wizard Philippe, Monsieur Jean the alchemist, Aymar the rhabdomantist and Kardec the spiritualist... This immersion in the confidential and esoteric world of the city of Lyon will open doors to secret societies: the {Freemason}s, the printers' Agla fraternity and Pierre Valdo's movement. The darkest and sometimes terrifying aspects of the city will be described during this tour, which may well bring you face to face with the sorcerers of Magonia, the exorcist Benedicti and above all the Lycanthrope. (147, 185, 1) ***Event*** Message: the Giant's Causeway and Causeway Coast (34, 23, 1) ***Sign*** Message: William the Conqueror's grave (51, 63, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Welcome to Theatre des Tuileries.We are looking for a pianist. We heard Francois-Adrien Boieldieu is talented one.He lives in Rouen. Thanks for inviting Francois-Adrien Boieldieu to come here.We won back Parisian audiences (44, 90, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Petit Trianon The Petit Trianon was constructed in the park of a larger royal retreat known as the Grand Trianon.Upon his accession to the throne in 1774, the 20-year-old Louis XVI gave the chateau and its surrounding park to his 19-year-old Queen Marie Antoinette for her exclusive use and enjoyment,only the queen's "inner circle" (including the princesse de Lamballe and Gabrielle de Polastron, duchesse de Polignac) were invited to come here. Under the revolution and new Republic, the Petit Trianon underwent a number of changes,The buildings of the hamlet were reported to be dilapidated. After some years of semi-neglect, the Petit Trianon resumed its traditional role when the new emperor, Napoleon, granted the use of the building to his sister Pauline. Pauline showed herself more loyal than any of his other sisters and brothers towards napoleon (46, 88, 1) ***Unicorn*** Message: The servant changed a good horse for you (45, 88, 1) ***Sprite*** Message: You played hide-and-seek games with Queen Mary and her female companions in the royal park and woodland, and caught some butterfly elves (44, 89, 1) ***Pixie*** Message: "We are the loyal servants of Queen Marie Antoinette. We take care of the farmhouse, dairy, dovecote, boudoir, barn, mill and garden of here. Marie Antoinette often dressing up as a shepherdess or peasant and living a rural life with friends here." (54, 186, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort York,Toronto (114, 174, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cape Breton Island (146, 186, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Londonderry (210, 187, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Esla river (238, 181, 1) ***Event*** Message: Albacete (224, 171, 1) ***Event*** Message: Calatayud (238, 168, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Castellón de la Plana (244, 177, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santa Bárbara Castle,Alicante. (246, 177, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Bonfires of Saint John (Catalan: Fogueres de Sant Joan, Spanish: Hogueras de San Juan, Galician: Fogueiras de San Xoán, Asturian: Fogueres de San Xuán, Portuguese: Fogueiras de S?o Jo?o) are a traditional and popular festival celebrated around the world during Midsummer, which takes place on the evening of 23 June, St. John's Eve. It is customary in many cities and towns in Spain; the largest one takes place in Alicante, where it is the most important festival in the city. The festivals of Midsummer's Eve (St. John's Eve among Christians) have roots in ancient celebrations related to the summer solstice. Bonfires were lit to protect against evil spirits which were believed to roam freely when the sun was turning southward again.In later years, witches were also thought to be on their way to meetings with other powerful beings. These beliefs pivot on three basic ideas: the importance of medicinal plants, especially in relation to health, youth and beauty; the protective character of fire to ward off men, evil spirits and witches and, finally, the purifying, miraculous effects of water. What follows is a summary of Galician traditions surrounding St. John's festival in relation to these three elements. Medicinal plants: Traditionally, women collect several species of plants on St. John's eve. These vary from area to area, but mostly include fennel, different species of fern (e.g. dryopteris filix-mas), rue (herb of grace, ruta graveolens), rosemary, dog rose (rosa canina), lemon verbena, St John's wort (hypericum perforatum), mallows (malva sylvestris), laburnum, foxgloves (digitalis purpurea) and elder flowers. In some areas, these are arranged in a bunch and hung in doorways. In most others, they are dipped in a vessel with water and left outside exposed to the dew of night until the following morning (o dia de San Xoan -St. John's day), when people use the resulting flower water to wash their faces. Water: Tradition holds it that the medicinal plants mentioned above are most effective when dipped in water collected from seven different springs Fire: Bonfires are lit, usually around midnight both on beaches and inland (28, 202, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Tippecanoe--"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too"! (37, 197, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Maumee River (77, 196, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Susquehanna River (88, 187, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mohawk River (95, 188, 1) ***Event*** Message: Albany (200, 200, 1) ***Event*** Message: Vigo (218, 187, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Adaja river (238, 200, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Genil river (232, 188, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ciudad Real (51, 214, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Clinch river (3, 220, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Arkansas river (141, 219, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Gustavia,Saint Barthelemy (143, 220, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Guadeloupe (216, 205, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Tejo river (199, 217, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort of Sao Brás ,Santa Maria Island (226, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Sado river (200, 215, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ilheus das Formigas (243, 211, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Barrosa General Graham’s notable victory, also known as the Battle of Chiclana, over the French during the march to Cadiz on 5th March 1811 in the Peninsular War (2, 236, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Medina.Royal Spanish Army attack on you (40, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Coosa River (49, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Flint River (138, 232, 1) ***Event*** Message: Barcelona, Venezuela.Built on the ruins of the old Convento de San Francisco, to house the administrative government of the area, but turned into a fortification by Republican defenders to protect the city from the attacks of the Spanish authorities. (145, 236, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Casiquiare river (146, 236, 1) ***Water Elemental*** Message: This area is at regional flood stage. (152, 231, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Branco (167, 239, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Jurua (178, 232, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Tapajos (184, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Rio Guapore (181, 238, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: La Paz Compatriots, I die, but tyrants won't be able to extinguish the torch I ignited. Long live freedom!--Pedro Domingo Murillo at La Paz (215, 234, 1) ***Event*** Message: Corrientes (217, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: St.Paul--a safe place to stay for tired travelers and a center for the bandeirantes (236, 228, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Santo Antao (237, 231, 1) ***Event*** Message: Sao Vicente (12, 249, 1) ***Event*** Message: The concentration of mansions and palaces in what is now the Mexico City historic center led it to be nicknamed the "City of Palaces" (3, 245, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Hospicio Cabanas,Guadalajara (65, 246, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of St. George's Caye.Baymen and British attack on you (91, 244, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cayos Miskitos (240, 247, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Chubut River (230, 242, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Río Colorado (234, 251, 1) ***Event*** Message: Valdivian Fort System (238, 251, 1) ***Event*** Message: Chiloe Archipelago--the last stronghold of Spanish royalists (together with Valdivia) (69, 22, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Mouscron Win Battle of Wattignies Battle of Mouscron (76, 39, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We also need the reconnaissance balloon l'Entreprenant We also need the reconnaissance balloon l'Entreprenant It will be very helpful in this battle! (74, 226, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Savannah Finish Battle of Long Island and military campaigns in the northern United States In 1779, more than 500 recruits from Saint-Domingue (the French colony which later became Haiti), under the overall command of French nobleman Charles Hector, Comte d'Estaing, fought alongside American colonial troops against the British Army during the siege of Savannah. (75, 226, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Sir Henry Clinton wrote, "I think that this is the greatest event that has happened the whole war," and celebratory cannons were fired when the news reached London. (75, 220, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Camden Win Capture of Savannah and Siege of Charleston Renew our "southern strategy" to win back our rebellious North American colonies,strengthe the British hold on the Carolinas following the capture of Charleston. (79, 26, 1) ***Dread Knight*** Message: Dumouriez, along with the duc de Chartres (afterwards King Louis Philippe) and his younger brother, the duc de Montpensier, fled into the Austrian camp. (81, 28, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Neerwinden (1793) You need to win Battle of Jemappes firstly. You found the Austrian vanguard (79, 28, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Neerwinden (1793)(Austro part) Finish Battle of Valmy Soon, Dumouriez was plotting against his own government and when his plans failed, he defected to the Austrians, leaving the French army in chaos. (81, 44, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French force led by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan (82, 44, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Fleurus Win Battle of Wattignies first Win this battle to defend Austrian Netherlands (211, 10, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Hidden Chapter of Russia Section 1:Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790) The First Battle of Svensksund It was a naval battle fought in the Gulf of Finland in the Baltic Sea, outside the present-day city of Kotka, on August 24, 1789, during the Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790). The Swedish fleet prepared for Russian numerical superiority by creating blockades of scuttled ships in the narrow passages on 23 August. Failure to blockade all the narrow passages made this operation unsuccessful. The Russian coastal fleet had meanwhile approached from the east and was probing its way through the Swedish blockade under fire. (192, 192, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Brión Sign the treaty of Peace of Basel and declare war on Britain first The Ferrol Expedition (or Battle of Brión) took place on 25 and 26 August 1800, and was an unsuccessful British attempt to capture Ferrol from Spain (95, 196, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Trenton George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River British and Hessian mercenaries were raided in surprise (125, 199, 1) ***Tome of Water Magic*** Message: For it is related in our records how once upon a time your State stayed the course of a mighty host, which, starting from a distant point in the Atlantic ocean, was insolently advancing to attack the whole of Europe, and Asia to boot. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; for in front of the mouth which you Greeks call, as you say, 'the pillars of Heracles,' there lay an island which was larger than Libya and Asia together; and it was possible for the travelers of that time to cross from it to the other islands, and from the islands to the whole of the continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. For all that we have here, lying within the mouth of which we speak, is evidently a haven having a narrow entrance; but that yonder is a real ocean, and the land surrounding it may most rightly be called, in the fullest and truest sense, a continent. Now in this island of Atlantis there existed a confederation of kings, of great and marvelous power, which held sway over all the island, and over many other islands also and parts of the continent. ---Written in 360 BC, Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus (162, 173, 1) ***Thunder Helmet*** Message: You found The Sutton Hoo helmet of a Sutton Hoo ship-burial.It was buried around 625 and is widely associated with King R?dwald of East Anglia; its elaborate decoration may have given it a secondary function akin to a crown. The helmet was both a functional piece of armour that would have offered considerable protection if ever used in warfare, and a decorative, prestigious piece of extravagant metalwork. (151, 176, 1) ***Buckler of the Gnoll King*** Message: The Yetholm-type shield is a distinctive type of shield dating from 1200-800 BC (Bronze Age). The impressive shields would have indicated high social status. (102, 250, 1) ***Sphere of Permanence*** Message: The stone spheres of Costa Rica are an assortment of over 300 petrospheres in Costa Rica, on the Diquís Delta in the southern portion of the country, known as the Diquís Delta.The spheres range in size from a few centimetres to over 2 metres (6.6 ft) in diameter, and weigh up to 15 tons.Most are sculpted from gabbro,the coarse-grained equivalent of basalt. There are a dozen or so made from shell-rich limestone, and another dozen made from a sandstone. the spheres could represent solar systems or just be inspired by various stages of the sun and the moon as viewed with the naked eye, including setting or rising suns, and half moons. (41, 94, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Capture of the city and citadel of Gand in six days, 1678,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Capture of the city and citadel of Gand in six days, 1678,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles (45, 91, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A symbol of Louis XIV,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles At the start of his reign, before turning to more political allegories, Louis XIV chose the sun as his personal emblem. The sun is the symbol of Apollo, god of peace and the arts; it is also the star which gives life to all things, rising and setting with unfailing regularity. Like the god, Louis XIV was a warrior fighting to restore peace; he was also a patron of the arts and the source of all privileges. Though the unstinting regularity of his life and with the public getting-up and going-to-bed ceremonies, he hammered home the symbolic parallels. The Palace of Versailles is replete with representations and allegorical allusions to the sun god (laurel wreathes, lyres, tripods) combined with royal portraits and emblems. In 1678 work began on the Hall of Mirrors, the most potent symbol of the King’s absolute power. With enough room to house the whole court, the Palace and its surrounding buildings rapidly became symbols of an age.Louis XIV continues to embody the Grand Siècle, synonymous with the splendour of Versailles and the glory of France. (44, 92, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Acquisition of Dunkirk,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles In 1662, King Charles II, short of money and concerned that Dunkirk was a potential liability for international relations, sold it to France. The purchase price was five million livres. The Acquisition of Dunkirk,Ceiling paintings by Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles (43, 91, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Mona Lisa (/?mo?n? ?li?s?/; Italian: Gioconda [d?o?konda] or Monna Lisa [?m?nna ?li?za]; French: Joconde [??k??d]) is a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance,it has been described as "the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world". The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression, the monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism. The painting is probably of the Italian noblewoman Lisa Gherardini,the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, and is in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family, and later it is believed he left it in his will to his favored apprentice Salaì.It had been believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic itself, on permanent display at the Louvre, Paris since 1797. The Mona Lisa is one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds the Guinness World Record for the highest known insurance valuation in history at US$100 million in 1962 (equivalent to $870 million in 2021). At some point in the 16th century, a varnish was applied to the painting.It was kept at the Palace of Fontainebleau until Louis XIV moved it to the Palace of Versailles, where it remained until the French Revolution.After the French Revolution, the painting was moved to the Louvre, but spent a brief period in Napoleon's hand. (133, 179, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Outer Hebrides (132, 179, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Lewis chessmen (Norwegian: Lewisbrikkene; Scottish Gaelic: Fir-Tàilisg; Scots: Lewis chesmen) or Uig chessmen, named after the island or the bay where they were found, are a group of distinctive 12th-century chess pieces, along with other game pieces, most of which are carved from walrus ivory. they may constitute some of the few complete, surviving medieval chess sets, although it is not clear if a set as originally made can be assembled from the pieces. (223, 169, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (229, 29, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (222, 138, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (166, 93, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (173, 50, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (36, 107, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (118, 68, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (88, 108, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (211, 3, 1) ***Blackshard of the Dead Knight*** Message: Ulfberht sword--most numerously in Northern Europe.Most of them, 44 swords, are known from Norway and second most, 31 swords, from Finland (152, 188, 1) ***Spell Book*** Message: The Book of Kells (Latin: Codex Cenannensis; Irish: Leabhar Cheanannais; Dublin, Trinity College Library, MS A. I. , sometimes known as the Book of Columba) is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin, containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. It was created in a Columban monastery in either Ireland, Scotland or England, and may have had contributions from various Columban institutions from each of these areas. It is believed to have been created c. 800 AD. The text of the Gospels is largely drawn from the Vulgate, although it also includes several passages drawn from the earlier versions of the Bible known as the Vetus Latina. It is a masterwork of Western calligraphy and represents the pinnacle of Insular illumination. The manuscript takes its name from the Abbey of Kells, County Meath, which was its home for centuries. The illustrations and ornamentation of the Book of Kells surpass that of other Insular Gospel books in extravagance and complexity. The decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs typical of Insular art. Figures of humans, animals and mythical beasts, together with Celtic knots and interlacing patterns in vibrant colours, enliven the manuscript's pages. Many of these minor decorative elements are imbued with Christian symbolism and so further emphasise the themes of the major illustrations. (82, 205, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: John Hartwell Cocke collaborated with James Madison, Monroe, and Joseph Carrington Cabell to fulfill Jefferson's dream to establish the university. When Jefferson died in 1826, James Madison replaced him as rector. In contrast to other universities of the day, at which one could study in either medicine, law, or divinity, the first students at the University of Virginia could study in one or several of eight independent schools - medicine, law, mathematics, chemistry, ancient languages, modern languages, natural philosophy, and moral philosophy (88, 205, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Monticello, Jefferson's estate in Virginia A Polygraph/Copy device is a duplicating device that produces a copy of a piece of writing simultaneously with the creation of the original, using pens and ink. Patented by John Isaac Hawkins it was most famously used by the third U.S. president, Thomas Jefferson, who acquired his first polygraph and later suggested improvements to Charles Willson Peale, owner of the American rights. Because Jefferson was a prolific letter writer, the preservation of his copies have offered historians extensive insights into Jefferson's viewpoints and actions.Jefferson called the polygraph/Copy device "the finest invention of the present age". (59, 61, 1) ***Equestrian's Gloves*** Message: Being an excellent rider, Joachim Murat is shown astride a rearing horse that he mastered perfectly. He is wearing a shiny uniform and carries in his belt a richly decorated sabre. But in particular, some eccentricities of Joachim Murat such as the feathers on his hat - called a chapka - and the panther skin in place of a saddle, which are suggestive of Murat’s original taste. (160, 186, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Davy lamp--The humble miner’s safety lamp is, arguably, one of the most important inventions of the 1800s. The industrial revolution saw coal overtake wood as the most important fuel source for new industries and cities, with an ever increasing demand driving production and placing pressure on safe and efficient extraction. A lamp that could light the way, without causing a disastrous explosion, was as essential a piece of a miner’s kit as a pick-axe.When firedamp entered the chimney the oxygen was diluted and the flame was extinguished. Any gases leaving the chimney had a very low oxygen concentration, which prevented the enclosed flame escaping into the atmosphere. Davy’s design worked in a similar way, but had a fine brass gauze meshed cylinder enclosing the flame. (10, 14, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Weishaupt’s greatest genius may have been his transformation of the secret-society model into an effective political instrument. In devising the Order’s structure and doctrine, he made two important innovations. First, he deliberately created the Order of Illuminists as a political organization. He understood that secrecy could be not only an end in itself but also a political strategy. Second, he used existing secret organizations—namely, the {Freemason}s—for his own ends. In doing so, he created a network of secret societies that could be used for his own political purposes. While these achievements furthered his immediate goals, they also insured the Illuminati a place of particular importance in the history of conspiracy theories. The Order of Illuminists therefore remains relevant today. It is most effectively understood as an eighteenth-century model of the power of secrecy and the use of allies in executing political strategy. The goal was to promote the ideas of Enlightenment with the societal elite. The group opposed the Catholic Church’s control over society’s view and promoted the idea of women as equals, and enlightening the minds of citizens and reduce them from being oppressed by the state The 'Eye of Providence’ - an eye set within a triangle - is one such symbol, associated with {{Freemason}ry} but also linked with the Illuminati,The Eye of Providence appeared at the top of Jean-Jacques-Fran?ois Le Barbier’s 1789 depiction of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen It is like an eye of God, which makes the people of the Atlantic Revolution era constantly examine the Enlightenment through it. (11, 15, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Illuminati emerged as a reaction to the social and political environment of Bavaria in the late eighteenth century. Its institutions were dominated by the Church, and the Jesuits controlled university education. Weishaupt was frustrated by their interference in the university curriculum, particularly their resistance to the dissemination of ideas of the French Enlightenment (Billington 1980). That frustration moved him to create the Illuminati, which he hoped would spread Enlightenment philosophy and put it into practice. Weishaupt was convinced that a secret society was the most effective way to accomplish these goals, and he utilized his experience with the Jesuits and {Freemason}s to create his new organization. Although he viewed the Jesuits as his enemies and the {Freemason}s as conservative and apolitical, he admired their secrecy, discipline, and organization, as well as their capacity to pursue their own interests even (in his view) at the expense of the interests of society as a whole (Roberts 1972). Weishaupt deliberately recruited {Freemason}s and used the organization’s structure and symbolism as a model for the Illuminati. Members took pseudonyms (Weishaupt became Spartacus) and utilized Zoroastrian symbols to describe themselves and their ceremonies. Initiates read classical political philosophy, and as they moved through the movement’s ranks they were gradually exposed to the Illuminati’s true purpose: to spread the Enlightenment ideas of rationalism and egalitarianism. Only those within the movement’s inner circle, the Areopagus, were told of its related political goals. The Illuminati members were to infiltrate the social and political institutions of Bavaria and initiate a peaceful revolution. Bavaria would be freed from the tyranny of the Church, and reason and equality would flourish. Although the Order of the Illuminists was shortlived, it had considerable influence. Cloaked in secrecy and symbols, the real substance of the Illuminati was its propagation of Enlightenment ideas. Theodor could declare that anyone caught recruiting new members would be executed and thus ensure the effective end of the organization, but he could not stop the influence of Enlightenment ideas on those who had come into contact with them. The Order’s members were scattered across the upper echelons of Bavarian society, and many were well placed to influence others. Its membership included doctors, lawyers, judges, professors, and government officials. Their exposure to Enlightenment philosophy affected the way they approached politics and probably also influenced those with whom they came into contact. Theodor attempted to purge the Illuminati from positions of power, but military force cannot, in the end, stop the spread of ideas. Illuminism became a source of inspiration for revolutionaries on both the left and right of the political spectrum (Billington 1980). (12, 16, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Along with such names as Templars or {Freemason}s, the Illuminati has long been an established secret society. It is one of the most widely known orders in popular culture. The Illuminati Order was represented by a symbol of the ancient goddess of wisdom, Athena, or the Owl of Minerva. Another emblem was a dot within a circle that symbolized the all-seeing eye. However, the all-seeing eye did not belong to God, but to a mysterious unknown superior that the order revered. The day of the inauguration was also symbolic. It was an ancient festival of fertility. Also, the night before was Walpurgis Night, a night related to witchcraft and evil spirits. The Illuminati emerged in the context of 18th-century enlightenment, and therefore it is safe to assume it was a product of this zeitgeist. Reason and science were given utmost significance in the era, while mysticism and the occult were also flourishing at the same time. The French philosophers like Diderot, Rousseau, and Voltaire were prominent. At the same time, illusionists like Alessandro Cagliostro, Friedrich Anton Mesmer, and the Count of Saint-Germain were also emerging and thriving. (215, 208, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Military Order of Christ，Tomar----successor organization to the Knights Templar in Portugal (214, 207, 1) ***Armor of Wonder*** Message: "A Templar Knight is truly a fearless knight, and secure on every side, for his soul is protected by the armour of faith, just as his body is protected by the armour of steel. He is thus doubly armed, and need fear neither demons nor men." -Bernard of Clairvaux, c.?1135, De Laude Novae Militae - In Praise of the New Knighthood (213, 208, 1) ***Enchanter*** Message: In the 15th century and thereafter, the (cleric) Grand Master of the Order in Tomar was nominated by the Pope and the (lay) Master or Governor by the King, instead of being elected by the monks. (14, 14, 1) ***Ogre's Club of Havoc*** Message: Liberty pole (14, 13, 1) ***Helm of the Alabaster Unicorn*** Message: The Phrygian cap or liberty cap (96, 190, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: West Point, New York--the stronghold called by Washington "the most important post in America" where Tadeusz Kosciuszko, in the words of that supreme commander, had "chief direction and superintendence". The Yadkin and Dan rivers in North Carolina and Virginia where the crossing directed by Kosciuszko twice rescued the army from the enemy, compelling its commander, General Nathaneal Greene to call his chief engineer "one of the most helpful and congenial companions", stressing his "perseverance, determination, indefatigable efforts" as well as his "incomparable modesty". "From one man we can have but one life" - wrote about Kosciuszko President Thomas Jefferson ' "and you gave us the most valuable and active part of yours, and we are now enjoying and improving its effects. Every sound American, sincere votary of freedom loves and honors you...". Tadeusz Kosciuszko. This - how difficult for them a name - the American people have imprinted in gold onto the pages recording the dramatic history of the struggle for independence. History spanning the time from the moment when on October 18th 1776 the Leader of the Congress signed - with the words "... with great faith and trust in tour patriotism, virtues and loyalty ..." - Kosciuszko's nomination for the colonel of the American Army, till the day of November 25th, 1783 when General Kosciuszko accompanied the Commander-in-Chief George Washington on his triumphant return to New York. On the great map of the United States of America there still shine with the glare of victory and faithful memory the battlefields where Kosciuszko fought. Saratoga - regarded as the "turning point" in the history of the War of Independence, fortified by "the young Polish engineer" that won the words of highest esteem from Horatio Gates, his commander. "The effusion of friendship and my warmest toward you which not time will alter. Your principles and dispositions were made to be honored, revered and loved. True to a single object, the freedom and happiness of man..." - so wrote the President of the United States Thomas Jefferson to his friend, American and Polish army general Tadeusz Kosciuszko. (17, 29, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Captain James Cook FRS (7 November 1728[NB 1] - 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and to Australia in particular. He made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific, during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand. In these voyages, Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously charted by Western explorers. He surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions. I who had ambition not only to go farther than anyone had been before, but as far as it was possible for man to go, was not sorry in meeting with this interruption... --James Cook Cook's log was full of praise for the watch which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century. (61, 57, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Napoleon: "You did a good job just now, I guess you haven't considered entering the army, right?" Arno: "I don't like to obey orders very much.But,I will consider it,General." (247, 163, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Shay was originally a brash, immature, and insubordinate young man who often did not take his role as an Assassin seriously. This was due in part to lack of experience, but also his own brewing doubts regarding both the integrity of his fellow Assassins and the morality of the Creed itself. Shay was highly outspoken and did not shy away from pointing out the (perceived) hypocrisies of his Assassin brothers, especially the militant and dogmatic Chevalier, which often landed him in trouble. The above factors would gradually push him further and further away from the Brotherhood and lead to his betrayal. As he and Liam hunted down the Templars in possession of the Pieces of Eden, Shay began to question the Assassins' methods. Shay became a member of the Colonial Rite of the Templar Order (97, 207, 1) ***Event*** Message: captain of the 74-gun Bien-Aime Louis Antoine de Bougainville join you (13, 10, 1) ***Mage*** Message: The Encyclopedistes (French: [ɑ?sikl?pedist]) (also known in British English as Encyclopaedists,or in U.S. English as Encyclopedists) were members of the Societe des gens de lettres, a French writers' society, who contributed to the development of the Encyclopedie from June 1751 to December 1765 under the editors Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.The composition of the 17 volumes of text and 11 volumes of plates of the Encyclopedie was the work of over 150 authors belonging, in large part, to the intellectual group known as the philosophes. They promoted the advancement of science and secular thought and supported tolerance, rationality, and open-mindedness of the Enlightenment. (14, 10, 1) ***Monk*** Message: the Enlightenment in general was dominated by {{Freemason}ry}. (15, 10, 1) ***Enchanter*** Message: We know that {{Freemason}ry} was radically involved in the politics of the Enlightenment : Voltaire and all the major Encyclopedistes were Masons (16, 10, 1) ***Zealot*** Message: the Encyclopedistes were indeed {Freemason}s of diverse affiliations (17, 9, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: Encyclopedie, ou dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers (English: Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts)---- better known as Encyclopedie, was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers, known as the Encyclopedistes. It was edited by Denis Diderot and, until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Like most encyclopedias, the Encyclopedie attempted to collect and summarize human knowledge in a variety of fields and topics, ranging from philosophy to theology to science and the arts. The Encyclopedie was controversial for reorganizing knowledge based on human reason instead of by nature or theology.The introduction to the Encyclopedie, D'Alembert's "Preliminary Discourse", is considered an important exposition of Enlightenment ideals. (140, 74, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Belzoni's upper Egypt travels Belzoni's upper Egypt travels (138, 76, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Great Sphinx of Giza,Giza pyramid complex (141, 77, 1) ***Head of Legion*** Message: Younger Memnon--an Ancient Egyptian statue, one of two colossal granite heads from the Ramesseum mortuary temple in Thebes, Upper Egypt (137, 68, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: Rosetta Stone (140, 68, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The mathematician Jean-Joseph Fourier (who did some of the empirical work upon which his "analytical theory of heat" was founded in Egypt) (138, 71, 1) ***Bird of Perception*** Message: Saqqara Bird--a bird-shaped artifact made of sycamore wood, It has been dated to approximately 200 BCE, and is now housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The Saqqara Bird has a wingspan of 180 mm (7.1 in) and weighs 39.12 g (1.380 oz). Its purpose is not understood because of a lack of period documentation. (141, 69, 1) ***Nomad*** Message: Colonel Barthelemy Serra took the first steps towards creating a Mameluke Corps in France. On September 27, 1800 he wrote a letter from Cairo to the first consul, couched in an Oriental style. He regretted being very far away from Napoleon and offered his total devotion to the French nation and expressed the Mamelukes' wish to become the bodyguard to the first consul. They wished to serve him as living shields against those who would seek to harm him. The first consul became receptive of admitting a unit of carefully selected cavalrymen as his personal guard. (140, 67, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Egyptomania--the renewed interest of Europeans and Americans in ancient Egypt during the nineteenth century as a result of Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign. During Napoleon's campaign, he was accompanied by many scientists and scholars which led to a large interest after the documentation of ancient monuments in Egypt. The ancient remains had never been so thoroughly documented before and thus, the interest in ancient Egypt increased significantly. Win Battle of Abukir (1799) in French Egypt expedition On the scientific front, the expedition eventually led to the discovery of the Rosetta Stone, creating the field of Egyptology. (138, 69, 1) ***Halberdier*** Message: "What is it?We can't read it!" (138, 68, 1) ***Crusader*** Message: "We spotted a slab with inscriptions .It may be important ."Lieutenant Pierre-Francois Bouchard and his soldiers (139, 68, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: An unusual aspect of the Egyptian expedition was the inclusion of an enormous contingent of scientists and scholars ("savants") assigned to the invading French force, 167 in total. This deployment of intellectual resources is considered as an indication of Napoleon's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment. These scholars included engineers and artists, members of the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, the geologist Dolomieu, Henri-Joseph Redoute, the mathematician Gaspard Monge (a founding member of the ecole polytechnique), the chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, Vivant Denon, the mathematician Jean-Joseph Fourier (who did some of the empirical work upon which his "analytical theory of heat" was founded in Egypt), the physicist etienne Malus, the naturalist etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the botanist Alire Raffeneau-Delile, and the engineer Nicolas-Jacques Conte of the Conservatoire national des arts et metiers. (9, 13, 1) ***Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment*** Message: The philosophes (French for "philosophers") were the intellectuals of the 18th-century Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics, and social issues. They had a critical eye and looked for weaknesses and failures that needed improvement. They promoted a "republic of letters" that crossed national boundaries and allowed intellectuals to freely exchange books and ideas. Most philosophes were men, but some were women. (65, 64, 1) ***Archer*** Message: A tirailleur (French: [ti?aj??]), in the Napoleonic era, was a type of light infantry trained to skirmish ahead of the main columns. The first regiments of Tirailleurs so called were part of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon I. By the fall of the Empire, some 16 regiments had been created. The Guard Tirailleurs were usually grouped as part of the Young Guard, along with their sister Voltigeur regiments. The main task of the Tirailleurs was to fight officers of the opposing troops with aimed shots. For this reason, the Tirailleurs were the only troops equipped with rifles with a rifled barrel, as these, in contrast to the standard weapons of the line troops, guaranteed greater accuracy. (219, 208, 1) ***Endless Bag of Gold*** Message: You met an inventive and successful Franco-Portuguese businessman Jácome Ratton,whose enterprises included a dye-works, a textile mill in Tomar, a paper mill in Elvas, and factories making felt hats in Elvas and Lisbon (24, 16, 1) ***Sea Captain's Hat*** Message: Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 - 10 May 1798)-- British officer of the Royal Navy best known for his 1791-95 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are now the Canadian province of British Columbia as well as the US states of Alaska, Washington and Oregon (24, 17, 1) ***Devil*** Message: "I want to challenge Vancouver to a duel!"--British peer, naval officer and wastrel ，The Half-Mad Lord Thomas Pitt (24, 18, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Vancouver Expedition--a four-and-a-half-year voyage of exploration and diplomacy, commanded by Captain George Vancouver of the Royal Navy. The British expedition circumnavigated the globe and made contact with five continents. Several previous voyages of exploration including those of Ferdinand Magellan and James Cook, and the Spanish Manila-Acapulco galleons trade route active since 1565, had established the strategic and commercial value of exploring and claiming the Pacific Ocean access, both for its wealth in whales and furs and as a trade route to the "Orient". Britain was especially interested in improving its knowledge of the Southern Pacific whale fisheries, and in particular the location of the strategically positioned Australia, New Zealand, the legendary Isla Grande, and the Northwest Passage. A new ship was purchased, fitted out, and named HMS Discovery after one of Cook's ships. Her captain was Henry Roberts and Vancouver his 1st Lieutenant Geopolitically, the expedition reduced Spanish influence in the Pacific Northwest and helped define the boundaries of the Oregon boundary dispute nearly a century later. It also assisted in the unification of the Kingdom of Hawai'i, which lasted until it was overthrown by pro-American elements in 1893. The expedition left the world hundreds, perhaps thousands, of place-names and plant species names. (63, 137, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge L'Union Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge L'Union Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (64, 137, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge L'Union Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge L'Union You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge L'Union ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (89, 94, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (87, 94, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (88, 94, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic Strasbourg lodge of instruction ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (87, 93, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Army of the Rhine (1791-1795) The Army of the Rhine (French: Armee du Rhin) was formed in December 1791, for the purpose of bringing the French Revolution to the German states along the Rhine River. The Army of the Rhine (Armee du Rhin) was one of the main French Revolutionary armies operated in the Rhineland theater, principally in the Rhine River valley, from 1791 to 1795 Allons enfants de la Patrie (Arise, children of the Fatherland)/Le jour de gloire est arrive! (The day of glory has arrived!). (87, 92, 1) ***Inexhaustible Cart of Ore*** Message: ”Perform your La Marseillaise in my living room,young man!"--first mayor of Strasbourg,geologist Philippe Friedrich Dietrich (86, 92, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: 《Chant de guerre pour l'armee du Rhin》 Allons enfants de la Patrie, Le jour de gloire est arrive! Contre nous de la tyrannie L'etendard sanglant est leve, (bis) Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Mugir ces feroces soldats? Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras egorger vos fils, vos compagnes! Aux armes, citoyens, Formez vos bataillons, Marchons, marchons! Qu'un sang impur Abreuve nos sillons! Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, De tra?tres, de rois conjures? Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, Ces fers dès longtemps prepares? (bis) Fran?ais, pour nous, ah! quel outrage Quels transports il doit exciter! C'est nous qu'on ose mediter De rendre à l'antique esclavage! Aux armes, citoyens... Quoi ! des cohortes etrangères Feraient la loi dans nos foyers! Quoi ! Ces phalanges mercenaires Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers! (bis) Grand Dieu! Par des mains encha?nees Nos fronts sous le joug se ploieraient De vils despotes deviendraient Les ma?tres de nos destinees! Aux armes, citoyens... Tremblez, tyrans et vous perfides L'opprobre de tous les partis, Tremblez ! vos projets parricides Vont enfin recevoir leurs prix! (bis) Tout est soldat pour vous combattre, S'ils tombent, nos jeunes heros, La terre en produit de nouveaux, Contre vous tout prêts à se battre! Aux armes, citoyens... Fran?ais, en guerriers magnanimes, Portez ou retenez vos coups! epargnez ces tristes victimes, à regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, Mais ces complices de Bouille, Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitie, Dechirent le sein de leur mère! Aux armes, citoyens... Amour sacre de la Patrie, Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs Liberte, Liberte cherie, Combats avec tes defenseurs! (bis) Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Accoure à tes males accents, Que tes ennemis expirants Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire! Aux armes, citoyens... (Couplet des enfants)[20] Nous entrerons dans la carrière Quand nos a?nes n'y seront plus, Nous y trouverons leur poussière Et la trace de leurs vertus (bis) Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Que de partager leur cercueil, Nous aurons le sublime orgueil De les venger ou de les suivre. Aux armes, citoyens... ----Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle， 26 April 1792 (60, 55, 1) ***Zealot*** Message: "I am in a dilemma among many forces and can only hide here temporarily. Can you take me to evacuation?" — Prime Minister Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil (83, 204, 1) ***Ambassador's Sash*** Message: Under Jefferson and James Madison, Gallatin served as secretary from 1801 until February 1814. Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin (born de Gallatin; January 29, 1761 - August 12, 1849) was a Genevan-American politician, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist. Biographer Nicholas Dungan states that Gallatin was "America's Swiss Founding Father."He is known for being the founder of New York University and for serving in the Democratic-Republican Party at various federal elective and appointed positions across four decades. He represented Pennsylvania in the Senate and the House of Representatives before becoming the longest-tenured United States Secretary of the Treasury and serving as a high-ranking diplomat. (52, 62, 1) ***Enchanter*** Message: Composer, pianist and harpsichordist Louis-Emmanuel Jadin at your service (89, 30, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Jean Leopold Nicolas Frederic, Baron Cuvier (French: [kyvje]; 23 August 1769 - 13 May 1832), known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuvier was a major figure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century and was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing living animals with fossils. "Cuvier did not believe in organic evolution, for any change in an organism's anatomy would have rendered it unable to survive. He studied the mummified cats and ibises that Geoffroy had brought back from Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, and showed they were no different from their living counterparts; Cuvier used this to support his claim that life forms did not evolve over time." In 1808 Cuvier identified a fossil found in Maastricht as a giant marine lizard, the first known mosasaur. (88, 30, 1) ***Sphere of Permanence*** Message: Cuvier criticized how Lamarck and other naturalists conveniently introduced hundreds of thousands of years "with a stroke of a pen" to uphold their theory. Instead, he argued that one may judge what a long time would produce only by multiplying what a lesser time produces.Since a lesser time produced no organic changes, neither, he argued, would a much longer time. (88, 29, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Cuvier speculated correctly that there had been a time when reptiles rather than mammals had been the dominant fauna.This speculation was confirmed over the two decades following his death by a series of spectacular finds, mostly by English geologists and fossil collectors such as Mary Anning, William Conybeare, William Buckland, and Gideon Mantell, who found and described the first ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and dinosaurs. (66, 139, 1) ***Mage*** Message: You met Swiss chemist and student of plant physiology Nicolas-Theodore de Saussure (14 October 1767, in Geneva - 18 April 1845, in Geneva ) .He is one of the major pioneers in the study of photosynthesis,who made seminal advances in phytochemistry (53, 202, 1) ***Event*** Message: I am sorry to inform you that I have every reason to fear that our old friend, General Parsons, is no more. He left this place [Pittsburgh] in company with Captain Heart, (who is sent to explore the communication by way of the Beaver to Cuyahoga and the Lake), on the 5th instant, he had sent a man with his horses from the place where he had encamped the night before, and directed him to tell Lieut. McDowell, who commanded the Block House below the falls of Beaver, that he (General Parsons) would be there to dinner. A snow had fallen in the night which had retarded the progress of the man with the horses. At one place on the Beaver shore he saw where a canoe had landed, and a person got out to warm his feet by walking about, as he saw he had kicked against the trees and his tracks to the canoe again. The man did not get down till evening, but about noon the canoe, broken in pieces, came by the Block House, and some articles known to belong to General Parsons were taken up and others seen to pass. Lieut. McDowell has diligent search made for the body of the General, but made no discovery. ----A letter written by Richard Butler, dated November 25, 1789 (68, 82, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Prussian and Russian force of the Army of Silesia under Field-marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. (70, 82, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Vauchamps of Six Days' Campaign Win Battle of Leipzig first The Battle of Vauchamps (14 February 1814) was the final major engagement of the Six Days Campaign of the War of the Sixth Coalition. (69, 82, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: General of the cavalry Ferdinand von Wintzingerode join you (247, 2, 1) ***Ogre Mage*** Message: Aide-de-Camp of the Emperor,Lieutenant-General Dmitry Dmitrievich Shepelev at your service (52, 71, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Almost 17,000 people were killed by official executions during the Reign of Terror Tussaud was then employed to make death masks and whole body casts of the revolution's famous victims, including Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, Princesse de Lamballe, Marat,and Robespierre. (53, 72, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish 13 Vendemiaire ,suppresses the Paris Royalists and consolidates the Convention Finish 13 Vendemiaire ,suppresses the Paris Royalists and consolidates the Convention The political situation in Paris is temporarily stable, and now it is finnally able to commemorate the victims in Reign of Terror (139, 81, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Johann Georg Schrepfer made use of a mixture of Masonic, Catholic, and Kabbalistic symbolism, including skulls, a chalk circle on the floor, holy water, incense, and crucifixes. The spirits he raised were said to be clearly visible, hovering in the air, vaporous, and sometimes screaming terribly. The highlight of his career was a seance for the court in the Dresden palace early in the summer of 1774. This event was impressive enough to still be described more than a century later in Germany and Britain. Schrepfer appeared in Dresden under a false name, pretending to be a French colonel. He asked to be presented to the Elector Friedrich August III, but this was refused by Fran?ois Barbe-Marbois, Charge d'affaires of the French convoy. Schrepfer's real name was soon found out and reports of his supernatural powers reached Karl von Sachsen. The Prince decided to seek reconciliation and personally visited Schrepfer to apologize for the chastising he had ordered not long before. Schrepfer accepted the apologies and reluctantly promised to come and summon a spirit at the palace at the Prince's repeated requests. The Prince chose the spirit of his uncle, Governor Johann Georg, Chevalier de Saxe to be evoked, partly in the hope that this would reveal where in the palace the Governor had hidden the large sums of money that he supposedly had amassed. At the appointed night a company of 19 witnesses had gathered in the great gallery of the palace. All windows and doors were secured and Schrepfer offered punch to strengthen the nerves. Some readily accepted the drink, while others declined in order to keep a clear mind. Schrepfer started the ceremony, kneeling in a corner of the gallery. It took a long time before anything happened and Schrepfer worked himself into a violent sweat and almost in convulsions. Then a loud clatter was heard outside all of the windows and a sound followed which resembled a glass harmonica. According to Schrepfer this announced the arrival of good, protecting spirits. Not long after frightful yelling was heard, which Schrepfer attributed to the malignant spirits necessary for the commencement of the seance. He continued his evocations until a door opened with violence and a black orb rolled into the room, invested with smoke. Amidst the smoke a human face could be seen, resembling the Chevalier de Saxe. It called out loudly and angry; "Karl, was wolte du mit mich?" (Karl, what do you want of me, why do you disturb me?"). The spectators were all petrified and nobody dared to check its incorporeal nature. The Prince threw himself on his knees and called on God for mercy. Others asked Schrepfer to make the appirition disappear. It seemed to take an hour before Schrepfer's invocations dismissed the spirit, only to burst back in when the spectators had just started to feel relieved of the horror. Schrepfer's reiterated exorcisms at last expelled the apparition for good and left the spectators in awe of Schrepfer's supernatural powers. The Elector soon heard about the event and forbade repetition. In secret Prince Karl and Schrepfer kept on having seances, with only one or two other Masons. Schrepfer returned to Leipzig, but kept on visiting Dresden regularly (135, 63, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Phantasmagoria (also fantasmagorie, fantasmagoria) was a form of horror theatre that (among other techniques) used one or more magic lanterns to project frightening images, such as skeletons, demons, and ghosts, onto walls, smoke, or semi-transparent screens, typically using rear projection to keep the lantern out of sight. Mobile or portable projectors were used, allowing the projected image to move and change size on the screen, and multiple projecting devices allowed for quick switching of different images. In many shows, the use of spooky decoration, total darkness, (auto-)suggestive verbal presentation, and sound effects were also key elements. Some shows added a variety of sensory stimulation, including smells and electric shocks. Such elements as required fasting, fatigue (late shows), and drugs have been mentioned as methods of making sure spectators would be more convinced of what they saw. The shows started under the guise of actual seances in Germany in the late 18th century and gained popularity through most of Europe (including Britain) throughout the 19th century. In the early 1770s in Leipzig, Germany, coffeehouse owner, charlatan, necromancer and leader of an independent {Freemason} lodge Johann Georg Schrepfer (or Schr?pfer) performed ghost-raising seances and necromantic experiments for his {Freemason} lodge. He usually raised three different ghosts: one good soul in beautiful white, one neutral in subdued white and one evil in awful brown and black. The arrival of ghosts was mostly accompanied by a sound like that of wet fingers on glass, which sometimes grew louder and could continue for about an hour. The spirits he raised were said to be clearly visible with recognizable features, hovering in the air with their arms crossed in front of their chests. They seemed to be vaporous, not made of flesh, and at times they screamed terribly. Ghosts could answer his questions and their voices sounded hollow. He performed ghost-raising seances for which he secretly used special effects, possibly including magic lantern projections of ghosts on smoke, which inspired the phantasmagoria shows popular in Europe from the 1790s to the 1830s. (154, 142, 1) ***Event*** Message: Imperial Treasury, Hofburg Palace，Vienna (154, 141, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Natural History Museum Vienna --was expressed through major imperial research expeditions to little-known corners of the Earth, today it can be found in modern DNA analysis methods and meteorite research providing insights into unfamiliar worlds and the outer extremes of our cosmos.It was shaped by the passion for collecting of renowned monarchs, the endless thirst for knowledge of famous scientists, and the spirit of adventure of travelling researchers. True to the spirit of the inscription carved into the front of the museum, scientists at the NHM Vienna have over the centuries dedicated themselves and their work “to the realm of nature and its exploration”. Find some rare fossils and dinosaur specimens to make the museum in line with the principles and visions of the Enlightenment. After studying these dragon specimens, Under the leadership of Ignaz von Born, extracted a special substance, the cabinet of natural history quickly developed into a center of practical research. (153, 141, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Phantasmagoria (also fantasmagorie, fantasmagoria) was a form of horror theatre that (among other techniques) used one or more magic lanterns to project frightening images, such as skeletons, demons, and ghosts, onto walls, smoke, or semi-transparent screens, typically using rear projection to keep the lantern out of sight. Mobile or portable projectors were used, allowing the projected image to move and change size on the screen, and multiple projecting devices allowed for quick switching of different images. In many shows, the use of spooky decoration, total darkness, (auto-)suggestive verbal presentation, and sound effects were also key elements. Some shows added a variety of sensory stimulation, including smells and electric shocks. Such elements as required fasting, fatigue (late shows), and drugs have been mentioned as methods of making sure spectators would be more convinced of what they saw. The shows started under the guise of actual seances in Germany in the late 18th century and gained popularity through most of Europe (including Britain) throughout the 19th century. Phylidor (17??- 7 March 1829), also spelled "Phylidoor" or "Philidor", also known as "Paul Filidort" and probably the same as Paul de Philipsthal, was a magician and a pioneer of phantasmagoria shows.Phylidor had further developed his show when he came to Vienna and claimed to have perfected his ghostly apparitions with a totally new invention. He advertised his show in March 1790 as "Phantasmorasi, oder natürlicher Geister Erscheinungen" (Phantasmorasi, or natural ghost apparitions), besides very entertaining magnetic-mechanical experiments in his renewed Cabinet of Physics. Spectators would first gather and wait silently in an anteroom, until the physicist ordered them to enter a black-curtained room decorated with skeletons, two candles and a white circle on the ground. The very solemn performance would start with the sound of thunder that would grow louder and louder, accompanied by hail and wind. Lights would extinguish themselves one by one and flames would rise from the lamps before being extinguished and rendering the room in total darkness. Then ghosts of all sizes and shapes would fly around in a circle. After a very fierce storm a summoned, lifelike ghost of a person known to the audience would eventually rise from the floor to slowly sink back into the abyss in the ground. Ghosts would appear in various ways; one would suddenly be there, another would slowly shape itself from a grey cloud and yet another would approach from far away and come so close that one could touch it. Some apparitions would take a few steps closer to the audience before disappearing. Phylidor then extinguished the lantern, leaving only the very weak light of the coals. Soon thick white odorous smoke started to spread across the room and Phylidor started the ritual. It included some incantations in a dull but commanding voice with the words "Helion, Melion, Tetragrammaton" (as reportedly used by Cagliostro), some French sentences like "Parois. Esprit terrible! Esprit terrible, epargne moi!" and the name of Jehovah mixed in repeatedly. A terrible thunder-like noise filled the room and as Phylidor called out: "Esprit, parois!" (Ghost, appear!), a streak of light appeared on the wall that gradually transformed into the (almost) life-size figure of Voltaire, dressed in white and hovering a foot above the floor. (52, 56, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Phantasmagoria (also fantasmagorie, fantasmagoria) was a form of horror theatre that (among other techniques) used one or more magic lanterns to project frightening images, such as skeletons, demons, and ghosts, onto walls, smoke, or semi-transparent screens, typically using rear projection to keep the lantern out of sight. Mobile or portable projectors were used, allowing the projected image to move and change size on the screen, and multiple projecting devices allowed for quick switching of different images. In many shows, the use of spooky decoration, total darkness, (auto-)suggestive verbal presentation, and sound effects were also key elements. Some shows added a variety of sensory stimulation, including smells and electric shocks. Such elements as required fasting, fatigue (late shows), and drugs have been mentioned as methods of making sure spectators would be more convinced of what they saw. The shows started under the guise of actual seances in Germany in the late 18th century and gained popularity through most of Europe (including Britain) throughout the 19th century. etienne-Gaspard "Robertson" Robert, a Belgian inventor and physicist from Liège, became the best known phantasmagoria showman. The Gothic surroundings of the crumbling Convent des Capucines near the Place Vend?me gave Robert the ideal eerie home for his showHe is credited for coining the word fantascope, and would refer to all of his magic lanterns by this term.The fantascope was not a magic lantern that could be held by hand, but instead required someone to stand next to it and physically move the entire fantascope closer or further to the screen. He would often eliminate all sources of light during his shows in order to cast the audience in total darkness for several minutes at a time.Robertson would also lock the doors to the theater so that no audience member could exit the show once it had started. He was also known for including multiple sound effects into his show, such as thunder clapping, bells ringing, and ghost calls. Robertson would pass his glass slides through a layer of smoke while they were in his fantascope, in order to create an image that looked out of focus.Along with the smoke, he would also move most of his glass slides through his fantascope very quickly in order to create the illusion that the images were actually moving on screen After discovering that he could put the magic lantern on wheels to create either a moving image or one that increased and decreased in size, Robertson moved his show. He sited his entertainment in the abandoned cloisters kitchen of a Capuchin convent (which he decorated to resemble a subterranean chapel) near the Place Vend?me. He staged hauntings, using several lanterns, special sound effects and the eerie atmosphere of the tomb. This show lasted for six years, mainly because of the appeal of the supernatural to Parisians who were dealing with the upheavals as a result of the French Revolution. Robertson mainly used images surrounded by black in order to create the illusion of free-floating ghosts. I am only satisfied if my spectators, shivering and shuddering, raise their hands or cover their eyes out of fear of ghosts and devils dashing towards them. --etienne-Gaspard Robert (53, 56, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: In fact, many people were so convinced of the reality of his shows that police temporarily halted the proceedings, believing that Robertson had the power to bring Louis XVI back to life. (53, 55, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Fantoscope Robert read the works of 17th-century scholar Athanasius Kircher and was particularly interested in the magic lantern. He created his own version of the device with several improvements, adding adjustable lenses and a moveable carriage system that would allow the operator to change the size of the projected image. He also made it possible to project several different images at once using more than one painted glass slider. The resultant display had a very ghostly effect, especially when in a smoky atmosphere. Through this the operator had the ability to manipulate images projected from an unseen location. In 1799, after further refining the system, he received a patent for his "magic lantern on wheels", naming it the Fantoscope. Robert developed a phantasmagoria show based around his projection system and the use of other effects and techniques. Robert scripted scenes that involved actors and ventriloquism alongside his projections, creating a convincing impression of the appearance of ghosts. Robert used several projection devices in a variety of ways, including rear projection and projection onto large pieces of wax-coated gauze (giving the image a more translucent appearance).He also used smoke and mirrors to further disguise the mechanisms behind his show. His painting skills allowed him to create accurate depictions of famous French heroes such as Jean-Paul Marat, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (111, 248, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Treasure of Lima--The Treasure of Lima is a legendary buried treasure reputedly removed from Lima, Peru, in 1820 (112, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Unknown island , the coast of Central America In 1820, Lima was on the edge of revolt. As a preventative measure, the Viceroy of Lima decided to transport the city's fabulous wealth to Mexico for safekeeping. Captain William Thompson, commander of the Mary Dear, was put in charge of transporting the riches to Mexico.Thompson and his crew proved to be unable to resist the temptation; they turned pirate, cut the throats of the guards and accompanying priests, and threw their bodies overboard. However, the Mary Dear was captured, and the crew went on trial for piracy. All but Thompson and his first mate James Alexander Forbes were hanged.Now hunt these two men first The two agreed to lead you to the stolen treasure. The treasures included jeweled stones, candlesticks, and two life-size solid gold statues of Mary holding the baby Jesus. In all, the treasure was valued at between $12 million and $60 million. (18, 28, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: HMS Resolution ---- a sloop of the Royal Navy, a converted merchant collier purchased by the Navy and adapted, in which Captain James Cook made his second and third voyages of exploration in the Pacific. She impressed him enough that he called her "the ship of my choice", and "the fittest for service of any I have seen". (151, 101, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Rosicrucianism--"universal reformation of mankind", Astrology,Alchemy,Magic.Its symbol is a Calvary cross with a rose in its centre (150, 104, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: In Prague in the early 18th century ，Rosicrucianism as a hierarchical secret society composed of internal circles, recognition signs and alchemy treatises.Its members claimed that the leaders of the Rosicrucian Order had invented {{Freemason}ry} and only they knew the secret meaning of Masonic symbols. "For what we do presage is not in grosse, For we are brethren of the Rosie Crosse; We have the Mason Word and second sight, Things for to come we can foretell aright." (151, 104, 1) ***Master Genie*** Message: "Our origins are Egyptian, Brahmanic, derived from the mysteries of Eleusis and Samothrace, the Magi of Persia, the Pythagoreans, and the Arabs." (149, 107, 1) ***Archangel*** Message: "The year 1378 is presented as being the birth year of 'our Christian Father'" (150, 106, 1) ***Enchanter*** Message: "We speak unto you by parables, but would willingly bring you to the right, simple, easy, and ingenuous exposition, understanding, declaration, and knowledge of all secrets", "We will infiltrate our spirit into {{Freemason}ry} and other organizations, where we will continue to develop our ideas". (150, 102, 1) ***Event*** Message: "built on esoteric truths of the ancient past" (148, 99, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade I of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Juniorus Grade I of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Juniorus Grade I of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Juniorus (150, 99, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade II of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Theoricus Grade II of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Theoricus Grade II of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Theoricus (148, 98, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade III of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Practicus Grade III of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Practicus Grade III of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Practicus (150, 98, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade IV of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Philosophus Grade IV of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Philosophus Grade IV of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Philosophus (151, 98, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade VI of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Major Grade VI of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Major Grade VI of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Major (149, 100, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross The Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross (Orden des Gold- und Rosenkreutz, also the Fraternity of the Golden and Rosy Cross) was a German Rosicrucian organization founded in the 1750s by {Freemason} and alchemist Hermann Fictuld. Candidates were expected to be Master Masons in good standing. Alchemy was to be a central study for members.Much of the hierarchical structure for this order was used in Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (SRIA) and from there, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Structure and governance The order is subdivided into: Grade I - Juniorus Grade II - Theoricus Grade III - Practicus Grade IV - Philosophus Grade V - Adeptus Minor Grade VI - Adeptus Major Grade VII - Adeptus Exemptus Grade VIII - Magister Grade IX - Magus (58, 55, 1) ***Arch Devil*** Message: I am Francois Fournier-Sarlovèze--do you want to challenge me to a duel?They trapped me here in the Temple ,Let me out,I will help you in the wars (58, 51, 1) ***Armageddon's Blade*** Message: Around 1140, the French Abbot Suger ordered goldsmiths to update an antique vase with eagle features, creating Suger's Eagle, which was later rumored to have been commissioned by the prelate to contain a powerful weapon. The rumors were true as Suger had created a sword, using the knowledge of the Apple of Eden contained in the Head of Saint Denis that was hidden in the temple below the city, "bathing the Eagle into its light" according to the legend.The sword's hilt was golden, patterned akin to feathers, the crossguard resembling a pair of wings, and the pommel in the shape of an eagle's head. (57, 51, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The sword was imbued with the ability to emit bright flashes of blinding light during combat allowing its wielder some breathing room during combat while the light momentarily blinds and stuns the opponents. (58, 52, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Eagle of Suger --a sword acquired by the Parisian Assassin Arno Dorian during his time in Saint-Denis after the French Revolution. A powerful relic imbued with the power to emit blinding flashes of light when it struck an enemy, the weapon was created using knowledge from the First Civilization. It was created by using First Civilization knowledge acquired from an Apple of Eden contained in the Head of Saint Denis. At some point the sword was taken out from the vase and hidden in a secret chamber inside the Basilica of Saint-Denis, until it was recovered by the Assassin Arno Dorian in August 1794 (61, 53, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Codex Pater Intellectus (English: Codex of the Father of Understanding)----a codex written by Jacques de Molay, a Grand Master of the Knights Templar and Sage, which detailed his knowledge of the First Civilization, as well as his personal thoughts regarding the Templars. In 1307, during the attack of King Philip the Fair's forces on the Parisian Temple orchestrated by the Assassins, de Molay tasked his advisor with hiding the Codex, along with a Sword of Eden, in the vault beneath the Temple. As the Templar entered the fortress, he witnessed the two artifacts being stolen by Master Assassin Thomas de Carneillon, and gave chase. After a brief confrontation, the advisor used the Sword's power against the Assassin, and recovered the book, placing both in the vault as instructed. However, he was grievously disabled by de Carneillon while leaving the vault. Four centuries later, another Sage, Fran?ois-Thomas Germain, discovered the vault guided by his visions of the First Civilization, and the relics hidden within. Having read de Molay's codex, he felt a connection with the former Grand Master, and decided to reform the Templar Order with de Molay's vision in mind. However, his extremist views were met with skepticism by his fellow Templars, resulting in his exile at the hand of Grand Master Fran?ois de la Serre. Despite his exile, Germain managed to gather like-minded individuals to his cause, orchestrating the assassination of de la Serre, and ultimately the French Revolution, in order to strip the upper class in France of their power, and simultaneously give it to the people of the growing middle-class, allowing the Templars to more easily control the human populace. (10, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The central hub of the Homestead was the Davenport Manor, where Achilles and Connor resided. The manor overlooked a small cove where ships could dock and it also had stables nearby. The first floor contained a kitchen, dining room, a reading room, and Achilles' bedroom. The second floor hosted Connor's bedroom, a gallery room of paintings and trophies (as well as a copy of Common Sense by Thomas Paine), another room storing books and letters, and a fourth room. The fourth room on the second floor served as Achilles' intelligence center prior to the Seven Years War. In it he kept research of Apples of Eden and or crystal balls, a blood vial, and a crystal skull. When the Voynich manuscript was recovered, it was kept in this room. On one of the walls, Achilles had collected intel on Diego Vázquez, Rafael Joaquín de Ferrer, Antonio de Ulloa, Haytham Kenway, Reginald Birch, Lawrence Washington, Jack Weeks, Samuel Smith, James Wardrop, Fran?ois de la Serre, Charles Gabriel Sivert, Chretien Lafrenière, Fran?ois-Thomas Germain and Charlotte Levesque. There were also maps of Haiti on the wall with the location of the Port-au-Prince Temple circled. Later when Ratonhnhake:ton moved in, the room was converted into a display room for the inventions that had been crafted for Connor after he had found their recipes in Benjamin Franklin's almanac pages. The basement, which could be accessed by pulling a candelabra behind the staircase, stored a practice dummy, Assassin outfits, a board of information on the Templars and an armory storing muskets with bayonets, as well as all of Connor's weapons. Below the portraits of the Templars there was a table where Ratonhnhake:ton kept mementos from the Templars’ deaths. The mementos included William Johnson's beadwork, John Pitcairn's gorget, Thomas Hickey's sash, Nicholas Biddle's spyglass, Benjamin Church's watch, Haytham Kenway's hidden blade, and the Grand Temple Key which served as Charles Lee's memento. (7, 35, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Davenport Homestead The Davenport Homestead was a small but thriving community based on the grounds of Davenport Manor, near Rockport, Massachusetts.During the 18th century, it served as a base of operations for the Colonial Brotherhood of Assassins. The manor and lands were originally owned by the Mentor Achilles Davenport, and were passed onto his apprentice Ratonhnhake:ton after Achilles' death. "I trust you now know that this place has become something of great significance. A community to serve as an example of what this would-be nation could become." -Achilles expressing his sentiments on the Davenport Homestead, in a letter to Connor. As Achilles' Brotherhood was established, he recruited numerous colonists into the Order, overall expanding the Assassins' presence within the colonies. The Davenport Homestead acted as the main headquarters of the Colonial Brotherhood, where they oversaw the Assassins operations. Additionally, Achilles had his own personal study during which he kept contact with various other Brotherhoods and guilds across the globe. Arrival of Ratonhnhake:ton In 1769, Ratonhnhake:ton of the Kanien'kehá:ka Nation was instructed by Juno to seek the Assassins, so he traveled to the Davenport Homestead. A depressed Achilles angrily refused multiple times, but relented and took Ratonhnhake:ton on as his apprentice after seeing him fight off a group of colonial mercenaries who had come to kill the Assassin Mentor. Achilles then spent years teaching Ratonhnhake:ton the ways of the Assassin Order, and gave him the name of "Connor" to honor his own son's memory, and to let Ratonhnhake:ton blend in with the colonists. Over the years, Connor and Achilles worked together to improve the Homestead by inviting craftsman, farmers, and merchants to live on the lands near to the manor and encourage trade. In time, the Homestead expanded and evolved into a small, tight-knit community. At its peak, the Homestead included a mill, a carpenter, farmers, hunters, miners, tailors, a doctor, a blacksmith, a church, and an inn. The Homestead also held a small dock for the Assassins' ship, the Aquila, which was overseen by first mate and Assassin Robert Faulkner. For the residents, the Homestead was seen as a second chance, as many had lost their homes and professions due to attacks from mercenaries or the British Army. During some instances, the Homestead came under attack when these groups sought retribution, but Connor always made sure his friends were safe. (20, 31, 1) ***Event*** Message: Great Inagua "We'll make something of it in time. We could keep a fleet here, if we liked. And with a bit of fixing up, it'd be a decent place to call home." -Edward Kenway to Mary Read Great Inagua is an island of the Bahamas, which in the early 18th century was home to a sizable plantation owned and operated by the French Templar Julien du Casse. In September 1715, in order to claim El Arca del Maestro for Nassau's defenses, the pirate Edward Kenway assassinated Julien du Casse and took control of the island, including a manor overlooking the cove. Over the next seven years, Kenway invested heavily in the development of a settlement on the island, improving the docks, beachfront, and the manor itself. Following the British repossession of Nassau in 1718, Great Inagua became the bastion of the remaining pirates of the West Indies. In October 1722, before leaving the West Indies to return to England with his daughter, Edward gifted the island to the Assassins, who had elected to abandon their base in Tulum in the face of repeated attacks by both British and Spanish forces (23, 29, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Sicarii (Modern Hebrew: ??????? siqariyim)-- a splinter group of the Jewish Zealots who, in the decades preceding Jerusalem's destruction in 70 CE, strongly opposed the Roman occupation of Judea and attempted to expel them and their sympathizers from the area. The Sicarii carried sicae, or small daggers, concealed in their cloaks. At public gatherings, they pulled out these daggers to attack Romans and alleged Roman sympathizers alike, blending into the crowd after the deed to escape detection. The Sicarii are regarded as one of the earliest known organized assassination units of cloak and daggers, predating the Islamic Hashishin and Japanese ninja by centuries. The derived Spanish term sicario is used in contemporary Latin America to describe a hitman working for a drug cartel. At the beginning of the First Roman-Jewish War, the Sicarii, and (possibly) Zealot helpers (Josephus differentiated between the two but did not explain the main differences in depth), gained access to Jerusalem and committed a series of atrocities in an attempt to incite the population into war against Rome. In one account, given in the Talmud, they destroyed the city's food supply, using starvation to force the people to fight against the Roman siege, instead of negotiating peace. Their leaders, including Menahem ben Yehuda and Eleazar ben Ya'ir, were notable figures in the war, and the group fought in many battles against the Romans as soldiers. Together with a small group of followers, Menahem made his way to the fortress of Masada, took over a Roman garrison and slaughtered all 700 soldiers there. They also took over another fortress called Antonia and overpowered the troops of Agrippa II. He also trained them to conduct various guerrilla operations on Roman convoys and legions stationed around Judea. (58, 62, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: 13 Vendemiaire eclosion de la Deuxième Guerre de Vendee.The entire insurgent army was now trapped on the Quiberon peninsula.Deal with that first October 5,1795 An armed royalist uprising threatens the Convention in Paris (13, 18, 1) ***Event*** Message: Dear explorer warrior, welcome to the land of the holy gods on this map: Enlightenment Utopia -- "Republic of Letters" "There were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges". No matter what path you choose，May the brilliance of the pioneers and sages shine on your ideal journey ，and guide you forward (156, 122, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (107, 173, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: After the conclusion of the American War of Independence, Rogers Rangers were granted tracts of land for farming in what is now Pownal, Prince Edward Island, Canada. win Battle of Camden ,finish the American War of Independence The Rangers were reactivated during the War of 1812 and a large training camp was built there, complete with barracks, a field hospital and musket range (of which the butts can still be seen) (108, 176, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Cumberland,Isthmus of Chignecto (62, 200, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fort Pitt--a headquarters for the western theatre of the war (2, 250, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Royal Company of the Philippines (Spanish: Real Compa?ía de Filipinas) --a chartered company founded in 1785, directed to establish a monopoly on the Spanish Philippines and all surrounding trade. The purpose of the company was to promote direct trade between the Philippines (then a colony of the Spanish Empire ) and the mother country The Royal Decree also provided for closing the port of Manila to any foreign vessel. Therefore, only the company could import goods from New Spanish Mexico, China or the Philippines. (1, 250, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Company from 1794, becoming practically inoperative at the late 18th to early 19th century. The RCP was founded with an initial capital of 3,000 shares of 250 pesos each, with the incipient Spanish financial companies participating in the operation. it quickly took control of the other companies and preserved the already existing commercial strategy that favored export crops: indigo, coffee, sugar, spices, cotton. Later, it increased its capitalization with the issuance of bonds. The company quickly grew rich (its best time was at the end of 1785, its capital was 10 million pesos) and sought to modernize the archipelago's export capacities before becoming practically inoperative at the late 18th to early 19th century. (234, 219, 1) ***Event*** Message: You found pirate treasure of The Savage Islands (164, 171, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: HMS Victory(the process of being repair), Chatham Dockyard She is best known for her role as Lord Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805. Vice-Admiral Nelson hoisted his flag in Victory on 18 May 1803: Heart of oak are our ships, heart of oak are our men; We always are ready, steady, boys, steady! We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again. (208, 211, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (209, 213, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (207, 213, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (208, 212, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (233, 214, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (234, 216, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (232, 216, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (233, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (98, 233, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (96, 233, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (96, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (97, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (28, 240, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (29, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (29, 242, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (30, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (180, 214, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (181, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (182, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (181, 216, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (166, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Real Felipe Fortress,Callao (163, 250, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (162, 248, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (164, 250, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (163, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (222, 222, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (222, 224, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (220, 224, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (221, 223, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (115, 243, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (116, 245, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (114, 245, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (115, 244, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (123, 247, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Panama City (125, 248, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (126, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (127, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (126, 250, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (124, 238, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Spanish treasure fleet, or West Indies Fleet Spanish: Flota de Indias (also called silver fleet or plate fleet; from the Spanish: plata meaning "silver"), was a convoy system of sea routes organized by the Spanish Empire from 1566 to 1790, which linked Spain with its territories in the Americas across the Atlantic. The West Indies fleet was the first permanent transatlantic trade route in history. Similarly, the related Manila galleon trade was the first permanent trade route across the Pacific. The Spanish West and East Indies fleets must be counted as among the most successful naval operations in history and, from a commercial point of view, they made possible many key components of today's global economic system The general perception pointed that many Spanish galleons were captured by foreign privateers and pirates The convoys were general purpose cargo fleets used for transporting a wide variety of items, including agricultural goods, lumber, various metal resources such as silver and gold, gems, pearls, spices, sugar, tobacco, silk, and other exotic goods from the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire to the Spanish mainland. Spanish goods such as oil, wine, textiles, books and tools were transported in the opposite direction (125, 237, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (122, 238, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (123, 239, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Spanish treasure fleet Are you pirates or Treasure hunters? (136, 234, 1) ***Inferno*** Name: Caracas Timed events: Name: e18120326 Message: The 1812 Caracas earthquake--It caused extensive damage in Caracas, La Guaira, Barquisimeto, San Felipe, and Merida. An estimated 15,000-20,000 people perished as a result, in addition to incalculable material damage. Name: e18130615-玩家增兵 Message: The Decree of War to the Death, was a decree issued by the South American leader Simón Bolívar which permitted murder and any atrocities whatsoever to be committed against civilians born in Spain, other than those actively assisting South American independence, and furthermore exonerated Latin Americans who had already committed such murders and atrocities.Bolívar promulgated the decree on June 15, 1813, in the Venezuelan city of Trujillo. Name: e18130807 Message: The Second Republic of Venezuela (Segunda República de Venezuela in Spanish) declared by Simón Bolívar on 7 August 1813. Name: e18190215 Message: February 15, 1819,The Congress of Angostura--convened by Simón Bolívar and took place in Angostura (today Ciudad Bolívar) during the wars of Independence of Colombia and Venezuela, culminating in the proclamation of the Republic of Colombia (historiographically called Gran Colombia ). Name: e18110705 Message: On July 5, 1811，The Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (Spanish: Cinco de Julio)was adopted by a congress of Venezuelan provinces , through which Venezuelans made the decision to separate from the Spanish Crown in order to establish a new nation based on the premises of equality of individuals, abolition of censorship and dedication to freedom of expression. These principles were enshrined as a constitutional principle for the new nation and were radically opposed to the political, cultural, and social practices that had existed during three hundred years of colonization. Name: Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas Message: The owners of the Guipuzcoana Company transformed it into the Royal Philippine Company. Instead a consulado de mercaderes (a merchants' guild) was established in Caracas in 1793 (155, 141, 1) ***Event*** Message: {Events that tan players can trigger indefinitely -- loyalty to Habsburg} Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser, unsern guten Kaiser Franz! (219, 170, 1) ***Event*** Message: Que valor! (141, 235, 1) ***Event*** Message: {Events that purple players can trigger infinitely -- South American liberation} A people that loves freedom will in the end be free (224, 205, 1) ***Event*** Message: Garrison Border Town of Elvas and its Fortifications (227, 206, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Godoy had, under his command, the Spanish Army of Extremadura, with five divisions. (228, 206, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: War of the Oranges win Battle of Brión first The War of the Oranges (Portuguese: Guerra das Laranjas; French: Guerre des Oranges; Spanish: Guerra de las Naranjas) was a brief conflict in 1801 in which Spanish forces, instigated by the government of France, and ultimately supported by the French military, invaded Portugal. It was a precursor to the Peninsular Wars, resulting in the Treaty of Badajoz, the loss of Portuguese territory, in particular Olivenza, as well as ultimately setting the stage for the complete invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by French forces. (226, 206, 1) ***Skeleton*** Message: Without having their fortifications complete and defended only by a few hundred soldiers, most of the militias, Oliven?a and nearby Juromenha quickly surrendered to the Spanish forces. (216, 193, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Wearing a French hussar's cap with its eagle symbolically turned upside down,Julián Sánchez"El Charro"and his 12 lanceros join you (228, 181, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Dos de Mayo Uprising(2 May 1808) Invade Portugal from Salamanca first An attempt by the French general Joachim Murat to move the daughter and her children along with the youngest son of Charles IV to Bayonne sparked a rebellion (226, 181, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "Bando de los alcaldes deMóstoles!French,leave our counrty!" (223, 183, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Madrid Timed events: Name: fr-Guerrillawarcost Message: Peninsular War-guerrilla war costs Name: eAfrancesado Message: During the Liberal Triennium, as an amnesty decreed by liberal Premier Evaristo Perez de Castro,many Afrancesados returned Spain Name: eCien mil Hijos de San Luis玩家增兵 Message: In 1822, Ferdinand VII applied the terms of the Congress of Vienna, lobbied for the assistance of the other absolute monarchs of Europe, in the process joining the Holy Alliance formed by Russia, Prussia, Austria and France to restore absolutism. In France, the ultra-royalists pressured Louis XVIII to intervene. To temper their counter-revolutionary ardor, the Duc de Richelieu deployed troops along the Pyrenees Mountains along the France-Spain border, charging them with halting the spread of Spanish liberalism and the "yellow fever" from encroaching into France. In September 1822 this "cordon sanitaire" became an observation corps and then very quickly transformed itself into a military expedition,called Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis. The Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis was the popular name for a French army mobilized in 1823 by the Bourbon King of France, Louis XVIII, to help the Spanish Royalists restore King Ferdinand VII of Spain to the absolute power of which he had been deprived during the Liberal Triennium. Despite the name, the actual number of troops was around 60,000. The force comprised some five army corps (the bulk of the French regular army) and was led by the Duke of Angoulême, the son of the future King Charles X of France. The French name of the conflict is l'Expedition d'Espagne ("the Expedition of Spain"). Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 200西军ai乘0.65倍 80’40' 30’20 15'10 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 300 140'50 40’25 20'15 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 800 370’140 100'80 55’35 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1000 430’170 120'110 85’50 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2500 930’420 370'310 235’150 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3000 1080’520 420'360 285’200 135 Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: War with all the world, and peace with England. Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: Si eres espanol, habla espanol! Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: Gibraltar es espanol! Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: He who has a handsome wife, a castle on the frontier, or a vineyard on the roadside, is never without war. Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: "We always have been, we are, and I hope we always shall be, detested in France" Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: Millions of Spaniards have Catalonia in their hearts. Name: AI主城满建 Message: (220, 184, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon's campaign in Spanish. put down Dos de Mayo Uprising(2 May 1808) first Stunned by the defeat at Bailen,Napoleon rapidly amassed 80,000 troops and debouched from the Sierra de Guadarrama into the plains of Old Castile to encircle the British Army. (239, 173, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Siege of Valencia (1812) Win Battle of Bailen first Siege of Valencia (1812) (214, 178, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Burgos(1808) Win Battle of Bailen first Battle of Burgos(1808) (215, 179, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: French army under Marshal Bessières (214, 177, 1) ***Event*** Message: (224, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Chacabuco (226, 250, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Maipú-This battle left 2,000 Spaniards dead and 3,000 captured; the patriots lost about 1,000 men. The victory produced tremendous results. The victory brought an end to major Spanish operations in Chile. It also allowed the united Chilean and Argentine patriots to launch a series of attacks against Spanish positions along South America’s Pacific coast, climaxing with the liberation of large parts of Peru from Spanish rule. The historic victory is marked yearly every 5 April with a joint civil-military parade in Maipu, where the battle occurred (this day is Armor Day for the Chilean Army). A living history event at the last Sunday of April ends a month of national festivities in honor of the victory. (9, 0, 1) ***Event*** Message: Valkyries will lead you to Valhalla (10, 1, 1) ***Event*** Message: “I hoped the day would never come when I had to bid you farewell,” Bjorn says. “You were always my strength, my guide. You taught me to go on no matter what. You taught me not to be afraid. And now I see that like me, the earth itself is unwilling to let you go,” he refers to the icy water that traps the ship. “But the gods call you home. They eagerly await your arrival in Valhalla, as does my father. I wish I could be there, at your reunion, secretly, in Odin’s glittering gold-shielded hall, surrounded by all the gods.” Bjorn continues saying goodbye to his mother, calling her a “legend.” “The greatest shield-maiden of all time,” he continues. “A hero to thousands of women. But to me you will always be my mother, who bore me, who raised me, who protected and fought for me, and I swear I will fight for you now.” (6, 4, 1) ***Event*** Message: All who came before us are dead and we are the remainders ,and now we are going separately on our own paths and I'm sad. All I know is that we will see each other again in Valhalla,in Odin's hall,and we will be young again,we will be fierce and proud,we will laugh and sing,the gods will embrace us,we will be what we were always meant to be. And so this is life and so this is death. Farewell. (211, 174, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Vitoria Wellington’s decisive defeat of Joseph Bonaparte’s French army on 21st June 1813 in North-Eastern Spain in the Peninsular War Win Battle of Salamanca first At the Battle of Vitoria (21 June 1813) a British, Portuguese and Spanish army under the Marquess of Wellington broke the French army under King Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan near Vitoria in Spain, eventually leading to victory in the Peninsular War. (56, 231, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: digenous peoples occupied this tallahassee area for thousands of years before European encounter. Around AD 1200, the large and complex Mississippian culture had built earthwork mounds The Marquis de Lafayette, French hero of the American Revolution, returned to the United States in 1824 for a tour. The U.S. Congress voted to give him $200,000 (the same amount he had given the colonies in 1778), US citizenship, and the Lafayette Land Grant, 36 square miles (93 km2) of land that today includes large portions of Tallahassee. From 1821 through 1845, during Florida's territorial period, the rough-hewn frontier capital gradually developed as a town. (223, 250, 1) ***Walking Dead*** Message: Royalists of about 1,500 under Brigadier Rafael Maroto blocked San Martin's advance at a valley called Chacabuco, near Santiago (17, 10, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: Every one knows the revolutionary preparation of the "Encyclopedistes". (58, 170, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Val-d'Or ---"Golden Valley" (229, 195, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (233, 196, 1) ***Sign*** Message: "Dig hard for mercury or you'll be whipped!" administrator of the Almaden mine (231, 197, 1) ***Troll*** Message: The mercury deposits of Almaden account for the largest quantity of liquid mercury metal produced in the world. Approximately 250,000 metric tons of mercury have been produced there in the past 2,000 years. Due to the human toxicity of mercury and its byproducts, the mine has variously employed penal labour, slave labour, and prisoners of war over its long history. (228, 198, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Zujar river (160, 247, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Balmis Expedition The expedition set off from A Coruna in northwest Spain on 30 November 1803 The mission took the vaccine to Peru (170, 246, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: The area--Huancavelica was the most prolific source of mercury in Spanish America. The extraction of the quicksilver in the socavones (tunnels) was extremely difficult. Every day before the miners came down, a mass for the dead was celebrated. Due to the need of numerous hand-workers and the high rate of mortality, the Viceroy of Peru Francisco de Toledo resumed and improved the pre-Columbian mandatory service of the mita. (186, 240, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Potosí--lies at the foot of the Cerro de Potosí—sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico ("rich mountain")— a mountain popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore that dominates the city. The Cerro Rico is the reason for Potosí's historical importance since it was the major supply of silver for the Spanish Empire Mercury was necessary to extract silver from the ores produced in the silver mines of Peru, as well as those of Potosí in Alto Perú ("Upper Perú," now Bolivia), using amalgamation processes such as the patio process or pan amalgamation. The silver was taken by llama and mule train to the Pacific coast, shipped north to Panama City, and carried by mule train across the isthmus of Panama to Nombre de Dios or Portobelo, whence it was taken to Spain on the Spanish treasure fleets. Some of the silver also made its way east to Buenos Aires, via the Rio de la Plata. (7, 15, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the Scientific Revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes. Some of the major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Denis Diderot, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, John Locke, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza, and Voltaire. The Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason or simply the Enlightenment).Rene Descartes' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the American Revolution associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence; and James Madison incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its framing in 1787. (8, 15, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Catholic Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism, communism, and neoclassicism, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment. Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths - including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences - could be attained by reason alone. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. According to Keith Thomas, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." (9, 15, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason as in ancient Greece rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The Age of Enlightenment was followed by The Age of Revolution. The Age of Revolution is a period from the late-18th to the mid-19th centuries during which a number of significant revolutionary movements occurred in most of Europe and the Americas.The period is noted for the change from absolutist monarchies to representative governments with a written constitution, and the creation of nation states. Influenced by the new ideas of the Enlightenment, the American Revolution (1765-1783) is usually considered the starting point of the Age of Revolution. It in turn inspired the French Revolution of 1789, which rapidly spread to the rest of Europe through its wars. And the warfares during The Age of Revolution exactlly formed this map's main story/plot line. Let us cut the shackles of feudal slavery with the holy sword，and set up an alliance of revolutionaries in various countries,work together for a lifetime of democracy and freedom! (249, 241, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cape Town (251, 242, 1) ***Champion*** Message: After further consideration, and consultation with his senior officers and advisers, Janssens decided that "the bitter cup must be drunk to the bottom". He agreed to capitulate (83, 218, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: In 1799, by a 12-year-old boy named Conrad Reed. He spotted the nugget while playing in Meadow Creek on his family's farm in Cabarrus County, North Carolina. This led The Carolina Gold Rush, the first gold rush in the United States, followed the discovery of a large gold nugget in North Carolina (153, 246, 1) ***Mummy*** Message: Yanacocha (Cajamarca Quechua: yana = "black, dark", qucha = "lake, puddle, pond, lagoon"), a gold mine in the Cajamarca region of the Northern Highlands of Peru Peru - The Curse of Inca Gold Peru was home to the fabled Incan Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries. (92, 37, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Aachen Illuminati lodge Class III of Aachen Illuminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (91, 37, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Aachen Illuminati lodge Class II of Aachen Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (93, 36, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati of Aachen meet Adam Weishaupt,the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati at Ingolstadt Illuminati of Aachen established. (92, 36, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Aachen Illuminati lodge Class I of Aachen Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (93, 37, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (94, 37, 1) ***Mage*** Message: Illuminati's recruitment from German {{Freemason}ry} was far from random. They targeted the masters and wardens, the men who ran the lodges, and were often able to place the entire lodge at the disposal of the Illuminati. In Aachen, Baron de Witte, master of Constancy lodge, caused every member to join the order(Illuminati) (97, 72, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati of Mainz meet Adam Weishaupt,the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati at Ingolstadt Illuminati of Mainz established (97, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: lluminati circles in the rest of Germany expanded. While some had only modest gains, the circle in Mainz almost doubled from 31 to 61 members. (96, 69, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Mainz Illuminati lodge Class I of Mainz Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (97, 69, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Mainz Illuminati lodge Class III of MainzIlluminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (98, 69, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Mainz Illuminati lodge Class II of Mainz Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (96, 70, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (22, 20, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knox saw himself as the embodiment of revolutionary republican ideals.He initiated the concept of The Society of the Cincinnati, formally organizing the society and authoring its founding document as the war ended in 1783.It was an elite organization of veteran officers. The Society of the Cincinnati is a fraternal, hereditary society with thirteen constituent societies in the United States and one in France, founded in 1783, to perpetuate "the remembrance of this vast event" (the achievement of American Independence), "to preserve inviolate those exalted rights and liberties of human nature," and "to render permanent the cordial affection subsisting among the officers" of the Continental Army who served in the Revolutionary War.Now in its third century, the Society promotes public interest in the Revolution through its library and museum collections, publications, and other activities. It is the oldest, patriotic hereditary society in America. With the arrival of news of a preliminary peace in April 1783 Congress began to order the demobilization of the Continental Army, and Washington gave Knox day-to-day command of what remained of the army. During this time Knox organized The Society of the Cincinnati, a fraternal, hereditary society of Revolutionary War officers that survives to this day. He authored the society's founding document, the Institution,in April 1783 and served as its first Secretary General.Knox also served as The Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati's first Vice President. The hereditary nature of the society's membership initially raised some eyebrows, but it was generally well received.He also drafted plans for the establishment of a peacetime army, many of whose provisions were eventually implemented. These plans included two military academies (one naval and one army, the latter occupying the critical base at West Point), and bodies of troops to maintain the nation's borders On June 19, 1783, the General Society of the Cincinnati adopted the bald eagle as its insignia. (The insignia was originally referred to as an "order" in the Society's records.) It is one of America's first post-revolution symbols and an important piece of American iconography. It is the second official American emblem to use the bald eagle, following the Great Seal of the United States. The insignia may have been derived from the same discourse that produced the seal. Today's Society supports efforts to increase public awareness and memory of the ideals and actions of the men who created the American Revolution and an understanding of American history, with an emphasis on the period from the outset of the Revolution to the War of 1812. At its headquarters at Anderson House in Washington, DC, the Society holds manuscript, portrait, and model collections pertaining to events of and military science during this period. Members of the Society have contributed to endow professorships, lecture series, awards, and educational materials in relation to the United States' representative democracy. (15, 15, 1) ***Pendant of Free Will*** Message: This will be our hand gestures.And let us plant our Liberty Tree. (20, 20, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (21, 20, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (22, 21, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Massachusetts,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (16, 14, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (17, 14, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (15, 14, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Les Neuf Soeurs Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (176, 163, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Generosity', Buda Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Generosity', Buda Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (176, 165, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Masonic Lodge Generosity ,Buda founded 'Grand Lodge of Croatia' (VLH) in Zagreb first Masonic Lodge Generosity (Buda), now under VLH protection (175, 164, 1) ***Enchanter*** Message: Among 50 members of Masonic Lodge Generosity, most famous were these 8 persons: Archbishop of Ljubljana Michael Brigido, Baron Pavao Davidovi?, doctor from Dubrovnik Matija Philadelphi, Jesuit Stjepan Katona, Count Josip Klobu?icky, and writer Stjepan Vujanovski. Masters of that Lodge were Captain Josip Jesenvoski, Baron Josip Orczy and Count Josip Haller. (175, 163, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge'Generosity', Buda Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Generosity', Buda You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Generosity', Buda,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (174, 163, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Generosity', Buda Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Generosity', Buda Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (168, 140, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class III of Pressburg Illuminati lodge Class III of Pressburg Illuminati lodge--The Mysteries. The lesser mysteries were the grades of Priest and Prince, followed by the greater mysteries in the grades of Mage and King. It is unlikely that the rituals for the greater mysteries were ever written. Promote revolution and establish a New World Order (169, 140, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class II of Pressburg Illuminati lodge Class II of Pressburg Illuminati lodge--The Masonic grades. The three "blue lodge" grades of Apprentice, Companion, and Master were separated from the higher "Scottish" grades of Scottish Novice and Scottish Knight. "The order of the day," they wrote in their general statutes, "is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them." (174, 142, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (173, 142, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (172, 142, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (172, 143, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Masonic Lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg founded 'Grand Lodge of Croatia' (VLH) in Zagreb first Masonic Lodge Lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg , now under VLH protection (169, 142, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Although their hopes of mass recruitment through {{Freemason}ry} had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. The Illuminati successful recruit of the professional military officers, knights,churchmen, academics, doctors and lawyers, and its more recent acquisition of powerful famous people Through our eyes of Illuminati,we can look back the Age of Enlightenment,and look into it, circulate radiance for liberty, progress, toleration, and fraternity;pave the way and kindle the fire for those revolutionaries! (170, 143, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Illuminati of Pressburg meet Adam Weishaupt,the founder of the Bavarian Illuminati at Ingolstadt Illuminati of Pressburg established (168, 141, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Class I of Pressburg Illuminati lodge Class I of Pressburg Illuminati lodge --The nursery, consisting of the Novitiate, the Minerval, and Illuminatus minor. Enlight the world (141, 92, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (143, 92, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge , 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge 'Stillness' ,Pressburg Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (142, 92, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (142, 93, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Czech town of ústí nad Labem First Lodge in Oto?ac, 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' (Croatian: Nepobjedivi s oru?jem u rukama, French: L’invincible aux bras armes), was founded in 1777 by Ivan Dra?kovi? VIII.. Its members were Austro-Hungarian officers of Croatian origin that served in the regiment Gyulay that was at the time deployed in Oto?ac. Grand Master was Colonel Danijel Butler-Hotkevi?. After regiment Gyulay moved to the Czech town of ústí nad Labem, Lodge was moved as well and continued to work there in French. founded 'Grand Lodge of Croatia' (VLH) in Zagreb first Masonic Lodge Lodge 'Invincible with weapon in our hands' ,Otocac , now under VLH protection (15, 25, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Historians have long explored the importance of the Scottish Enlightenment, as well as the American Enlightenment,while debating the very existence of the English Enlightenment. Sharing the humanist and rationalist outlook of the European Enlightenment of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing empiricism and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for the individual and society as a whole. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, economics, history architecture, and medicine. Leaders included Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid, William Robertson, Henry Home, Lord Kames, Adam Ferguson, John Playfair, Joseph Black and James Hutton The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment. (0, 21, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Knights Templar degree system-- Equivalent independent bodies of York Rite, in England and Wales (0, 18, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Officially known as The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta, of England and Wales, this order is colloquially known as the Knights Templar. Local bodies of Knights Templar are known as Preceptories; local bodies of Knights of St Paul are known as Chapters; local bodies of Knights of Malta are known as Priories; all operate under a Grand or Great Priory, often with an intermediate level of Provincial Priories. Although some jurisdictions maintain a separate Great Priory of the Temple and Great Priory of Malta (as, for example, in England), the Grand Master and other officers of both Great Priories hold simultaneous equal office in both bodies. Three degrees are administered in this system: The Degree of Knight Templar (Order of the Temple) The Degree of Knight of St. Paul (incorporating the Mediterranean Pass) The Degree of Knight of Malta (Order of Malta) Membership is by invitation and candidates are required to be Master Masons, holders of the degree of the Holy Royal Arch and to sign a declaration that they profess the Doctrine of the Holy and Undivided Trinity. The Degree of Knight Templar (Order of the Temple) You win your Degrees of The Degree of Knight Templar (Order of the Temple) (0, 19, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Officially known as The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta, of England and Wales, this order is colloquially known as the Knights Templar. Local bodies of Knights Templar are known as Preceptories; local bodies of Knights of St Paul are known as Chapters; local bodies of Knights of Malta are known as Priories; all operate under a Grand or Great Priory, often with an intermediate level of Provincial Priories. Although some jurisdictions maintain a separate Great Priory of the Temple and Great Priory of Malta (as, for example, in England), the Grand Master and other officers of both Great Priories hold simultaneous equal office in both bodies. Three degrees are administered in this system: The Degree of Knight Templar (Order of the Temple) The Degree of Knight of St. Paul (incorporating the Mediterranean Pass) The Degree of Knight of Malta (Order of Malta) Membership is by invitation and candidates are required to be Master Masons, holders of the degree of the Holy Royal Arch and to sign a declaration that they profess the Doctrine of the Holy and Undivided Trinity. The Degree of Knight of St. Paul (incorporating the Mediterranean Pass) You win your Degrees of The Degree of Knight of St. Paul (incorporating the Mediterranean Pass) (0, 20, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Officially known as The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta, of England and Wales, this order is colloquially known as the Knights Templar. Local bodies of Knights Templar are known as Preceptories; local bodies of Knights of St Paul are known as Chapters; local bodies of Knights of Malta are known as Priories; all operate under a Grand or Great Priory, often with an intermediate level of Provincial Priories. Although some jurisdictions maintain a separate Great Priory of the Temple and Great Priory of Malta (as, for example, in England), the Grand Master and other officers of both Great Priories hold simultaneous equal office in both bodies. Three degrees are administered in this system: The Degree of Knight Templar (Order of the Temple) The Degree of Knight of St. Paul (incorporating the Mediterranean Pass) The Degree of Knight of Malta (Order of Malta) Membership is by invitation and candidates are required to be Master Masons, holders of the degree of the Holy Royal Arch and to sign a declaration that they profess the Doctrine of the Holy and Undivided Trinity. The Degree of Knight of Malta (Order of Malta) You win your Degrees of The Degree of Knight of Malta (Order of Malta) (149, 188, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Society of United Irishmen--a sworn society in the Kingdom of Ireland formed in the wake of the French Revolution Society of United Irishmen looks to enlist the support of {Freemason}s As United Irishmen increasingly attracted the unwelcome attention of Dublin Castle and its network of informants, masonry did become both a host, a model and a cover (14, 19, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Rosicrucians already had a considerable foothold in German {{Freemason}ry}. While clearly Protestant, the Rosicrucians were anything but anticlerical, were pro-monarchic, and held views clearly conflicting with the Illuminati vision of a rationalist state run by philosophers and scientists. The Rosicrucians were not above promoting their own brand of mysticism with fraudulent seances. A conflict became inevitable as the existence of the Illuminati became more evident, ,the Illuminati were accused of atheism and revolutionary tendencies. In November 1783, the Three Globes described the Illuminati as a masonic sect which sought to undermine Christianity and turn {{Freemason}ry} into a political system. Their final anathema, in November 1784, refused to recognise any Illuminati as {Freemason}s Meanwhile, the scheme to propagate Illuminatism as a legitimate branch of {{Freemason}ry} had stalled. (224, 216, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Orient of Portugal Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Orient of Portugal You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Orient of Portugal ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (225, 217, 1) ***Monk*** Message: The Grand Orient of Portugal (Grande Oriente Lusitano) ,belongs to the Masonic liberal current, proclaiming the absolute liberty of conscience and adogmatism. (223, 216, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Orient of Portugal Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Orient of Portugal Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (225, 216, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Orient of Portugal Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Orient of Portugal Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (49, 188, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (50, 189, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (50, 188, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (51, 190, 1) ***Dread Knight*** Message: The Provincial Grand Lodge of Upper Canada was formed at the request of Alexander Wilson by the Grand Lodge of England in 1792，in Hamilton,Canada. Its first Provincial Grand Master was William Jarvis. (120, 6, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg Degrees of Fellowcraft of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (119, 6, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (118, 6, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (119, 7, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Landlodge of the {Freemason}s of Germany--Provincial Lodge of Lower Saxony in Hamburg, founded in 1777 The Grand Landlodge of the {Freemason}s of Germany (Gro?e Landesloge der Freimaurer von Deutschland, GLL FvD or GLL), also: Order of {Freemason}s (Freimaurerorden, FO) is a Masonic Grand Lodge in Germany. The Grand Landlodge of the {Freemason}s of Germany works according to a slightly modified version of the Swedish Rite. It therefore differs from other German Grand Lodges both in its content and organizational structure. However, as a masonic Grand Lodge it is not a religious community and affiliation to a particular Christian denomination is not required. Neither is it necessary for a member of the Order to be expressly Christian, however the Rules of the Order demand that every member "recognize the teachings of Jesus Christ as they are written down in the Holy Scripture" It demands that its members keep working continuously at the development of their own personality. Rationality and conscience, inner freedom and self-knowledge as well as being conscious of one's responsibilities are regarded as the necessary means by which one can approach the finding of the origin, character and destiny of mankind and the whole of existence. (47, 143, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Orient de Lyon Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Orient de Lyon Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (46, 143, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Orient de Lyon Degrees of Fellowcraft of Orient de Lyon Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (48, 145, 1) ***Champion*** Message: In the 18th century Lyon and Paris were the two major centers of the French {{Freemason}ry}.Each of them hosted more than 20 lodges.During the First Empire, the Grand Orient de France was under strict control from the political authorities and little by little gathered almost all of French {{Freemason}ry} (which had newly developed and quickly reached 1,200 lodges, mainly military ones) (47, 145, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Orient de Lyon Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Orient de Lyon You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Orient de Lyon ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (11, 19, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights Templar Headquarters Similar to their enemies, Assassin Brotherhood, the Templar Order also has three sacred tenets: 1."Uphold the principles of our order and all that for which we stand." 2."Never share our secrets nor divulge in the true nature of our work." 3."Do so until death, whatever the cost." "The people never have the power. Only the illusion of it. And here's the real secret: they don't want it. The responsibility is too great to bear. It's why they’re so quick to fall in line as soon as someone takes charge. They want to be told what to do. They yearn for it. Little wonder, that, since all mankind was built to serve." (11, 20, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights Templar Headquarters Similar to their enemies, Assassin Brotherhood, the Templar Order also has three sacred tenets: 1."Uphold the principles of our order and all that for which we stand." 2."Never share our secrets nor divulge in the true nature of our work." 3."Do so until death, whatever the cost." "There is only one Father of Understanding. He is the Lord above; he is order incarnate. Therefore, may the Father of Understanding be this and naught else--the invisible hand that plucks harmony from the strings of the universe. Nothing more. Let all remaining pagan blasphemies wither into dust." (11, 21, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights Templar Headquarters Similar to their enemies, Assassin Brotherhood, the Templar Order also has three sacred tenets: 1."Uphold the principles of our order and all that for which we stand." 2."Never share our secrets nor divulge in the true nature of our work." 3."Do so until death, whatever the cost." "We're cruel and desperate creatures, set in our conquering ways. The Saxons and the Franks. The Ottomans and Safavids... I could go on for hours. The whole of human history is but a series of conflicts and subjugation. A desire for more, and more, and more." (11, 22, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights Templar Headquarters Similar to their enemies, Assassin Brotherhood, the Templar Order also has three sacred tenets: 1."Uphold the principles of our order and all that for which we stand." 2."Never share our secrets nor divulge in the true nature of our work." 3."Do so until death, whatever the cost." "You are not men with whom I would normally parley, monsieur, but my father is dead, as are my allies within the Order. If I must turn to the Assassins for my revenge, so be it." --elise (12, 24, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Political Economy Club--the world's oldest economics association founded by James Milland a circle of friends in 1821 in London, for the purpose of coming to an agreement on the fundamental principles of political economy. David Ricardo, James Mill, Thomas Malthus (the only one holding an academic post at the time), and Robert Torrens were among the original luminaries. Malthus was a demographer before he was ever considered an economist. He first came to prominence for his 1798 publication, An Essay on the Principle of Population. In it, he raised the question of how population growth related to the economy. He affirmed that there were many events, good and bad, that affected the economy in ways no one had ever deliberated upon before. In his 1798 book An Essay on the Principle of Population, Malthus observed that an increase in a nation's food production improved the well-being of the population The main point of his essay was that population multiplies geometrically and food arithmetically. therefore whenever the food supply increases, population will rapidly grow to eliminate the abundance. ?Until that point, the more food made available, the more the population would increase. but the improvement was temporary because it led to population growth, which in turn restored the original per capita production level. In other words, humans had a propensity to utilize abundance for population growth rather than for maintaining a high standard of living, a view that has become known as the "Malthusian trap" or the "Malthusian spectre". Populations had a tendency to grow until the lower class suffered hardship, want and greater susceptibility to famine and disease, a view that is sometimes referred to as a Malthusian catastrophe. Eventually in the future, there would not be enough food for the whole of humanity to consume and people would starve. (15, 24, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Sotheby's (/?s?e?biz/) ,London.It is one of the world's largest brokers of fine and decorative art, jewellery, and collectibles. Sotheby's was established on 11 March 1744 in London by Samuel Baker, a bookseller. In 1767 the firm became Baker & Leigh, after George Leigh became a partner, and was renamed to Leigh and Sotheby in 1778 after Baker's death when Leigh's nephew, John Sotheby, inherited Leigh's share. Other former names include: Leigh, Sotheby and Wilkinson;Sotheby, Wilkinson and Hodge (1864-1924); Sotheby and Company (1924-83);Mssrs Sotheby; Sotheby & Wilkinson; Sotheby Mak van Waay; and Sotheby's & Co In 1767 the firm became Baker & Leigh, after Samuel Baker auctioned several hundred valuable books from the library of The Rt Hon Sir John Stanley, 1st Baronet, of Grangegorman and became business partners with George Leigh. The library Napoleon took with him into exile at St Helena, as well as the library collections of John Wilkes, Benjamin Heywood Bright and the Dukes of Devonshire and of Buckingham (both related to George Leigh), were sold through Samuel Baker's auctions. After Baker's death in 1778, the business was left to Leigh and his nephew John Sotheby, where it became a prominent book auction house and was renamed Leigh and Sotheby (17, 13, 1) ***Angel*** Message: Patriots--the feeling of love, devotion, and sense of attachment to a homeland or the country and alliance with other citizens who share the same sentiment to create a feeling of oneness among the people. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, language relating to one's own homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism and mostly liberal nationalism (15, 17, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: When American colonists won independence from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, the French, who participated in the war themselves, were both close allies and key participants. Several years after the revolt in America, French reformers faced political, social and economic hardships that mirrored the colonists’ struggles. While the French Revolution was a complex conflict with numerous triggers and causes, the American Revolution set the stage for an effective uprising that the French had observed firsthand. During the war in North American colonies, some allied Frenchmen fought side by side with soldiers of the Continental Army, which allowed for the exchanging of values, ideas and philosophies. The American Revolution needs to be understood in a broader framework than simply that of domestic events and national politics. The American Revolution started a trans-Atlantic Age of Revolution. Americans' Victory Encouraged the French The Americans’ victory over the British may have been one of the greatest catalysts for the French Revolution. Various connecting threads among these varied uprisings include a concern for the "Rights of Man" and freedom of the individual; an idea (often predicated on John Locke or Jean-Jacques Rousseau) of popular sovereignty; belief in a "social contract", which in turn was often codified in written constitutions; a certain complex of religious convictions often associated with deism or Voltairean agnosticism, and characterized by veneration of reason; abhorrence of feudalism and often of monarchy itself. The {Atlantic Revolutions} also had many shared symbols, including the name "Patriot" used by so many revolutionary groups; the slogan of "Liberty"; the liberty cap; Lady Liberty or Marianne; the tree of liberty or liberty pole, and so on. This Magical Surrealism map will guide you in the complicated disputes into the romantic and adventurous with ideal and reality life of revolutionaries on both sides of the Atlantic to have the insight of life course. Explore the imprint of the era of Democratic Revolution in the troubled wars of North American independence, French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars and South American independence; To rekindle the fire of truth, to review the fiery days of the Revelations, to reappear the never-annihilating Wars History of the {Atlantic Revolutions}! (21, 16, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: George Washington’s War Tent--one of the most iconic artifacts from the American Revolutionary War. It is the field tent used by General George Washington as his wartime headquarters. George Washington used it from 1778 - 1783, and it witnessed many historical moments during the War of Independence. General George Washington used a pair of campaign tents or marquees throughout the American Revolutionary War. In warm weather, he used one for dining with his officers and aides, and the other as his military office and sleeping quarters. Washington used this tent as his military office and as his sleeping tent. The office tent was the workplace of Washington’s headquarters staff, where they managed the commander-in-chief’s correspondence and made copies of his orders. A divided section of the shelter was where Washington slept. Washington’s enslaved valet William Lee also slept there. “… the smaller, or sleeping tent, had an inner-chamber, where, on a hard cot-bed, the chief reposed. Within its venerable folds, Washington was in the habit of seeking privacy and seclusion, where he could commune with himself, and where he wrote the most memorable of his despatches in the Revolutionary war.” (18, 15, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The process of Latin American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment which influenced all of the {Atlantic Revolutions}, including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France. In Spanish America, the ideas of the Enlightenment affected educated elites in major urban centers, especially Mexico City, Lima, and Guatemala, where there were universities founded in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In these centers of learning, American-born Spanish intellectuals were already participants in intellectual and scientific discourse, with Spanish American universities increasingly anti-scholastic and opposed to “untested authority” even before the Spanish Bourbons came to power. In Spanish America just as in Spain, the Enlightenment had some aspects of anticlericalism, but many priests were in favor of science and scientific thinking and were practitioners themselves. Some clergy were proponents of the Enlightenment as well as independence.Enlightenment texts circulating in Spanish America have been linked to the intellectual underpinnings of Spanish American independence The ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment, which emphasized reason, science, practicality, clarity rather than obscurantism, and secularism, were transmitted from France to the New World in the eighteenth century, following the establishment of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain. (18, 16, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sebastián Francisco de Miranda y Rodríguez de Espinoza (March 28, 1750 - July 14, 1816), commonly known as Francisco de Miranda (American Spanish pronunciation: [f?an?sisko ee mi??anda]), was a Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary.He is regarded as a forerunner of Simón Bolívar, who during the Spanish American wars of independence successfully liberated much of South America. He was known as "The First Universal Venezuelan" and "The Great Universal American". Miranda led a romantic and adventurous life in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment that influenced all of the {Atlantic Revolutions}. He participated in three major historical and political movements of his time: the American Revolutionary War, the French Revolution and the Spanish American wars of independence. He described his experiences over this time in his journal, which reached to 63 bound volumes. (16, 13, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophical movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason as in ancient Greece rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution. Much like the American document, the French declaration included Enlightenment principles, such as equal rights and popular sovereignty. In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy—an attitude captured by Immanuel Kant's essay Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment, where the phrase Sapere aude (Dare to know) can be found. (19, 15, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sebastián Francisco de Miranda y Rodríguez de Espinoza (March 28, 1750 - July 14, 1816), commonly known as Francisco de Miranda (American Spanish pronunciation: [f?an?sisko ee mi??anda]), was a Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary. Although his own plans for the independence of the Spanish American colonies failed, he is regarded as a forerunner of Simón Bolívar, who during the Spanish American wars of independence successfully liberated much of South America. He was known as "The First Universal Venezuelan" and "The Great Universal American". Miranda gathered around him a group of similarly minded individuals and helped establish an association, la Sociedad Patriotica, modeled on the political clubs of the French Revolution. By the end of the year, the Venezuelan provinces elected a congress to deal with the future of the country, and Miranda was chosen as the delegate from El Pao, Barcelona Province. On July 5, 1811, it formally declared Venezuelan independence and established a republic. The congress also adopted his tricolor as the Republic's flag. The following year Miranda and the young Republic's fortunes turned. Republican forces failed to subdue areas of Venezuela (the provinces of Coro, Maracaibo and Guyana) that had remained royalist. Bolívar lost control of San Felipe Castle of Puerto Cabello along with its ammunition stores on 30 June 1812. Deciding that the situation was lost, Bolívar effectively abandoned his post and retreated to his estate in San Mateo. By mid-July Monteverde had taken Valencia and Miranda also saw the republican cause as lost. He started negotiations with royalists that finalized an armistice on July 25, 1812, signed in San Mateo. Then Colonel Bolívar and other revolutionary officers claimed his actions as treasonous. Bolívar and others arrested Miranda and handed him over to the Spanish Royal Army in La Guaira port.For his apparent services to the royalist cause, Monteverde granted Bolívar a passport, and Bolívar left for Cura?ao on 27 August.Miranda went to the port of La Guaira intending to leave on a British ship before the royalists arrived, although under the armistice there was an amnesty for political offenses. Bolívar claimed afterwards that he wanted to shoot Miranda as a traitor but was restrained by the others; Bolívar's reasoning was that, "if Miranda believed the Spaniards would observe the treaty, he should have remained to keep them to their word; if he did not, he was a traitor to have sacrificed his army to it." By handing over Miranda to the Spanish, Bolívar assured himself a passport from the Spanish authorities (passports which, nevertheless, had been guaranteed to all republicans who requested them by the terms of the armistice), which allowed him to leave Venezuela unmolested, and Miranda thought that the situation was hopeless. Miranda never saw freedom again. For some reason I can't explain I know Saint Peter won't call my name (19, 14, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: Francisco de Miranda's journal Miranda led a romantic and adventurous life in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment that influenced all of the {Atlantic Revolutions}. He participated in three major historical and political movements of his time: the American Revolutionary War, the French Revolution and the Spanish American wars of independence. He described his experiences over this time in his journal, which reached to 63 bound volumes. (18, 12, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon Bonaparte's cocked hat A recognizable figure among a thousand, Bonaparte is one of the few people who can be identified by the mere shadow of his hat. Napoleon's cocked hat was the signature of his legend.When it came to the battlefield, Napoleon’s personal style signifier, so to speak, was his hat.This one , which is lined in olive-brown silk and has an interior circumference of 59cm — suggesting that Napoleon though comparatively short of stature had quite a large head. But by the end of the 1790s, the Italian campaign gave the young general the opportunity to seal the first stone of his legend in the making. During battles, Napoleon did not wear his cocked hat “in column” or “à la Frederic II” (sideways, as the Prussian did) but “in battle”. From then on, it is easy to recognize the general in the chaos of the fighting. Quickly identifiable thanks to his hat, Napoleon Bonaparte already sits part of his mythical silhouette. The appearance will stand out even more when he adopts his famous gray frock coat. This outfit to which he remained faithful all his life suggests, beyond his taste for military simplicity which brought him closer to his soldiers, a perfect awareness of the potential of clothing as a political tool. (12, 17, 1) ***Troll*** Message: A reactionary/conservative (like Royalist)is someone who generally opposes such Revolutionary changes. A reactionary is someone who wants things to go back to the way they were before the change has happened (and when this return to the past would represent a major change in and of itself, reactionaries can simultaneously be revolutionaries). In 19th Century European politics, the reactionary class included the Catholic Church's hierarchy and the aristocracy, royal families and royalists who believed that national government was the sole domain of the Church and the State. In the 19th century, reactionary denoted people who idealized feudalism and the pre-modern era—before the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution—when economies were mostly agrarian, a landed aristocracy dominated society, a hereditary king ruled and the Catholic Church was society's moral centre. Those labelled as "reactionary" favoured the aristocracy instead of the middle class and the working class. Reactionaries opposed democracy and parliamentarism,and fought to restore the temporal authority of the Church and Crown. (11, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: What is {{Freemason}ry}?It is difficult to answer this question in a few words for the following reasons: 1.{{Freemason}ry} is a secret society. 2.{{Freemason}ry} has not an invariable and rigid form. 3.{{Freemason}ry} conceals its true aim beneath vague formulas. Masonic ritual is the scripted words and actions that are spoken or performed during the degree work in a Masonic lodge.Masonic symbolism is that which is used to illustrate the principles which {{Freemason}ry} espouses. 1.Tyler The 'Tyler' (sometimes spelled 'Tiler')is sometimes known as the 'Outer Guard' of the lodge. His duty is to guard the door (from the outside), with a drawn sword, and ensure that only those who are duly qualified manage to gain entry into the lodge meeting. In some jurisdictions, he also prepares candidates for their admission. The Tyler is traditionally responsible for preparing the lodge room before the meeting, and for storing and maintaining the regalia after the meeting. In some jurisdictions the Tyler is a Past Master of the Lodge while in others he may be an employed brother from another lodge. (10, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} is a body of superimposed secret societies spread throughout the world.The role of {{Freemason}ry} is to create the revolutionary state of mind rather than to act directly. {{Freemason}ry} is described in its own ritual as a "Beautiful and profound system of morality, veiled in allegories and illustrated by symbols".The symbolism of {{Freemason}ry} is found throughout the Masonic lodge, and contains many of the working tools of a medieval or renaissance stonemason. The whole system is transmitted to initiates through the medium of Masonic ritual, which consists of lectures and allegorical plays 4.Secretary The Secretary's official duties include issuing the summons (a formal notice of an impending meeting, with time, date and agenda), recording meeting minutes, completing statistical returns to the Grand Lodge, and advising the Worshipful Master on matters of procedure. Many individual lodge bylaws add to these duties by mandating, for example, that the Secretary serve on specific committees. Although any member may hold the office of Secretary, it is typically held by an experienced Past Master. It is not unusual for the office of Secretary to be held by the same member for long periods of time, even decades. In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master. Some jurisdictions allow lodges to combine the duties of the Secretary and Treasurer into a single office the 'Secretary/Treasurer'. Allowing the lodge to continue to operate with a smaller number of officers. The Secretary/Treasurer must perform the duties listed above for both offices. The Secretary/Treasurer typically wears the jewel for the Secretary. (9, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: {{Freemason}ry} varies in appearance according to circumstances, times and peoples. Thus the masonry of Catholic countries is different from that of Protestant countries. Also masonry of today differs from that of before 1789 and from that of the middle of the nineteenth century. Everywhere and always it offers diversities and contradictions. Historically, {Freemason}s used various signs (hand gestures), grips or "tokens" (handshakes), and passwords to identify legitimate Masonic visitors from non-Masons who might wish to gain admission to meetings. These signs, grips, and passwords have been exposed multiple times; today {Freemason}s use dues cards and other forms of written identification. 5.Treasurer The role of the Treasurer is to keep the accounts, collect annual dues from the members, pay bills, and forward annual dues to the Grand Lodge. The annual presentation of accounts is an important measure of the lodge's continuing viability, whilst the efficient collection of annual subscriptions is vitally important, as any lapse in payment (deliberate or unintentional) can lead to a member losing voting rights, being denied the opportunity to visit other lodges, and finally even being debarred or excluded from his own lodge. In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master. It is common for the Treasurer to be an experienced Past Master, but this is not required. (8, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Before everything a secret society, masonry never works in the full light of day. In principle, and according to its statutes, {{Freemason}ry} is a secret association, the aim of which is philanthropic, humanitarian and progressive. It wishes to ennoble and perfect society by directing it towards an ideal of light, progress, and truth. The secrets of {{Freemason}ry} are the various modes of recognition - grips (handshakes), passwords and signs (hand gestures) that indicate one is a {Freemason}. 8.Grand Sword Bearer Many Grand Masters are preceded in formal processions by a ceremonial sword. In such cases a "Grand Sword Bearer" is appointed to carry the sword. (7, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: All virtues are practised, above all those of tolerance and brotherly solidarity between masons. It is a sublime, holy and sacred institution, the everlasting originator of all things done in humanity which are good, beautiful, and great. This association aims to place itself above the ideas of party, class, nationality and religion. All {Freemason}s are brothers and equals. In the original statutes {{Freemason}ry} must keep apart from politics. From the religious point of view each mason is free to believe what he wishes. {{Freemason}ry} describes itself as a "beautiful system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols".The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the tools of stonemasons - the square and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the trowel, the rough and smooth ashlars, among others. Moral lessons are attributed to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning of the symbolism is taught and explored through ritual,and in lectures and articles by individual Masons who offer their personal insights and opinions. 9.Junior Warden The third of the principal officers is the Junior Warden (or Second Warden). The Junior Warden is charged with the supervision of the Lodge while it is "at refreshment" (in recess for meals or other social purposes). In some jurisdictions the Junior Warden has a particular responsibility for ensuring that visiting Masons are in possession of the necessary credentials. In others, this is the job of the Tyler. In some jurisdictions the Junior Warden presides if both the Master and the Senior Warden are absent. In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master. The Wardens are "regular officers" of the Lodge, meaning that the positions must be filled. (6, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: These declarations are found, or have been found, in the constitutions of all the masonic federations and therefore carry authority.Amongst the documents which demonstrate the masonic revolutionary preparation those of the "IIluminati" are the most complete. Every ceremonial in all societies always appears ridiculous when one does not seek out its spirit. Abbe Robin, Recherches sur les initiations anciennes et modernes (1779) 10.Senior Warden The Senior Warden (sometimes known as First Warden) is the second of the three principal officers of a lodge, and is the Master's principal deputy. Under some constitutions, if the Worshipful Master is absent then the Senior Warden presides at meetings as "acting Master", and may act for the Master in all matters of lodge business. Under other constitutions, only sitting Masters or Past Masters may preside as "acting Master", and so the Senior Warden cannot fulfill this role unless he is also a Past Master. In many lodges it is presumed that the Senior Warden will become the next Worshipful Master. In some jurisdictions, the position is an elected office, while in others it is appointed by the Master. (5, 17, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The propaganda was first of all carried out in the masonic circles with the following result: "The fundamental principles of masonry ended by becoming an integral part of the mentality of all masons, not only an acquired philosophic idea, but a way of feeling, and often also a way of being (p. 120)." The majority of work on friendship in the Enlightenment has has long been considered a rather “lofty” subject，therefore limited itself to examining friendship in moral thought or through the literary careers of the century’s major writers.Then an Enlightenment space of community life that cultivated friendship rise: {{Freemason}ry}. 11.Worshipful Master The senior officer of a Masonic Lodge is the Master, normally addressed and referred to as the "Worshipful Master" (in Scotland, and in Lodges under the Scottish Constitution, the "Right Worshipful Master"). The Worshipful Master sits in the East of the lodge room, chairs all of the business of his lodge, and is vested with considerable powers without further reference to the members. He also presides over ritual and ceremonies. The office of Worshipful Master is the highest honour to which a lodge may appoint any of its members. The office is filled annually by election, often by secret ballot. The requirements as to who is eligible for election as Master vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but the majority of jurisdictions specify that a brother must have served as an installed Warden to qualify. In practice, most lodges will nominate and elect the previous year's Senior Warden in an uncontested election. At the conclusion of his limited term of office, a Worshipful Master is termed a Past Master. The duties and privileges of Past Masters vary from lodge to lodge and jurisdiction to jurisdiction. For example, in some jurisdictions Past Masters become life members of the Grand Lodge, while in others they are not. In most jurisdictions, a Past Master retains the honorific "Worshipful" (as in "Worshipful Brother Smith"), however there are a few where this honorific is used exclusively for sitting Masters. The corresponding grand rank is Grand Master. The Grand Master may preside over his Grand Lodge, and also has certain powers and rights in every lodge under his jurisdiction. Grand Masters are usually addressed as "Most Worshipful", or as in Pennsylvania, "Right Worshipful". (11, 18, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights Templar Headquarters Whereas the Assassins assert that utopia can someday be achieved through a gradual process of learning tolerance and mutual understanding, we Templars classically insist that human nature is too prone to corruption for this to be a possibility.Defeat our sworn enemies, the Assassin Brotherhood. The Templar's true goal is to lead and enlighten humanity so as to transform the world into a self-sustaining progressive utopia, cleansed of their barbaric nature. The Templars view this step as necessary for the world, given the fact that humanity was created to serve and be led by the First Civilization in the first place. (11, 16, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: One must lie like the devil," said Voltaire. "not timidly, not for a time only, but boldly and always" (Letter to Theriot).The foundation in 1773 of the Grand Orient and the reorganisation of the Loge des neuf soeurs (to which Voltaire belonged) mark the beginning of a new phase; propaganda outside the lodges. A brief look at various sources soon confirms Aymard’s hypothesis that friendship lay at the heart of Masonic identity. Throughout the century, the idiom of friendship dominated the lexicon of the Royal Art. The brothers gave their lodges names such as “Amitie” (Friendship), “Amitie Parfaite” (Perfect Friendship), “Centre des Amis” (Center of Friends), “Vrais Amis” (True Friends), and “Amis Parfaits” (Perfect Friends). In the late 1730s, Andrew Michael Ramsay, one of the founders of Masonic ideology, described the aim of the Order as being to form “friendly men” who would be “loyal worshipers of the God of Friendship.” 2.Stewards Stewards fulfill a number of junior assistant roles. There is considerable variance, even within the same jurisdiction, as to the precise roles played by Stewards. Some of their common duties could include the following: Stewards are often tasked with an understudy role to fill the position of the Senior Deacon or Junior Deacon, in their absence. When a degree ceremony is performed, one or more Steward(s) may be required to assist the two Deacons in conducting the candidates around the temple. Stewards have a traditional role in many jurisdictions of serving wine at any meal after the lodge meeting, often extended to a general supervision and planning of catering and refreshments. Some jurisdictions specify that each lodge has two Stewards, known as the 'Senior Steward' and 'Junior Steward'. In others, the Worshipful Master may appoint any number of Stewards, according to the size and requirements of his lodge, and in this respect the office is unique. Although newer members usually fill the office of Steward, in some lodges it is traditional for a Past Master to be appointed to supervise the stewards' work. The office may serve to dignify a useful member of the Lodge, such as a webmaster or wine buyer, or to establish precedence in the rotation of officers. In a Grand Lodge, the Grand Stewards are typically promising junior members, who may subsequently expect accelerated promotion as Grand Officers. In United Grand Lodge of England nineteen lodges hold the right to nominate a Grand Steward each year, and as Grand Stewards wear distinctive red aprons, these lodges are known as 'red apron lodges'. Typically these lodges nominate their current Worshipful Master and can, therefore, be relatively junior through to extremely senior members. The importance of the rights to nominate Grand Stewards and their duties go back to the first formation of the Premier Grand Lodge,when the Office carried onerous financial liabilities. Grand Stewards of United Grand Lodge of England are still expected to organise and subsidise the Grand Festival, which is held each year directly after the Annual Investiture. (10, 16, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The general masonry principle according to Collot d'Herbois is that: Everything is permitted for the triumph of the Revolution. Following Ramsay, almost all early Masonic texts accord a central role to friendship as a factor of cohesion. In a series of songs composed by Jacques-Christophe Naudot, a member of the Coustos-Villeroy lodge in Paris, the master defined the objective of {{Freemason}ry} as follows: “Payer le tribut / à l’amitie tendre et cherie / C’est le seul statut / De notre charmant institut [Paying tribute / To dear and gentle friendship / Is the only rule / Of our delightful institution].”? 3.Deacons A Deacon is a junior officer in the lodge. In most jurisdictions, a lodge has two Deacons, styled Senior Deacon and Junior Deacon (though First Deacon and Second Deacon are sometimes encountered as an alternative.) The principal duties of the Senior Deacon are to conduct candidates around the Lodge and speak for them during certain ceremonies, to attend the Worshipful Master as needed and to carry his orders to the Senior Warden. The office and duties of Junior Deacon are similar in many respects to that of Senior Deacon, to attend the Senior Warden, and carry messages to the Junior Warden. In some jurisdictions he is also responsible for guarding the inside of the main door of the lodge and ensuring that the lodge is "tyled" (in other jurisdictions this duty is given to the "Inner Guard" or "Inside Sentinel" or Pursuivant). In Continental {{Freemason}ry} the Deacons are entirely absent, their functions being shared between the Inner Guard and the Wardens. The jewel of the deacons in some jurisdictions is denoted by a Dove or by Mercury, the winged messenger, indicating their duty in the Lodge (9, 16, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: During the 18th century the glorious line of the "Encyclopedistes" found in our temples a fervent audience, which, alone at that period, invoked the radiant motto, still unknown to the people, of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". The revolutionary seed germinated rapidly in that select company. Our illustrious brother masons d'Alembert, Diderot, Helvetius, d'Holbach, Voltaire and Condorcet, completed the evolution of people's minds and prepared the way for a new age. And when the Bastille fell, {{Freemason}ry} had the supreme honour to present to humanity the charter which it had friendly elaborated. The importance of friendship was also clearly recognized in the orations published in the late 1740s, which declared that “Masonry is a sanctuary devoted to friendship” and that “every Mason must necessarily be a good friend.” 6.Inner Guard or Inside Sentinel The office of 'Inner Guard' (or Inside Sentinel) is mandatory in UK lodges, but rare in American lodges. The Inner Guard is also an office in Australian and New Zealand lodges. This position is commonly assigned to a fairly junior member, as it provides a good opportunity for him to meet members and observe and learn ceremonies, and is at the beginning of the progressive offices leading to the Chair. The task of guarding the door is shared with the 'Tyler' (see above). The Inner Guard is on the inside of the door, and in some jurisdictions is armed with a poignard, or short dagger. In those jurisdictions which do not appoint an Inner Guard (and even in some that do), this duty is given to the Junior Deacon (see above). (8, 16, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A mason is only chosen after having been watched for a long time and judged worthy of elevation: it is not the levelling principle of universal suffrage which operates but the autocratic principle of absolute power. As one advances in the masonic hierarchy the number of high degrees diminishes and thus masonry forms a pyramid of three main stages. At the base is blue or St John's masonry, a sort of depot where those who will form the higher masonry are examined and chosen, and where they undergo the indispensable masonic moulding; they also form the necessary contacts with the outer world for the diffusion of masonic ideas. Above this is the masonry of the high degrees, which, in spite of its name, is only a subordinate masonry, an indispensable channel to reach the high international {{Freemason}ry} with probably a small leading inner circle. A Mason from epernay also possessed a poem devoted to fraternity that described the Masons as “new but true friends.”? Throughout the century, the maintenance of friendship remained the firm ambition of Masonic sociability, as astronomer Jer?me de Lalande explained in an oration of 1779: “I will, my dear Brothers, speak to you of the excellence of Masonry?… It is Masonry?… that produces that unvarnished politeness?…. It is the mother of Friendship?… everything here demonstrates the return of those happy times when men united by the bonds of fraternal friendship knew not the distinctions since introduced by ambition, pride, and fortune.”? 7.Grand Standard Bearer or Grand Banner Bearer Many Grand Masters or Grand Lodges have an official standard which is carried behind the Grand Master in formal processions. In such cases a "Grand Standard Bearer" or "Grand Banner Bearer" is appointed. (153, 177, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge York Lodge No. 236--Mother lodge to Horatio Nelson Masonic lodge York Lodge No. 236--Mother lodge to Horatio Nelson York Lodge No. 236 is the oldest surviving {Freemason}s Lodge in the City of York.Later this lodge held many public processions on the date of the death of Lord Nelson,“a departed Brother and National Hero” who was once a member of this lodge (154, 177, 1) ***Event*** Message: York Castle (156, 178, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Odd Fellows(or Oddfellows; also Odd Fellowship or Oddfellowship)--is an international fraternity consisting of lodges first documented in 1730 . Odd Fellows from that time include John Wilkes (1725-1797) and Sir George Savile, 8th Baronet of Thornton (1726-1784), advocating civil liberties and reliefs, including Catholic emancipation. Political repressions such as the Unlawful Oaths Act (1797) and the Unlawful Societies Act (1799),resulted in neutral amalgamation of the Grand United Order of Oddfellows in 1798. Since then the fraternity has remained religiously and politically independent. George IV of the United Kingdom, admitted in 1780, was the first documented of many Odd Fellows to also attend {{Freemason}ry}, although the societies remain mutually independent. Several theories aim to explain the etymological background of the name "Odd Fellows", often spelled "Oddfellows" in British English. In the 18th century United Kingdom, major trades were organised in guilds or other forms of syndicates, but smaller trades did not have equivalent social or financial security. One theory has it that "odd fellows", people who exercised unusual, miscellaneous "odd trades", eventually joined together to form a larger group of "odd fellows". Another theory suggests that in the beginning of odd fellowship in the 18th century, at the time of the early era of industrialisation, it was rather odd to find people who followed noble values such as fraternalism, benevolence and charity. by the mid-19th century, the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity had become the largest and richest fraternal organisation in the United Kingdom (155, 177, 1) ***Event*** Message: River Trent (20, 22, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In what later became the United States, the pointed lightning rod conductor, also called a lightning attractor or Franklin rod, was invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1752 as part of his groundbreaking exploration of electricity. (19, 22, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “Love your Enemies, for they tell you your Faults.” --Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin FRS FRSA FRSE (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January 6, 1706][Note 1] - April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and political philosopher. Among the leading intellectuals of his time, Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, a drafter and signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, and the first United States Postmaster General. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among other inventions. He founded many civic organizations, including the Library Company, Philadelphia's first fire department,and the University of Pennsylvania.Franklin earned the title of "The First American" for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky--Kite experiment (21, 22, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The American Enlightenment ----a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen American colonies in the 18th to 19th century, which led to the American Revolution, and the creation of the United States of America. The American Enlightenment was influenced by the 17th-century European Enlightenment and its own native American philosophy. According to James MacGregor Burns, the spirit of the American Enlightenment was to give Enlightenment ideals a practical, useful form in the life of the nation and its people. Based on the metaphor of bringing light to the Dark Age, the Age of the Enlightenment (Siècle des lumières in French and Aufkl?rung in German) shifted allegiances away from absolute authority, whether religious or political, to more skeptical and optimistic attitudes about human nature, religion and politics. In the American context, thinkers such as Thomas Paine, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams and Benjamin Franklin invented and adopted revolutionary ideas about scientific rationality, religious toleration and experimental political organization—ideas that would have far-reaching effects on the development of the fledgling nation. (14, 21, 1) ***Event*** Message: The International Order of {{Freemason}ry} Le Droit Humain The International Order of {{Freemason}ry} Le Droit Humaina is a global Masonic Order, membership of which is available to men and women on equal terms, regardless of nationality, religion or ethnicity. The Order is founded on the ancient teachings and traditions of {{Freemason}ry}, using Masonic ritual and symbolism as its tools in the search for truth. On the individual level, the Order aims "to promote the progress of individual worth, without the imposition of dogma, or exacting the abandonment of cultural or religious ideas". On a collective level it works "to unite men and women who agree on a humanist spirituality whilst respecting individual and cultural differences". In contrast with other Masonic organisations which operate in national or state jurisdiction only, Le Droit Humain is a global fraternity with many Federations and Jurisdictions worldwide, each of which work the Scottish Rite from the 1st to the 33rd degree. The Order is administered by the Supreme Council, which has its headquarters in Paris. (14, 22, 1) ***Event*** Message: Masonic Light The concept of light or the word itself has always, from time immemorial, occupied a dominant position in the philosophies of all ancient religions and mystic orders. In ordinary language the word is given several definitions, which on reflection tend to lead to a realization of deeper meanings, which have adorned the philosophies of ancient mystic orders including {{Freemason}ry}. Some of the most common definitions are as follows: It is the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things visible. It is also defined as the amount of illumination in a place or a person’s share of it. It is described as the object from which light emanates such as sun, a lamp, a candle, fire, etc. It can be defined as the quality of brightening with animation. All of those definitions relate to sight, which is the faculty of seeing by response of the brain to the actions of light on the eyes in all things that relate to the material world limited to time and space in accordance with the capacity of the brain, which governs the intellect. In all ancient philosophies man has always contended with the doctrine of the two antagonistic principles of light and darkness, wisdom and ignorance, good and evil. Indeed there is hardly any ancient system that did not possess the basic recognition of light with the reverence as being emblematically representative of the eternal principles of goodness and wisdom as against evil and ignorance. These ancient systems of religion and esoteric sciences went further to exhibit prominently an emblematic relation between material light and mental illumination, primordial knowledge or the ever active primordial energy. Examples of these philosophies can be found in the Jewish Kabbalistic doctrine, those of the Egyptians, Persians, the dogma of Zoroaster and Brahmans, to name a few. It is a reflection of these doctrines that leads us also to a conscious contemplation of the true meaning of the great phrase “Let there be light, and there was light.” It is significant to note even man in his material existence in reacting to his own surroundings is filled with sentiments of fear when he is face to face with darkness while his reaction to light is that of joy and happiness. All {Freemason}s know or ought to know that “light” is one of the cardinal words that form the main fabric of Speculative {{Freemason}ry}. It is not only the first symbol that is ceremonially introduced to the initiate, but continues all through his progress in the Craft. Truth and Wisdom constitute part of light, which pervades the whole basis of {{Freemason}ry} to the extent that {Freemason}s are even called the Sons of Light. In the First Degree alone the word is introduced to the candidate in three different perspectives. Those perspectives being, the material light, or the lesser lights, the emblematic light or the Volume of the Sacred Law, and the spiritual light or the creative will of the Supreme Being. These concepts and others that follow after the First Degree are amply enshrouded in illuminating phraseology remembered by every {Freemason}. Their full import may not be perceived by all but they are constantly there in the rituals of our ceremonies. There are other references to light that are still worthy of note. “To bring to light” or “to see the light” technically means initiation. From the foregoing it is obvious that to the Mason light has a deeper meaning which is darkness to the uninitiated or possibly even the newly made Mason, but visible to the taught Mason. What therefore is the light that is darkness visible? The first and most important qualification for becoming a mason is a “belief in a Supreme Being”. From this belief arises a second belief that all things were made at the creative spark, or will of the SUPREME BEING. What therefore is the creative spark at which all things were first made? The Volume of Sacred Law bears testimony that in the beginning God created Heaven and earth, and the earth was without form and void. Then came the great spark of creation, and God said, “Let there be light and there was light”. From this record in the Volume of Sacred Law, the transformation of voids into forms such as the the sea, land and all living creatures, etc. took place after the creation or issuing forth light which was the animating force. Indeed it was not until the fourth day that the sun to rule the day and give light to the earth, and the moon to govern the night and the stars were created. What was therefore the first light created on the first day? This light has been described as the unsubstantiated primordial light, the driving force throughout creation, the primordial seed, and the ever active primordial energy. What light does the {Freemason} seek to see? The light given in the great creative spark can therefore be equated with the will of God, the creative will of GOD, from which all forms emanate in perfection and from which also the spirit core of man emanates in subsequent creation. This is the beginning of creation and the understanding of the place of man in creation, which Masonic science strives to teach. (16, 23, 1) ***Event*** Message: York Rite--Composed of Royal Arch Masons, Council of Royal & Select Masters or Council of Cryptic Masons, and the Commandery of Knights Templar.The York Rite, sometimes referred to as the American Rite, since it is named for, but not practised in York, England, is one of several Rites of {{Freemason}ry}. (17, 23, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Royal Arch Masonry (also known as "Capitular Masonry")--the first part of the York Rite system of the Masonic degrees. Royal Arch Masons meet as a Chapter, and the Royal Arch Chapter confers four degrees: Mark Master Mason, Past Master, Most Excellent Master, and Royal Arch Mason. Within the York Rite, a Royal Arch Chapter works the following degrees: 1.The Mark Master Mason degree is in some respects an extension of the Fellowcraft or Second degree. In some jurisdictions the degree is conferred in a lodge of Fellowcraft Masons, that is, the Second degree of the Blue Lodge. 2.The Past Master (Virtual) degree is conferred because of the traditional requirement that only Past Masters of a Blue Lodge could be admitted to Royal Arch Masonry. Because there are so many applicants for this degree, Virtual Past Master is required to qualify them for it. Much of the work is the same given to install the Worshipful Master of a Blue Lodge. There is no such requirement or procedure outside the USA. (In Pennsylvania, this degree is under the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania and is conferred only to newly-elected Masters of Symbolic Lodges.) 3.In the Most Excellent Master degree the building of King Solomon's Temple, which figures so prominently in Blue Lodge, has been completed. In England and Wales, the degree is conferred by Cryptic Councils, along with three other degrees . 4.The Royal Arch Mason degree is said by many to be the most beautiful degree in all of {{Freemason}ry}.{Freemason}s who reach this degree may continue to Cryptic Masonry or go straight to Knights Templar (where permitted—requirements vary in different jurisdictions). 5.Honorary Degrees of Valor. (18, 23, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Cryptic Masonry--he second part of the York Rite system of Masonic degrees, and the last found within the Rite that deals specifically with the Hiramic Legend. These degrees are the gateway to Temple restoration rituals or the Second Temple Legend. The body itself is known as either the Council of Royal & Select Masters or Council of Cryptic Masons depending on the jurisdiction. Within the York Rite, members of Cryptic Masonry meet as a Council, and the Council confers three degrees: Royal Master, Select Master, and Super Excellent Master. Outside the United States, Grand Councils have the right to confer other degrees such as the Royal Ark Mariner degree in Canada and the Excellent Master degree in Scotland. In England and Wales, the York Rite degrees of Cryptic Masonry are part of the Order of Royal and Select Masters. (19, 23, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Knights Templar (Grand Encampment of Knights Templar of the U.S.A.)--The Knights Templar is the final order joined in the York Rite. Unlike other Masonic bodies which only require a belief in a Supreme Being regardless of religion, membership in the Knights Templar is open only to Christian Masons who have completed their Royal Arch and in some jurisdictions their Cryptic Degrees.This body is modeled on the historical Knights Templar to carry on the spirit of their organization. Throughout history it has been claimed that {{Freemason}ry} itself was founded by the Knights Templar or that the Knights Templar took refuge in {{Freemason}ry} after their persecution. The Grand Encampment of the United States acknowledges the existence of these theories but states that there is no proof to justify such claims. A local Knights Templar division is called a Commandery and operates under a state level Grand Commandery as well as The Grand Encampment of the United States. This is unique among Masonic bodies as most report to the state level alone. The Knights Templar confer three orders, and one passing order as opposed to the standard degree system found elsewhere in {{Freemason}ry}: The Illustrious Order of the Red Cross The Passing Order of St. Paul (or the Mediterranean Pass) The Order of the Knights of Malta (or simply Order of Malta) The Order of the Temple The Knights Templar, full name The United Religious, Military and Masonic Orders of the Temple and of St John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes and Malta, is a fraternal order affiliated with {{Freemason}ry}. Unlike the initial degrees conferred in a regular Masonic Lodge, which (in most Regular Masonic jurisdictions) only require a belief in a Supreme Being regardless of religious affiliation，the Knights Templar is one of several additional Masonic Orders in which membership is open only to {Freemason}s who profess a belief in Christianity. One of the obligations entrants to the order are required to declare is to protect and defend the Christian faith. The word "United" in its full title indicates that more than one historical tradition and more than one actual order are jointly controlled within this system. The individual orders 'united' within this system are principally the Knights of the Temple (Knights Templar), the Knights of Malta, the Knights of St Paul, and only within the York Rite, the Knights of the Red Cross. Like the Masonic Red Cross of Constantine being inspired by the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George and the Order of Malta being inspired by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, the Masonic order of Knights Templar derives its name from the medieval Catholic military order Knights Templar. However, it does not claim any direct lineal descent from the original Templar order. (19, 21, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts {{Freemason}ry} in Massachusetts dates to the early 18th century, and the foundation of its Grand Lodge is wound through with the threads of the (then) ongoing disputes between the Moderns and the Antients. Due to the Revolution, and based on the state of affairs between the US and Great Britain, the Scottish Provincial Grand Lodge drafted new constitutions, breaking from the Grand Lodge of Scotland and becoming Massachusetts Grand Lodge in 1782. With the 1815 acquisition of a collection of Masonic books owned by R.W. and Rev. Thaddeus Mason Harris, the Grand Lodge had the beginnings of what would become one of the major Masonic libraries in the world. (20, 21, 1) ***Zealot*** Message: Thirty Masons voted to stay part of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and nineteen voted for the Massachusetts Grand Lodge. (15, 18, 1) ***Iron Golem*** Message: A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates a revolution.The term revolutionary can also be used as an adjective, to refer to something that has a major, sudden impact on society or on some aspect of human endeavor. The term—both as a noun and adjective—is usually applied to the field of politics, but is also occasionally used in the context of science, invention or art. In politics, a revolutionary is someone who supports abrupt, rapid, and drastic change, usually replacing the status quo, while a reformist is someone who supports more gradual and incremental change, often working within the system. In that sense, revolutionaries may be considered radical, while reformists are moderate by comparison. Moments which seem revolutionary on the surface may end up reinforcing established institutions. Likewise, evidently small changes may lead to revolutionary consequences in the long term. Thus the clarity of the distinction between revolution and reform is more conceptual than empirical. "The revolutionary is a doomed man. He has no private interests, no affairs, sentiments, ties, property nor even a name of his own. His entire being is devoured by one purpose, one thought, one passion - the revolution. Heart and soul, not merely by word but by deed, he has severed every link with the social order and with the entire civilized world; with the laws, good manners, conventions, and morality of that world. He is its merciless enemy and continues to inhabit it with only one purpose - to destroy it." (16, 19, 1) ***Event*** Message: An era of revolutions Between 1775 and 1825, revolutions across the Americas and Europe changed the maps and governments of the Atlantic world. Within 50 years, the European empires in the Americas would shrink and new nations would spread across the whole of the Americas. Revolutionaries were inspired by the ideals of the Enlightenment including individual freedom. But they also rejected the authority of distant aristocratic rulers. Revolutionary leaders established new countries that only sometimes lived up to promises of democratic rule. The American War of Independence, the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the many revolutions of Latin America were connected through networks of ideas, trade, and global events that rocked the world over a few dramatic decades. (13, 23, 1) ***Endless Sack of Gold*** Message: "Welcome to Christie's, a British auction house founded in 1766 by me. Its main premises are on King Street, St James's in London."--James Christie,the founder of auction house Christie's. "Situated at Pall Mall in London, my England Christie's Great Rooms dealt with some of the most important sales of the late-eighteenth century." “Oh, a new auction is on, and these rich guys are competing for artwork，whom will I sale to,may be to you?Gosh, these normally polite gentlemen are fighting over competing artworks，can you help me ?” (17, 22, 1) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Myosotis (/?ma?.??so?t?s/ MY-?-SOH-tiss) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae. The name comes from the Ancient Greek μυοσωτ?? "mouse's ear", which the foliage is thought to resemble.In the northern hemisphere they are colloquially denominated forget-me-notsor scorpion grasses. The colloquial name "forget-me-not" was calqued from the German Vergissmeinnicht and first used in English in AD 1398 through King Henry IV of England.Similar names and variations are found in many languages. The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne in 1926, as a Masonic emblem. During the ensuing decade of Nazi power a little blue Forget Me Not flower worn in a Brother’s lapel served as one method whereby brethren could identify each other in public (although even then it was not always safe to wear any non-Nazi pin), and in cities and concentration camps throughout Europe. The Forget Me Not distinguished the lapels of countless brethren who staunchly refused to allow the symbolic Light of Masonry to be completely extinguished. Behind the Masonic Symbols: The Forget-Me-Not. Explore the history behind the forget-me-not, a symbol used in {{Freemason}ry} to teach a valuable and important lesson: the dedication and courage it takes to hold to Masonic principles, even in the face of grave danger. While temples were once destroyed, property confiscated and burned, and Masons imprisoned and murdered, the mysteries of {{Freemason}ry} and the core principles of brotherly love, relief, and truth survived unimpaired in our brothers’ hearts. Masonic organizations promptly rebuilt following those dark era, and once again to thrive in the face of adversity and hardship. Lets keep it at that and let us admit to the Masonic Brotherhood of the blue Forget Me Not and thus did a simple flower blossom forth into a symbol of the fraternity, and become perhaps the most widely worn emblem among {Freemason}s. The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by {Freemason}s around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of {{Freemason}ry}, especially those during the Nazi era. (18, 22, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Gulian manor house,Town of Fishkill, New York--the place where the Society of the Cincinnati was founded. (16, 18, 1) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Myosotis (/?ma?.??so?t?s/ MY-?-SOH-tiss) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae. The name comes from the Ancient Greek μυοσωτ?? "mouse's ear", which the foliage is thought to resemble.In the northern hemisphere they are colloquially denominated forget-me-notsor scorpion grasses. The colloquial name "forget-me-not" was calqued from the German Vergissmeinnicht and first used in English in AD 1398 through King Henry IV of England.Similar names and variations are found in many languages. The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne in 1926, as a Masonic emblem. During the ensuing decade of Nazi power a little blue Forget Me Not flower worn in a Brother’s lapel served as one method whereby brethren could identify each other in public (although even then it was not always safe to wear any non-Nazi pin), and in cities and concentration camps throughout Europe. The Forget Me Not distinguished the lapels of countless brethren who staunchly refused to allow the symbolic Light of Masonry to be completely extinguished. Behind the Masonic Symbols: The Forget-Me-Not. Explore the history behind the forget-me-not, a symbol used in {{Freemason}ry} to teach a valuable and important lesson: the dedication and courage it takes to hold to Masonic principles, even in the face of grave danger. While temples were once destroyed, property confiscated and burned, and Masons imprisoned and murdered, the mysteries of {{Freemason}ry} and the core principles of brotherly love, relief, and truth survived unimpaired in our brothers’ hearts. Masonic organizations promptly rebuilt following those dark era, and once again to thrive in the face of adversity and hardship. Lets keep it at that and let us admit to the Masonic Brotherhood of the blue Forget Me Not and thus did a simple flower blossom forth into a symbol of the fraternity, and become perhaps the most widely worn emblem among {Freemason}s. The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by {Freemason}s around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of {{Freemason}ry}, especially those during the Nazi era. (244, 3, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: "Welcome to Saint Petersburg Free Economic Society(Free Economic Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture and Husbandry (Russian: Вольное экономическое общество) was Russia's first learned society which formally did not depend on the government and as such came to be regarded as a bulwark of Russian liberalism)"--Nikolay Mordvinov ,"we "supposed to publicize advanced methods of farming and estate management as practiced in foreign countries." Count Nikolay Semyonovich Mordvinov (Russian: Николай Семёнович Мордвинов) (17 April 1754 - 30 March 1845) was one of the most reputable Russian political thinkers of Alexander I's reign. (153, 149, 1) ***Event*** Message: Imperial Crypt, Vienna. (153, 150, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: "My domains were overrun by the troops of Revolutionary France,and I am badly ill,I am going to die down here soon..."Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights,former patron of Beethoven (69, 71, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (68, 71, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the Paris neighbourhood of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, Dr Manette has been given lodgings by his former servant Ernest Defarge and his wife Therese, the owners of a wine shop. Lorry and Lucie find him in a small garret where he spends much of his time distractedly and obsessively making shoes - a skill he learned in prison. Lorry and Lucie take him back to England. (68, 70, 1) ***Mummy*** Message: Doctor Alexandre Manette is a character in Charles Dickens' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities. He is Lucie's father, a brilliant physician, and spent eighteen years "in secret" as a prisoner in the Bastille prior to the French Revolution. He is imprisoned because in the course of his medical practice he learns of abusive actions by two members of the aristocratic Evremonde family. While realizing the power at court of nobles such as the Evremondes, Manette reports them to a minister of the royal government. He is seized from his young family and imprisoned under a lettre de cachet. Through the novel, Dr. Manette is a proven good soul, respected by the revolutionaries as well as his family. However his memories of his time in unjust imprisonment has had a negative effect on him. His obsessively making of shoes is only a distraction from the feelings he does not want to deal with. The shoes could be a symbol of freedom. (67, 71, 1) ***Endless Sack of Gold*** Message: Jarvis Lorry is one of the oldest employees of Tellson's Bank, and he frequently deals with the bank's offices in London and Paris. He is a confirmed bachelor and a man of business, describing himself as not much else than a speaking machine. He nevertheless shows an awkward sympathy towards Dr. Alexandre Manette and his daughter Lucie. While serving in Tellson's Paris office, Lorry takes the infant Lucie to safety in London after her father is imprisoned in the Bastille. When the novel begins in 1775, the 60-year-old Lorry receives a message from Jerry Cruncher, another Tellson's employee, informing him of Dr. Manette's release. He escorts the now-adult Lucie to reunite with her father in Paris, but is troubled by what they will both find on their arrival, and brings them back to London. Five years later, when Charles Darnay is arrested on suspicion of treason against the British Crown, Lorry arranges for the barristers Stryver and Sydney Carton to defend him. Following Darnay's acquittal, Lorry becomes an intimate friend of the Manettes, and of Darnay when he marries Lucie. In 1792, with the French Revolution ongoing, Lorry travels to Paris in order to look after the Tellson's branch there and remove important documents for safekeeping. When Darnay separately travels to Paris and is arrested as a fugitive aristocrat, Lorry remains there and begins working to free him, as well as providing assistance to the Manettes. He gradually softens toward Carton and is deeply touched by the latter's decision to sacrifice his life so Darnay can escape. Carton's final, unspoken thoughts before his execution mention his belief that "the good old man" Lorry will die peacefully in ten years' time and leave his estate to Darnay, Lucie, and their family. (170, 175, 1) ***Angel*** Message: Sydney Carton is a central character in Charles Dickens' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities. He is a shrewd young Englishman educated at Shrewsbury School, and sometime junior to his fellow barrister Stryver. Carton is portrayed as a brilliant but depressed and cynical drunkard who is full of self-loathing because of what he sees as his wasted life. He feels a deep unrequited love for Lucie Manette, who nevertheless inspires him to try to be a better person. Near the end of the novel, Carton manages to change places with Lucie's husband, Charles Darnay, hours before Darnay's scheduled execution in France, giving his life for Lucie's sake. Later, Lucie and Charles name their second son after Carton. (170, 176, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In 1780, French emigre Charles Darnay is on trial in London for treason against the British Crown. The key witnesses against him are two British spies, John Barsad and Roger Cly. Barsad claims that he would recognise Darnay anywhere, but Darnay's lawyer points out that his colleague in court, Sydney Carton, bears a strong resemblance to the prisoner. When Darnay is arrested as a spy due to evidence planted on him by John Barsad on the orders of his uncle, the Marquis St. Evremonde, Lucie and her father attend Darnay’s trial out of concern.--Because Lucie met Darnay on the voyage when she was taking his father from Paris to london. With Barsad's testimony thus undermined, Darnay is acquitted. (75, 64, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Montfermeil (French pronunciation: [m??f??m?j] (audio speaker iconlisten)) is a commune in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 17.2 km (10.7 mi) from the center of Paris. overpowers Javert and escapes from Montreuil-sur-Mer first Valjean arrives at Montfermeil on Christmas Eve. He finds Cosette fetching water in the woods alone and walks with her to the inn. He orders a meal and observes how the Thenardiers abuse her, while pampering their own daughters eponine and Azelma, who mistreat Cosette for playing with their doll. Valjean leaves and returns to make Cosette a present of an expensive new doll which, after some hesitation, she happily accepts. eponine and Azelma are envious. Madame Thenardier is furious with Valjean, while her husband makes light of Valjean's behaviour, caring only that he pay for his food and lodging. The next morning, Valjean informs the Thenardiers that he wants to take Cosette with him. (72, 63, 1) ***Pixie*** Message: Cosette is a fictional character in the 1862 novel Les Miserables by Victor Hugo and in the many adaptations of the story for stage, film, and television. Her birth name, Euphrasie, is only mentioned briefly. As the orphaned child of an unmarried mother deserted by her father, Hugo never gives her a surname. In the course of the novel, she is mistakenly identified as Ursule, Lark, or Mademoiselle Lanoire. She is the daughter of Fantine, who leaves her to be looked after by the Thenardiers, who exploit and victimise her. Rescued by Jean Valjean, who raises Cosette as if she were his own, she grows up in a convent school. She falls in love with Marius Pontmercy, a young lawyer. Valjean's struggle to protect her while disguising his past drives much of the plot until he recognizes "that this child had a right to know life before renouncing it"—and must yield to her romantic attachment to Marius. (74, 63, 1) ***Troll*** Message: The Thenardiers, commonly known as Monsieur Thenardier (/t??nɑ?rdi.e?/; French pronunciation: ?[tena?dje]) and Madame Thenardier, are fictional characters, and the secondary antagonists in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel Les Miserables and in many adaptations of the novel into other media. They are ordinary working-class people who blame society for their sufferings. Early in the novel, they own an inn and cheat their customers. After they lose the inn in bankruptcy, they change their name to "Jondrette" and live by begging and petty thievery. They serve, alongside Javert, as one of the two arch-nemeses of the story's protagonist, Jean Valjean. While Javert represents the justice system that would punish Valjean, the Thenardiers represent the lawless subculture of society that would blackmail him. The novel portrays them as brutal and abusive figures; some adaptations transform them into buffoonish characters, though sometimes still criminals, to provide comic relief from the generally more serious tone of the story. (73, 63, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In Montfermeil, the duplicitous innkeepers, the Thenardiers, use Cosette as a servant and treat her cruelly while extorting money from Fantine by claiming that Cosette is regularly and seriously ill, as well as demanding money to feed and clothe Cosette, all the while indulging their own daughter, eponine. Cosette dreams of a life with a mother where she is not forced to work and is treated lovingly ("Castle on a Cloud"). The Thenardiers cheat their customers, stealing their possessions and setting high prices for low-quality service, and live a life of criminal depravity ("Master of the House"). Valjean meets Cosette while she's on an errand drawing water and offers the Thenardiers payment to adopt her ("The Bargain"). The Thenardiers feign concern for Cosette, claiming that they love her like a daughter and that she is in fragile health, and bargain with Valjean, who pays them 1,500 francs in the end. Valjean and Cosette leave for Paris ("The Waltz of Treachery"). (249, 100, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Grand Temple, also known as the Central Vault, is a complex created by members of the Isu. It is located in modern day Turin, New York. Like the other temples across the planet, its purpose was to create different methods of saving and preserving the world; it was the location where Jupiter, Minerva and Juno collected and tested the discoveries of the other Temples in the hope of finding the most effective methods of Earth's salvation from the solar flare. To maintain its operation, the Grand Temple was buried underground to protect its contents from the war with humanity and the solar flare. Possess an Apple of Eden to open the first door "Each Vault's knowledge was transmitted to a single place." -Jupiter speaking of the Grand Temple (248, 101, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During 1755, Haytham, with the help of Kaniehtí:io from the Kanien'kehá:ka nation, located the entrance to the Grand Temple, but they were unable to access it, as he did not possess an Apple of Eden to open the first door. Following this, Haytham kept the amulet in his possession until 1781, when he passed it on to his second-in-command, Charles Lee. Defeat Lee's and get the key to open the inner gateway of the Grand Temple from his body. "Fascinating... Gentlemen. I hold in my hand a key. And if this book is to be believed, it will open the doors of a storehouse built by Those Who Came Before." (249, 102, 1) ***Garniture of Interference*** Message: The second solution was to use the Rings of Eden, on a much larger scale than ever before. The magnetic field emitted by the Shards could protect the planet against the solar flare (250, 102, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: The third solution was discovered by using the Apples of Eden to control humanity. If enough humans were compelled to believe in one idea, their thoughts took on form and became reality. During ancient times, the Order of the Ancients and the Hidden Ones referred to the Apple of Eden as the Orb. Long before mankind existed, the Isu, a civilization of technologically advanced beings inhabited Earth. They created humanity, and enslaved them by modifying their brains to be obedient in the presence of a Piece of Eden. "Those subjected to [the Apple]'s glow are promised all that they desire. It asks only one thing in return: complete and total obedience. And who can truly refuse? It is temptation incarnate."-Al Mualim about an Apple. (251, 102, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Minerva discovered that there was a pattern of numbers and equations that define existence. If one could comprehend these numbers, time itself could be tamed. So The fourth solution was to attempt to go back in time and prevent the disaster before it could occur. (251, 103, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The fifth solution was to augment the bodies of the remaining First Civilization members to adapt into the hostile new climate which appeared on Earth following the catastrophe. (249, 104, 1) ***Armageddon's Blade*** Message: Having been instigated by the theft of an Apple of Eden by Adam and Eve, the human rebellion soon erupted into a full-scale war with the Isu. While the Isu were more technologically advanced and powerful, humanity possessed the advantage of numbers. The conflict lasted for a decade before abruptly ending when the Great Catastrophe-a coronal mass ejection from the Sun-occurred. The casualties on both sides were far greater than the Isu would ever have anticipated. The distraction of war had blinded them to all else, and their preoccupation with the conflict prevented them from seeing the signs of an impending danger from the "heavens" until it was too late. In 75,000 BCE, a coronal mass ejection erupted from the Sun and struck the Earth, decimating a large portion of the human and Isu populations on the planet and scorching the surface of the Earth (15, 5, 1) ***Spellbinder's Hat*** Message: The Nine Unknown--a 1923 novel by Talbot Mundy. Originally serialised in Adventure magazine,it concerns the Nine Unknown Men, a secret society founded by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka around 270 BC to preserve and develop knowledge that would be dangerous to humanity if it fell into the wrong hands. The nine unknown men were entrusted with guarding nine books of secret knowledge. (107, 104, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: A Piece of Eden is a type of sophisticated technology created by the Isu which reacts with the network of neurotransmitters engineered into human brains. With the notable exception of the Shrouds of Eden, the majority of the Pieces of Eden were designed for the primary purpose of mentally and physically controlling human thoughts, emotions, and behavior. They were, therefore, the main instrument by which the Isu forced the humans to serve as slaves. The powers of the Pieces of Eden have mystified humanity over millennia, enough for them to conflate them with "magic" throughout history. The extinction of the Isu civilization following the Great Catastrophe only reinforced this, as memories of the Isu faded into legends and myths. Since humans lack the technological expertise to reproduce these devices, they have long been the subject of innumerable conflicts between rival humans seeking them for their own ends. In particular, they are a central obsession of the Templar Order, which has devoted much of their resources to searching and seizing these artifacts in their quest for world domination. (168, 97, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The retreat from Moscow (1812) at last sounded the call to arms for the new national army of Prussia. Win Patriotic War of 1812,win Second Battle of Polotsk The organization of the Landwehr (army reserves) was begun.It's time to liberate Germany (222, 176, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Soria--Situated at about 1065 metres above sea level, Soria is the second highest provincial capital in Spain. Due to its strategic placement at the borders of the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre and León, Soria in the Middle Ages was at the centre of several conflicts between them. (51, 53, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (50, 91, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (84, 67, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to Paris was not allowed to enter and leave at will Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Paris has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (163, 175, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to London was not allowed to enter and leave at will,for preventing foreign spies from entering London Please present a credential that better proves your status to gain access to London London has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (159, 180, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to London was not allowed to enter and leave at will,for preventing foreign spies from entering London Please present a credential that better proves your status to gain access to London London has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (96, 179, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years,passes are required on major roads between colonies Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. We approved your request to open up this place to travel. (95, 191, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years,passes are required on major roads between colonies Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. We approved your request to open up this place to travel. (85, 183, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: The Green Mountain Boys led by Ethan Allen join you.They have got control of the cannons in the Fort (62, 214, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years,passes are required on major roads between colonies Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. We approved your request to open up this place to travel. (60, 232, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years,passes are required on major roads between colonies Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. We approved your request to open up this place to travel. (57, 192, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years,passes are required on major roads between colonies Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. We approved your request to open up this place to travel. (44, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (116, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (235, 247, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (185, 242, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (144, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (152, 248, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (143, 230, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (214, 235, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In the turbulent era, the main road here is dominated by local powerful factions, and neither royalists nor liberals can pass freely. Please send someone more prestigious to see their chief for approval. Local authorities has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (224, 174, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (240, 207, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (220, 203, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (213, 210, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (200, 193, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (220, 186, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (140, 139, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, all roads to Vienna were heavily guarded by the armies of the Holy Roman Empire against the forces of revolutionary France. Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. Habsburg has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (45, 215, 1) ***Goblin*** Message: Cherokee attack on you (50, 212, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cumberland Gap (249, 234, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Luanda (185, 3, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: At the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars Sweden, once a great power, was only a middling power in the game of European power politics. Sweden had a population of only 3.4 million, Finland and Swedish Pomerania included, and the economy was based on a weak agrarian sector. It would certainly have been in Sweden’s best interest to stay out of the huge conflagration engulfing the European continent in the years 1805 to 1815. But international military and political revolutinos break one after another these years, we must collect intelligence on European countries in the foreign embassy area of Stockholm, Charles XIII will let his old lover to assist in this intelligence activity (166, 179, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In February 1789, the Regency Bill, authorising the Prince of Wales to act as regent, was introduced and passed in the House of Commons, but before the House of Lords could pass the bill, George III recovered (88, 198, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Culper Ring The Culper Ring was a network of spies active during the American Revolutionary War, organized by Major Benjamin Tallmadge and General George Washington in 1778 during the British occupation of New York City. The name "Culper" was suggested by George Washington and taken from Culpeper County, Virginia. The leaders of the spy ring were Abraham Woodhull and Robert Townsend, using the aliases of "Samuel Culper Sr." and "Samuel Culper Jr.", respectively; Tallmadge was referred to as "John Bolton." Tallmadge would usually add a cover letter with comments and sent and received messages by a relay of dragoons acting as couriers. Gen Washington: You are owed much more than this. Abe: Thank you. GW: Our country owes its life to heroes whose names it will never know. I am Samuel Culper! I am Samuel Culper! --Pvt. Woodhull You're a spy! Rivington [to Townsend] "They are in us." "We're in them too!" (90, 199, 1) ***Event*** Message: {Events that can be triggered infinitely by cyan players -- the mission of independent citizens in North America} This We'll Defend! (167, 247, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Ayacucho."The Battle of Ayacucho is the summit of American glory, and the work of General Sucre. The planning of it was perfect, and the execution divine. Coming generations will commemorate the victory of Ayacucho to bless it and contemplate it sitting on the throne of freedom, commanding to Americans the exercise of their rights and the sacred laws of nature." "You are called upon the greatest destinies, and I foresee that you are the rival of my Glory" (Bolivar, Letter to Sucre, Nazca, 26 April 1825). "Then the Congress of Colombia made Sucre Chief General of the Colombian Army and its Commanding General, and the Congress of Peru gave him the Degree and Military Rank of Great Marshal of Ayacucho due to his actions." win Battle of Pichincha It was the battle that secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America. (164, 245, 1) ***Faerie Dragon*** Message: Dona Manuela Sáenz de Vergara y Aizpuru (27 December 1797 - 23 November 1856) was an Ecuadorian revolutionary heroine of South America who supported the revolutionary cause by gathering information, distributing leaflets, and protesting for women's rights. Manuela received the Order of the Sun ("Caballeresa del Sol" or 'Dame of the Sun'), honoring her services in the revolution. Sáenz married a wealthy English doctor in 1817 and became a socialite in Lima, Peru. This provided the setting for involvement in political and military affairs, and she became active in support of revolutionary efforts. Leaving her husband in 1822, she soon began an eight-year collaboration and intimate relationship with Simón Bolívar that lasted until his death in 1830. After she prevented an 1828 assassination attempt against him and facilitated his escape, Bolívar began to call her "Libertadora del libertador" ("liberator of the liberator"). Manuela's role in the revolution after her death was generally overlooked until the late twentieth century, but now she is recognized as a feminist symbol of the 19th century wars of independence. (55, 55, 1) ***Rogue*** Message: I will posed as a counter-revolutionary, and convinced the royalists in England that France was waiting to overthrow Bonaparte.--Mehee de La Touche (204, 196, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: British success on the Peninsula depended not only on the staff of trusted officers that General Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington assembled around him—the likes of George Murray, Rowland Hill, and John Colborne, among others—but how he used the information passed to him by military spies and by political agents run by the British ambassadors in Spain and Portugal. At Sorauren on July 27, 1813, for example, Wellington was informed that the route by which his reinforcements might have marched had been cut off by Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult’s French army. In response, he swiftly found an alternative route and was thus able to turn the battle in his favor. On the Peninsula, however, clandestine affairs turned out better for the British. One factor behind that was that with so few crossing points into Spain, it was relatively easy to observe French reinforcements crossing the border. Second, the animosity the Spanish population held for their occupiers meant that the British could rely on local support whereas the French could not. Wellington’s Spy Network Wellington’s own intelligence gathering system - his famous 'exploring officers’, and the 'guides’ The two networks provided Wellington with different, but complementary, types of intelligence. The government network produced intelligence on strategic capability, such as French troop strengths in southern France and throughout Spain, and on strategic intentions, whereas the military network garnered tactical intelligence - how many enemy troops were nearby, their condition and purpose, and so on. Wellington’s challenge was the integration of these two types of intelligence to obtain as clear and detailed a picture as possible, so that he could make or adjust his plans. By 1813, the Anglo-Portuguese army was probably the most efficient that Britain had ever fielded. Wellington said later that he could have taken it anywhere and done anything with it.this was due to the two intelligence networks, especially in the Vitoria campaign, which spelled the end for the French south of the Pyrenees. (195, 2, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: These two medals, along with the various grades of the Order of the Sword, are the only awards in Sweden that have the designation "Swedish war decorations" (Svenska krigsdekorationer).The medal was instituted by Gustav III on 28 May 1789, during his war against Russia and was meant to complement the Order of the Sword (196, 3, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: For tapperhet i falt For tapperhet i falt was instituted on 23 February 1748 and was awarded for the same purpose—valour in the field or at sea—but only to officers. For tapperhet i falt("For Valour in the Field") and For tapperhet till sjoss ("For Valour at Sea") are two Swedish military medals awarded to officers and soldiers of the Swedish Armed Forces who have—as the medal names suggest—shown valour in the field or at sea in wartime. (177, 183, 1) ***Necklace of Ocean Guidance*** Message: The Admiral of the White was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, lower than the rank Admiral of the Red (see order of precedence below). From 1688 to 1805 this rank was in order of precedence second; after 1805 it was the third. In 1864 it was abolished as a promotional rank. The Navy Royal inaugurated squadron colours during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to subdivide the English fleet into three squadrons. There were three classes of admirals and differentiated by using coloured flags.In 1620 the official Flag ranks of Admiral, Vice Admiral, and Rear Admiral were legally established that arose directly out of the organisation of the fleet into three parts. The Royal Navy introduced the formal flag rank of Admiral of the Fleet in 1688. The Admiral of the White was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, lower than the rank Admiral of the Red. In 1864 it was abolished as a promotional rank (177, 185, 1) ***Necklace of Ocean Guidance*** Message: The Admiral of the Blue was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom,lower than the rank Admiral of the White (see order of precedence below). From 1688 to 1805 this rank was in order of precedence third; after 1805 it was the fourth. In 1864 it was abolished as a promotional rank. The command flag for an Admiral of the Blue is a plain blue flag (177, 179, 1) ***Admiral's Hat*** Message: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy) (177, 181, 1) ***Sea Captain's Hat*** Message: Admiral of the Red (177, 186, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Admiral of the Blue The Navy Royal inaugurated squadron colours during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to subdivide the English fleet into three squadrons. There were three classes of admirals and differentiated by using coloured flags. In 1620 the official Flag ranks of Admiral, Vice Admiral, and Rear Admiral were legally established that arose directly out of the organisation of the fleet into three parts. In 1688 the formal flag rank of Admiral of the Fleet was created。 The Admiral of the Blue was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, lower than the rank Admiral of the White (see order of precedence below). Royal Navy officers currently holding the ranks of commodore, rear admiral, vice admiral and admiral of the fleet are sometimes considered generically to be admirals. From 1688 to 1805 this rank was in order of precedence third; after 1805 it was the fourth. In 1864 it was abolished as a promotional rank. The Navy was divided into three squadrons White, Blue and Red, in order of seniority. Admirals were appointed to these squadrons and therefore their rank and squadron split the seniority originally into 9 bands then later 10 with 'Admiral of the Fleet' as senior to all others. Seniority was therefore from 1805 to 1864: 1.Admiral of the Fleet 2.Admiral of the Red Squadron (rank created in 1805) 3.Admiral of the White Squadron 4.Admiral of the Blue Squadron 5.Vice-Admiral of the Red Squadron 6.Vice-Admiral of the White Squadron 7.Vice-Admiral of the Blue Squadron 8.Rear-Admiral of the Red Squadron 9.Rear-Admiral of the White Squadron 10.Rear-Admiral of the Blue Squadron (177, 180, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy) The origins of the rank can be traced back to John de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Beauchamp de Warwick, who was appointed 'Admiral of the King's Southern, Northern and Western Fleets' on 18 July 1360.The appointment gave the command of the English navy to one person for the first time; this evolved into the post of Admiral of the Fleet.In the days of sailing ships the admiral distinctions then used by the Royal Navy included distinctions related to the fleet being divided into three divisions - red, white, or blue. Each division was assigned at least one admiral, who in turn commanded a number of vice-admirals and rear admirals. While the full admirals were nominally equals, tradition gave precedence to the Admiral of the White who held the fleet rank in addition to his substantive role. Admiral of the Fleet is a five-star naval officer rank and the highest rank of the Royal Navy formally established in 1688.The five-star NATO rank code is OF-10, equivalent to a field marshal in the British Army or a marshal of the Royal Air Force. Other than honorary appointments no new admirals of the fleet have been named since 1995 (177, 182, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Admiral of the Red The Royal Navy inaugurated squadron colours during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603) to subdivide the English fleet into three squadrons. There were three classes of admirals and differentiated by using coloured flags. In 1620 the official Flag ranks of Admiral, Vice Admiral, and Rear Admiral were legally established that arose directly out of the organisation of the fleet into three parts. The rank of Admiral of the Fleet was formally enacted in 1688. The Admiral of the Red was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, lower than the rank Admiral of the Fleet (see order of precedence below). From 1805 to 1864 this rank was the second highest rank. In 1864 it was abolished as a promotional rank. The rank was achieved by seniority among Admirals of the White. Today Royal Navy officers currently holding the ranks of commodore, rear admiral, vice admiral and admiral of the fleet are sometimes considered generically to be admirals. The Admiral of the Red was a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, lower than the rank Admiral of the Fleet (see order of precedence below). The rank did not exist prior to 1805, as the admiral commanding the Red squadron was called Admiral of the Fleet. When the duties of Admiral of the Fleet were separated from Red squadron in 1805, the Admiral of the Red was created, and until 1864 this rank was the second highest rank in order of precedence. In 1864 it was abolished as a promotional rank (pictured opposite is the command flag for an Admiral of the Red) (217, 217, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Treaty of Badajoz (1801) Win War of the Oranges first On 6 June, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Badajoz, the main provisions being the transfer of Olivencaa and Almeida to Spain and the banning of British ships from Portuguese ports.Portugal ceded the border town of Olivenca to Spain and closed its ports to British military and commercial shipping. (216, 217, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Treaty of Fontainebleau was a secret agreement signed on 27 October 1807 in Fontainebleau, France between King Charles IV of Spain and the French Emperor Napoleon. Under the treaty, the House of Braganza was to be driven from the Kingdom of Portugal with the country subsequently divided into three regions. Anticipating the invasion of Napoleon's army, John VI ordered the transfer of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil before he could be deposed. Setting sail for Brazil on November 29, the royal party navigated under the protection of the British Royal Navy, and eight ships of the line, five frigates, and four smaller vessels of the Portuguese Navy, under the command of Admiral Sir Sidney Smith. (165, 189, 1) ***Gorgon*** Message: These cows had caught cowpox,catch them and scrape pus from their blisters (164, 189, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Noting the common observation that milkmaids were generally immune to smallpox, Jenner postulated that the pus in the blisters that milkmaids received from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox. On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy who was the son of Jenner's gardener. Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day, subsequently producing in Phipps a fever and some uneasiness, but no full-blown infection. Later, he injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time. No disease followed. The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection. (166, 190, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs. The British constructed a full on prison at Dartmoor.Exchange for our English men with French prisoners. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,During this period, hundreds of thousands of prisoners of war were held captive at depots, barracks, and on board prison ships all over the world, from North America to the Indian Ocean. Now our men are free (165, 190, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs. The British constructed a full on prison at Dartmoor.Exchange for our English men with French prisoners. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,During this period, hundreds of thousands of prisoners of war were held captive at depots, barracks, and on board prison ships all over the world, from North America to the Indian Ocean. Now our men are free (165, 191, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs. The British constructed a full on prison at Dartmoor.Exchange for our English men with French prisoners. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,During this period, hundreds of thousands of prisoners of war were held captive at depots, barracks, and on board prison ships all over the world, from North America to the Indian Ocean. Now our men are free (46, 56, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our French men with English prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (47, 56, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our French men with English prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (49, 57, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our French men with russia prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (48, 57, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our French men with russia prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (47, 59, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our French men with austrian prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (46, 59, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: POW system--negotiations for exchanges of Prisoners of War Most nations had prison depots which would house the vast majority of PoWs.Exchange for our French men with austrian prisoners. The Napoleonic War didn't have a lot of prisoner exchanges during the wars so prisoners would often have a few years in captivity. Only have hostilities ended would they be allowed to return home. (100, 216, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Black Pearl was an infamous pirate ship, originally named the Wicked Wench. At one point, it was sold and turned into a merchant vessel before turning back to piracy when it was re-christened. With sails as dark as a moonless night, and a hull painted to match, this legendary ship of the seven seas was every inch a pirate vessel. Built for action, this ghost ship could outsail any other sailing vessels. The Black Pearl was most notably captained by Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa. "Wherever we want to go, we go. That's what a ship is, you know. It's not just a keel and a hull and a deck and sails. That's what a ship needs. But what a ship is...what the Black Pearl really is...is freedom." -Jack Sparrow The Pearl in a bottle would be placed in a special cabinet, filled with Blackbeard's collection ships in bottles, found in the captain's cabin aboard the Queen Anne's Revenge. (100, 217, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Queen Anne's Revenge,Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina "This be the Queen Anne's Revenge, right enough." "How do you know?" "I've seen the name. On the back of the ship." -Scrum and Jack Sparrow The Queen Anne's Revenge was an infamous pirate vessel, formerly named Concord and La Concorde de Nantes. Imposing, terrifyingly beautiful, a brutal beast of the sea, this legendary ship of the seven seas struck dread into the heart of pirates on the high seas. Cutting a quick path over open water, the Revenge boasted strong defenses and lethal armaments. The Queen Anne's Revenge reportedly sailed full of wealth and treasure plundered from many ill-fated victims. Bristling with cannons and spiked with human bones, the Queen Anne's Revenge was the flagship of the notorious pirate Blackbeard. Under his command, this fearsome vessel was manned by the undead, whether it was a soulless crew of jumbees or zombies, await with deadly determination to repel all boarders. The Revenge also came to life as long as its captain wielded the Sword of Triton, then the vessel would do his indomitable will and spread terror in its bloody wake. According to legend, the Queen Anne's Revenge was festooned with the skeletons of Blackbeard's victims, and spat Greek fire from its bow to incinerate enemy ships, or the occasional crew member fallen out of favor. (126, 219, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Black rock island According to legends, the ancient god Poseidon left behind the Map No Man Can Read, the map that no one has ever seen or read. No one knew that the map was actually an island covered in hundreds of precious stones that were placed over the island in a way that they made an enormous star map, a perfect reflection of the heavens. The island was located somewhere in the Caribbean Sea, far away from any established shipping route, and it remained unknown to anyone for a very long time. At some point, the legendary Trident of Poseidon was hidden in Poseidon's Tomb, an underwater tomb off the coast of the island. Over the centuries many people attempted to decipher the Map No Man Can Read but no one ever succeeded. In unknown circumstances, a small piece of one ruby was broken and taken off the island, eventually ending up in possession of the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. Galileo spent his life searching for the island and the Trident of Poseidon, dying without accomplishing his goal like so many before him but leaving the clues to the island in his diary with the ruby on the cover "Look at it, Jack. It's the most beautiful thing I've ever seen. This is what my father wanted me to find." "Rocks!" "No, not rocks. Stars. This is the Map No Man Can Read. This island is a perfect reflection of the heavens." -Carina Smyth and Jack Sparrow Black rock island was an uncharted island in the Caribbean. Covered in diamonds and rubies, the island was a perfect reflection of the heavens, inspiring the story about the Map No Man Can Read Legends "To release the power of the sea all must divide. It's an island. The stars lead to an island." -Carina Smyth (124, 218, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Poseidon's Tomb "Look!" "Poseidon's Tomb." "This way." -Carina Smyth and Jack Sparrow Poseidon's Tomb was the supposed final resting place of the legendary god of the sea, Poseidon. The tomb laid beneath the ocean whose entrance was on the Black rock island. Carina put the ruby in its place which caused the star to start glowing with the rest of them, thus reactivating the powers of the Trident of Poseidon. The Trident's awakening caused an earthquake which created a rift in the ocean, causing the waters to open to reveal a way to the bottom of the sea. (124, 217, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Poseidon's Trident contained within it an intense magical energy capable of causing earthquakes, wrecking ships, and even summoning the Kraken. (125, 217, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: "It's the sea god Poseidon. It's his trident. It's in a chamber somewhere below us. The trident is very powerful—it's the weapon of a god." -Billy Turner The Trident of Poseidon, also referred to as Poseidon's Trident, was the mythical weapon of the sea god Poseidon. The weapon of a god, the Trident was used to control the creatures of the sea, including the merfolk, as well as create thunderstorms and strong tidal waves. Near the end of Jack Sparrow's teenage adventures, the Trident fell into the possession of the feared Captain Torrents. After Torrents' death, the Trident was given to a merman named Tonra. Eventually the Trident ended up hidden in Poseidon's Tomb where it was found many years later by Jack Sparrow and Carina Smyth. "I've read about a treasure. A treasure that holds all the power of the sea. The Trident of Poseidon can break your curse." "Henry. The Trident can never be found." "I found you." "It's just a tale." -Henry Turner and Will Turner (126, 217, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Battle for the Trident of Poseidon "As I told you before, surrender to me now and I'll let you... live." "You want me to surrender?" "Maybe." "This is where the tale ends!" -Jack Sparrow and Armando Salazar As Barbossa realized Salazar was making his way toward his daughter, he ordered her to hold on to the chain. Jack then shouted "Hector!" as he threw him Henry's sword. Barbossa let go of the chain and grasped the sword while allowing himself to fall. Salazar soon saw the pirate coming toward him as Barbossa pierced him through the back, plunging the blade deep into Salazar's revived heart.This action caused Salazar to let go of the chain and knock down both of his crew members who held onto it. Salazar then came tumbling down to the ocean floor, letting out a scream of horror, which was soon silenced by him landing face first on the bottom of the anchor below, killing him. His corpse was then consumed and washed away by the surrounding waves, ending the Butcher of the Sea's tyrannical reign over the Seven Seas once and for all. (122, 218, 1) ***Wraith*** Message: "Pirates had infected the seas for generations, taking the life of my father and his father before him. So I vowed to end this plague once and for all. And that's what I did. I destroyed dozens of ships." -Armando Salazar Armando Salazar was the legendary, yet terrifying pirate hunter who haunted the Caribbean. Hailing from Spain, Salazar was a Spaniard, a man whose family was destroyed by pirates when he was a child. Obsessed with vengeance, he became a high-ranking officer of the Spanish Royal Navy and the decorated Capitán of the powerful pirate-hunting galleon, the Silent Mary. For many years, Salazar terrorized the seas, hunting and killing thousands of pirates until his spectacular fall from grace when a young pirate named Jack Sparrow outsmarted the ruthless Butcher of the Sea and led him to his death in the mysterious Devil's Triangle. However, through the dark powers of the Triangle, Salazar was resurrected more powerful than ever, but cursed to wander the world as a ghost for eternity. In addition, Salazar and his crew could not escape from the Triangle, while being forced to live in it and slaughter anyone who entered it, causing legends to originate about why no ship that sailed into the Triangle ever sailed out. But the pleasures of Salazar and his crew were short lived, for without the power of the Trident, the walls of water were slowly closing in on them (86, 237, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Bimini--May lead to The Fountain of Youth (60, 244, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Cozumel--a flat island based on limestone, resulting in a karst topography.Cozumel's cenotes are restricted to qualified cave divers with appropriate (96, 241, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Isla de la Juventud,Treasure Island--"buccaneers and buried gold" (102, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Long Island, Bahamas--particularly noted for its caves, which have played a major role in the island's history. (22, 35, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Whitecap Bay,Unnamed island, Caribbean Sea Whitecap Bay was most notably visited as the beginning of the journey to find the Fountain of Youth.During the quest for the Fountain of Youth, Blackbeard journeyed to Whitecap Bay with Jack Sparrow, Angelica and many other of his crewmen to capture a mermaid. Whitecap Bay, often stylized as White Cap Bay, was a large cove on a mysterious island. Doom awaited any misguided mariner who sought out these perilous waters, as the Bay was where mermaids have been known to gather for hundreds of years, thereby striking terror in the hearts of all sailors and pirates. (22, 36, 1) ***Water Elemental*** Message: "The old moon in the arms of the new one. First of the summer. Perfect for hunting a mermaid's tear." -Angelica to Jack Sparrow (26, 28, 1) ***Wizard's Well*** Message: Jack, I have to ask. You had the Chalices, the water, the tear. You could've lived, maybe, forever." "The Fountain does test you, Gibbs. But better to not know which moment may be your last, every morsel of your entire being alive to the infinite mystery of it all. And who's to say I won't live forever, eh? Discoverer of the Fountain of Youth." -Joshamee Gibbs and Jack Sparrow The Fountain of Youth, sometimes known as just the Fountain or the Aqua de Vida, was a legendary spring that reputedly restored the youth or granted immortality to anyone who drank from its waters. (27, 31, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Fountain of Youth, sometimes known as just the Fountain or the Aqua de Vida, was a legendary spring that reputedly restored the youth or granted immortality to anyone who drank from its waters. Rumored to be discovered by the Juan Ponce de León, the Fountain was located within on a mysterious island in the Caribbean. Ever since the rumors of the discovery of the Fountain of Youth by the Spanish explorer Ponce de León in 1523, it had been the ambition of many quests. On the Mao Kun Map, the struggle for eternal youth was symbolized by a tug of war between a skeleton and an angel, aligned with the symbol of the Fountain—the Chalices. The Chalices were required, along with a mermaid's tear, in order to perform the Profane Ritual, which was needed to use the Fountain. For centuries, various legends and lore surrounding the Fountain of Youth existed in many cultures, dating back thousands of years. It was widely believed that if anyone were to drink water from the Fountain, their youth would be miraculously restored—thereby granting eternal life. According to the legends of the Arawaks—a tribe native to the western Caribbean islands—the Fountain of Youth was located somewhere north of Cuba, in a island called Bimini. But in reality, the Fountain of Youth was located on an uncharted island. The Fountain itself would be found through dense jungles and past the Jungle Pools, within a cavern where water floats upward. To enter the Fountain's chamber, the words inscribed upon the two Chalices, "Aqua de Vida," must be spoken. After searching through many huge palm fronds, Jack spotted a water droplet traveling up on one of the fronds, defying gravity. He watched it as it crawled upwards, then starts toying with it between his fingers. Jack then squints through it, spotting a rock wall in front of him with the archaic symbol of the Fountain. The droplet broke free of Jack's finger and floated upwards, just as Jack discovered the cave entrance. Jack followed the Quartermaster as he led Jack, Angelica, Blackbeard and the rest of the Revenge's crew into the cavern until they reached across a wall, a dead end. Upon seeing the seemingly end of the quest, Angelica began to suspect that Jack didn't know where he was going. It wasn't until Jack unsuccessfully attempted to gain entrance into the Fountain of Youth, by hitting the two Chalices against one another, that everyone realized that Jack had never been to the Fountain. (26, 33, 1) ***Ocean Bottle*** Message: "Jack. I'm starting to think you don't know where you're going." "It is not the destination so much as the journey, they say." -Angelica and Jack (27, 32, 1) ***Ocean Bottle*** Message: With having the route to the Fountain of Youth memorized, Jack Sparrow searches through the jungles to find the cave entrance to the Fountain. (24, 35, 1) ***Ocean Bottle*** Message: In 1750, three parties, including a pirate crew, the British, and the Spanish, embarked in a quest for the Fountain (25, 34, 1) ***Gnoll Marauder*** Message: Despite their differences, Jack and Barbossa decided to join forces and head to San Miguel, where they found an abandon fort that the Spanish made camp at. While Barbossa's crew stayed behind, Barbossa accompanied Jack to retrieve the Chalices in the enemy camp. The duo found the Chalices while they were being examined by a Spanish officer (26, 29, 1) ***Elixir of Life*** Message: "Feast your eyes upon this, mateys. There's more than one way to live forever. Gents, I give you the Fountain of Youth." -Hector Barbossa to his crew More valuable than gold, more precious than pearls, the Fountain of Youth's waters were a treasure of immeasurable worth. While the waters of the Fountain were known to grant eternal life, it can also heal any wound, sickness or poisons the drinker was diagnosed with. It was known on occasion that the Fountain of Youth would test any who searches for immortality. (26, 30, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: Blackbeard then gestured the Quartermaster, who fired his pistol but Jack shielded himself with the Chalices and the bullet ricochets off them. Before Blackbeard could fire his own pistol, Jack read the words inscribed on the Chalices, "Aqua de Vida". Water gradually started rising up along the walls, collecting into a pool above their heads. Then Jack Sparrow had himself sucked into the water, and found himself at the Fountain of Youth. However, before using the Chalices, Blackbeard's crew battled against Barbossa's crew. The Spaniard later arrived to the Fountain, where his men forced Angelica down so he could have the Chalices. Holding the Chalices, The Spaniard said "Only God can grant eternal life, not this pagan water" before dropping the Chalices and stomping on them. Throwing the bent Chalices far into the water, the Spaniard ordered his men to destroy the Fountain. (59, 246, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tulum --- a former Maya city on the coast of Mexico, later used as the headquarters for the Caribbean Assassins up until 1722, at the conclusion of the Golden Age of Piracy. It was the location of an armor made of First Civilization metals, locked behind a door that required gathering the Mayan stelae scattered across the Caribbean to open it. the Templars used both the English and Spanish navies to relentlessly attack Tulum.although the Assassins continued to use Tulum as a base of operations (56, 244, 1) ***Titan's Cuirass*** Message: armor made of First Civilization metals (58, 245, 1) ***Champion*** Message: Templars charge at you (57, 244, 1) ***Rogue*** Message: Assassins and pirates of Tulum join you (82, 193, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (146, 191, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (131, 243, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (229, 203, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (251, 240, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (96, 45, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (194, 222, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (141, 73, 1) ***Spirit of Oppression*** Message: Sphinx of Hatshepsut--This colossal sphinx portrays the female pharaoh Hatshepsut with the body of a lion and a human head wearing a nemes-headcloth and false beard. (154, 173, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Wilberforce House,Kingston upon Hull The town of Wyke on Hull was founded late in the 12th century by the monks of Meaux Abbey as a port from which to export their wool. Renamed Kings-town upon Hull in 1299, Hull had been a market town,military supply port, trading hub,fishing and whaling centre and industrial metropolis.Hull was an early theatre of battle in the English Civil Wars.The port served as a base for Edward I during the First War of Scottish Independence and later developed into the foremost port on the east coast of England. It prospered by exporting wool and woollen cloth, and importing wine and timber. Hull also established a flourishing commerce with the Baltic ports as part of the Hanseatic League. From its medieval beginnings, Hull's main trading links were with Scotland and northern Europe. Scandinavia, the Baltic and the Low Countries were all key trading areas for Hull's merchants. In addition, there was trade with France, Spain and PortugalIts 18th-century Member of Parliament, William Wilberforce, took a prominent part in the abolition of the slave trade in Britain William Wilberforce was MP for Kingston upon Hull and was most influential in the abolition of slavery in Great Britain and its colonies, which became his life's work. William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 - 29 July 1833)was a British politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becoming an independent Member of Parliament (MP) for Yorkshire (1784-1812). In 1785, he became an evangelical Christian, which resulted in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for reform. In 1787, he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti-slave-trade activists, including Granville Sharp, Hannah More and Charles Middleton. They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition, and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists. He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807. Wilberforce was convinced of the importance of religion, morality and education. He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for the Suppression of Vice, British missionary work in India, the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone, the foundation of the Church Mission Society, and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. (167, 185, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Stonehenge-- a prehistoric monument on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, two miles (3 km) west of Amesbury. (66, 204, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years,passes are required on major roads between colonies Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. We approved your request to open up this place to travel. (64, 202, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: Whiskey Rebellion (63, 202, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Whiskey Rebellion (also known as the Whiskey Insurrection) was a violent tax protest in the United States beginning in 1791 and ending in 1794 during the presidency of George Washington, ultimately under the command of American Revolutionary War veteran Major James McFarlane. The so-called "whiskey tax" was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government. Beer was difficult to transport and spoiled more easily than rum and whiskey. Rum distillation in the United States had been disrupted during the Revolutionary War, and whiskey distribution and consumption increased after the Revolutionary War (aggregate production had not surpassed rum by 1791). The "whiskey tax" became law in 1791, and was intended to generate revenue for the war debt incurred during the Revolutionary War. The tax applied to all distilled spirits, but consumption of American whiskey was rapidly expanding in the late 18th century, so the excise became widely known as a "whiskey tax".Farmers of the western frontier were accustomed to distilling their surplus rye, barley, wheat, corn, or fermented grain mixtures to make whiskey. These farmers resisted the tax. In these regions, whiskey often served as a medium of exchange. Many of the resisters were war veterans who believed that they were fighting for the principles of the American Revolution, in particular against taxation without local representation, while the federal government maintained that the taxes were the legal expression of Congressional taxation powers. Throughout Western Pennsylvania counties, protesters used violence and intimidation to prevent federal officials from collecting the tax. Resistance came to a climax in July 1794, when a US marshal arrived in western Pennsylvania to serve writs to distillers who had not paid the excise. The alarm was raised, and more than 500 armed men attacked the fortified home of tax inspector General John Neville. Washington responded by sending peace commissioners to western Pennsylvania to negotiate with the rebels, while at the same time calling on governors to send a militia force to enforce the tax. Washington himself rode at the head of an army to suppress the insurgency, with 13,000 militiamen provided by the governors of Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania The rebels all went home before the arrival of the army, and there was no confrontation. About 20 men were arrested, but all were later acquitted or pardoned. The Whiskey Rebellion demonstrated that the new national government had the will and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws, though the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect. The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already under way. The whiskey tax was repealed in the early 1800s during the Jefferson administration. Historian Carol Berkin argues that the episode, in the long run, strengthened US nationalism because the people appreciated how well Washington handled the rebels without resorting to tyranny (116, 232, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: A Precursor box, also known as an Isu Data Cache,is a type of device created by the Isu capable of interacting with other Pieces of Eden to accomplish a variety of functions,principally, to store vast contents of knowledge on any single given subject. Combined with Staves of Eden, the boxes also demonstrated to have the ability to imprint the memories of someone into another individual. By November 1751, both the Precursor box and the Voynich manuscript were in the possession of Fran?ois Mackandal, Mentor of the Saint-Domingue Assassins. Using the artifacts, Mackandal discovered the existence of an Isu Temple near Port-au-Prince and sent his subordinate, Vendredi, to investigate it. Unbeknownst to Mackandal, the Temple was part of a system that held the Earth together. Vendredi activated the Temple's machinery, causing a massive earthquake which destroyed Port-au-Prince and the surrounding region. (9, 32, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: A Precursor box, also known as an Isu Data Cache,is a type of device created by the Isu capable of interacting with other Pieces of Eden to accomplish a variety of functions,principally, to store vast contents of knowledge on any single given subject. Combined with Staves of Eden, the boxes also demonstrated to have the ability to imprint the memories of someone into another individual. The box was subsequently given to Achilles Davenport, Mentor of the Colonial Assassins, who kept it secure at the Davenport Homestead, the Assassins' primary base of operations in the British colonies (41, 89, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: A Precursor box, also known as an Isu Data Cache,is a type of device created by the Isu capable of interacting with other Pieces of Eden to accomplish a variety of functions,principally, to store vast contents of knowledge on any single given subject. Combined with Staves of Eden, the boxes also demonstrated to have the ability to imprint the memories of someone into another individual. By December 1776, the box was in the possession of the French Assassins. After a meeting in the Palace of Versailles , the Assassins entrusted the box to Charles Dorian. (176, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: The Revolutionary Atlantic (102, 196, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Trapped in an alternate timeline After finding himself on dry land, Ratonhnhake:ton discovered Kanen'tó:kon had died protecting Franklin from Washington.Angered, Ratonhnhake:ton drank the tea and went on another spiritual journey. Despite the protests of his mother's ghost, he found the spirit of the bear and gained the power to create shockwaves. This ability also turned his eyes unnaturally blue.Waking up, Ratonhnhake:ton and Franklin went in search of Jefferson's rebels and found him leading an attack on the New York Pyramid's courtyard, which was failing due to their exits being blocked off. Ratonhnhake:ton used his power to tear open an escape path, joining Jefferson in the process. Jefferson informed Ratonhnhake:ton they would need to sway the people to join the rebellion: he suggested removing John Fitzwilliams, an official selling food at inflated prices. Ratonhnhake:ton tracked him to his base of operations and assassinated him, and asked a civilian - who happened to be Warren - to help him deliver food to the starving civilians. Ratonhnhake:ton fended off soldiers attempting to block Warren's carriage from reaching the market place: once there, Jefferson began gaining the people's favor, to which Ratonhnhake:ton quipped had been bought with a few carrots. (98, 195, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Long Island Win Battle of Long Island The British defeated the Americans and gained access to the strategically important Port of New York, which they held for the rest of the war. (101, 194, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The New York Pyramid was, in an alternate reality brought on by an Apple of Eden, the base of operations for King Washington during the rebellion against his rule. It was constructed in the center of the city of New York and served as the location of the final battle of the rebellion. The Pyramid suffered notable structural damage, due in no small part to the duel between King Washington and Ratonhnhake:ton. Before commencing their battle, the king asked the Assassin what he would do with the Apple's power, to which Ratonhnhake:ton responded he would not use it to enslave the people as Washington had done. Ratonhnhake:ton eventually defeated the king by breaking the Pyramid's stained glass ceiling, and the two fell into the throne room.A mortally wounded Washington slumped into his throne with the Apple. As Ratonhnhake:ton approached him, visions of Kanen'tó:kon and Kaniehtí:io begged him not to take the Apple, while a final vision of himself demanded he take it. Seizing the Apple, Connor and Washington were returned to their own reality. (101, 195, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sometime later, Connor was camping out in the Frontier, when Washington sought him out for help. The commander explained he was plagued by horrific nightmares, which he revealed were caused by an Apple of Eden that he recovered from an officer after the Siege of Yorktown. Connor convinced Washington to hand him the Apple, but as he took the Apple from his hands, the pair found themselves in an illusionary timeline brought on by the Apple And the Apple fell to the ground in a flash of light. The two distrustfully looked at one another, cautious of what they had seen the other capable of. Washington eventually relented and turned the Apple over to Connor, who in turn stated no man should possess such power. The commander suggested dropping it into the ocean with a weight, before riding off. Some time later, Connor took the Aquila out to sea. He briefly gazed at the Apple, sealed and weighted in a bag, before dropping it in the sea. (28, 103, 1) ***Still Eye of the Dragon*** Message: A 15th-century item of jewellery believed to have belonged to Jeanne d’Arc. The ring have the inscription 'Jhesus Maria’ as well as three crosses, and was made from brass, which she probably received as present, for her first communion. (103, 194, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: From his early life as a sailor in New York, under the wing of his father, Shay was trained in swordsmanship and marksmanship; additionally, he was tutored in terms of sailing and navigating a ship. During his youth, Shay was renowned for picking fights in local taverns where he proved to be a capable fist-fighter, being able to take down multiple opponents. Upon joining the Colonial Brotherhood of Assassins, Shay's skills grew. He became a skilled swordsman to the point where he was able to dual wield weapons with great efficiency. His skill as a captain was noticed by the other Assassins, with even Chevalier regarding him as the second-best sailor of the Brotherhood. In terms of weaponry, Shay wielded dual Hidden Blades, a sword and parrying dagger, two flintlock pistols, rope darts, throwing knives, and smoke bombs. He also became skilled marksman and a capable freerunner, able to scale trees and cliffs almost effortlessly. He was tutored in stealth and pickpocketing by Hope Jensen. (10, 20, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Shay was originally a brash, immature, and insubordinate young man who often did not take his role as an Assassin seriously. This was due in part to lack of experience, but also his own brewing doubts regarding both the integrity of his fellow Assassins and the morality of the Creed itself. Shay was highly outspoken and did not shy away from pointing out the (perceived) hypocrisies of his Assassin brothers, especially the militant and dogmatic Chevalier, which often landed him in trouble. The above factors would gradually push him further and further away from the Brotherhood and lead to his betrayal. Shay was determined to help those in need, as seen through numerous property renovations commissioned by him across the North American colonies. It was through helping the British against the oppression inflicted by the French authorities and the Assassin-affiliated gangs that Shay learned to embrace the Templar ideology. Following this, Shay was inducted into the Colonial Rite by its Grand Master, Haytham Kenway, with Christopher Gist, Jack Weeks, William Johnson, and Charles Lee present at the ceremony. Upon joining the Templar Order, Shay became a deadly adversary. His training as an Assassin allowed him to easily snuff out all of his Assassin pursuers and defeat most of his former allies including Kesegowaase, Chevalier, and even the legendary Adewale. As an Assassin Hunter, Shay was skilled enough to counter the Assassins’ signature moves, including air assassinations. To protect himself from the effects of smoke bombs and various gases, Shay usually carried a gas mask on his person. As the years went on, his sense of honor and selflessness gradually gave way to a more manipulative, cold, ruthless, calculating, and somewhat twisted disposition. For instance, he showed no remorse in killing the French Assassin Charles Dorian, despite the deep trauma it caused for his young son Arno Dorian, whom Shay had encountered mere moments earlier. He also gleefully boasted of his plans to start a revolution in France, one that would claim even more innocent lives than the disaster in Lisbon had. Shay would often use his status among Templar puppets to reach his goals, which included posing as part of the King's Royal Navy when working with James Cook, or relying on his friendship with Benjamin Franklin to gain admittance to the Chateau de Versailles to kill Charles Dorian, under the pretense of "meeting a business acquaintance"; however, in the latter case, it was also to repay him for saving the doctor's life. He would go on to manipulate events in the colonies and Europe with his Templar fleet and assist other Templar Rites, particularly the Louisiana Rite of the Templar Order. (25, 21, 1) ***Orb of Silt*** Message: "We haven't found an apple, but... a tree. These Temples hold the earth together like roots. Disturb them, and Haiti falls or... Lisbon. Or any other place the Manuscript shows." -Shay Cormac explaining his theory of the structures to Haytham Kenway (26, 20, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Seismic Temples are subterranean complexes, built by the Isu, that hold together a vast underground network beneath the Earth's crust. Each Temple holds within it a core component vital to its structural integrity, which, if removed, triggers a violent seismic reaction within the underground network. Although their original function is lost to humans, Seismic Temples may have been erected to stabilize the planet's crust or otherwise as a monumental defense system. The Seismic Temples are vast underground structures, located across the globe, that serve a purpose unknown to humans. They are typically built within large, cavernous spaces with protective walkways leading to a central pedestal residing at the base of a singular, large pyramid. Atop the pedestal sits a core component that appears to control or stabilize the Earth's crust within a localized area; any disturbance of the component risks disrupting the entire region above ground. During the 18th century, when a number of the Seismic Temples were discovered by the Assassins and Templars, it was erroneously believed that the core components were Pieces of Eden in and of themselves, and so were sought out by both parties, often with cataclysmic results (26, 22, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In 1760, the Arctic Temple was rediscovered by the Colonial Assassins as well as the Colonial Templars, The Arctic Temple was a Seismic Temple located in the Arctic. By the 18th century, the ruins of the temple were largely covered in ice. Shay reported his findings to Haytham, who joined him on the journey to the Precursor site. As the pair navigated through the ice caves and past the Assassins, an ice bridge collapsed, separating the two and forcing Haytham to find another route to the Temple. Once they had reached their goal, Shay and Haytham came upon Achilles and Liam studying the Piece of Eden, identical to the one Shay had encountered in Lisbon. While Achilles admitted that he was wrong about the artifacts, Liam condemned Shay for betraying the Brotherhood. In response, Shay accused Liam for shooting him in the back at the Davenport Homestead. Liam clarified Chevalier as the actual shooter that day and prepared to fire at Shay, but was restrained by Achilles. After a brief struggle, Liam fell back onto the artifact, disturbing the Temple and triggering an earthquake. Shay pursued Liam through the collapsing caverns, while Haytham followed Achilles to a clearing outside. Eventually, as the former comrades fought each other, the precipice under them gave way, causing them to fall. Shay survived the fall, whereas Liam was mortally wounded. With his dying breath, Liam was still firm in his conviction of Shay's betrayal, which the latter justified as attempting to save the world. Liam ironically stated that he hoped the world Shay and the Templars were attempting to save was a "good one", before passing away. Shay recovered the manuscript from his body, and headed back to find Haytham and Achilles. (130, 84, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Seismic Temple Shay used to believing (incorrectly) that a Seismic Temple held an Apple of Eden. Although Shay successfully accessed a Temple and recovered the artifact inside, he inadvertently triggered a massive earthquake in the process, leaving thousands dead or homeless. His faith in the Brotherhood shattered, Shay resolved to prevent the Assassins from finding more temples by stealing the Manuscript from them, nearly losing his life in the process. (68, 107, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Seismic Temples are subterranean complexes, built by the Isu, that hold together a vast underground network beneath the Earth's crust. Each Temple holds within it a core component vital to its structural integrity, which, if removed, triggers a violent seismic reaction within the underground network. Although their original function is lost to humans, Seismic Temples may have been erected to stabilize the planet's crust or otherwise as a monumental defense system. The Seismic Temples are vast underground structures, located across the globe, that serve a purpose unknown to humans. They are typically built within large, cavernous spaces with protective walkways leading to a central pedestal residing at the base of a singular, large pyramid. Atop the pedestal sits a core component that appears to control or stabilize the Earth's crust within a localized area; any disturbance of the component risks disrupting the entire region above ground. During the 18th century, when a number of the Seismic Temples were discovered by the Assassins and Templars, it was erroneously believed that the core components were Pieces of Eden in and of themselves, and so were sought out by both parties, often with cataclysmic results (67, 109, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Seismic Temple Shay used to believing (incorrectly) that a Seismic Temple held an Apple of Eden. Although Shay successfully accessed a Temple and recovered the artifact inside, he inadvertently triggered a massive earthquake in the process, leaving thousands dead or homeless. His faith in the Brotherhood shattered, Shay resolved to prevent the Assassins from finding more temples by stealing the Manuscript from them, nearly losing his life in the process. (221, 248, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Aconcagua(6,961 m) (70, 250, 1) ***Event*** Message: Mayan Altar--a nearly 1,500-year-old carved stone altar,Guatemala City, is the oldest monument on record at the La Corona site from the Classic Maya period, which lasted from A.D. 250 to 900 (1, 10, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Alexander Sarcophagus The “Alexander Sarcophagus” is a Hellenistic stone sarcophagus adorned with bas-relief carvings of Alexander the Great. Classical Greek sculptors created the marvelous Hellenistic sculptures in the Athenian idiom during the late 4th century BC. The most significant sculptured scene is of Alexander the Great attempting to battle the Persian king, Darius III, as Darius flees the battle of Issus in 333 BC. The sarcophagus is constructed of marble from a mountain range in Attica, Greece, in the form of a Greek temple. The carvings on one side of the Sarcophagus depicts Alexander fighting the Persians at the Battle of Issus. Alexander is shown mounted, wearing a lion-skin on his head, and preparing to throw a spear at the Persian cavalry. Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (356 BC - 323 BC), better known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, who succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent all of his adult life on military campaigns through Asia and northeast Africa, and he created one of the largest empires of the ancient world. By the age of thirty, Alexander the Great’s empire stretched from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history’s most successful military commanders. Alexander’s legacy includes the diffusion of Greek culture, which was accelerated with the founded of some twenty cities that bore his name. The settlement of Greek warrior colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization. His campaigns significantly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and the Greek civilization influenced vast areas to the east. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he became prominent in the history and mythic traditions of Greek traditions. He became the model against which ambitious military commanders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics. (251, 239, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Carl Peter Thunberg, also known as Karl Peter von Thunberg, Carl Pehr Thunberg, or Carl Per Thunberg (11 November 1743 - 8 August 1828), was a Swedish naturalist and an "apostle" of Carl Linnaeus. After studying under Linnaeus at Uppsala University, he spent seven years travelling in southern Africa and Asia, collecting and describing many plants and animals new to European science, and observing local cultures. He has been called "the father of South African botany", "pioneer of Occidental Medicine in Japan", and the "Japanese Linnaeus". Thunberg was born and grew up in J?nk?ping, Sweden. At the age of 18, he entered Uppsala University where he was taught by Carl Linnaeus, regarded as the "father of modern taxonomy". Thunberg graduated in 1767 after 6 years of studying. To deepen his knowledge in botany, medicine and natural history, he was encouraged by Linnaeus in 1770 to travel to Paris and Amsterdam. In Amsterdam and Leiden Thunberg met the Dutch botanist and physician Johannes Burman and his son Nicolaas Burman, who himself had been a disciple of Linnaeus. Having heard of Thunberg's inquisitive mind, his skills in botany and medicine and Linnaeus' high esteem of his Swedish pupil, Johannes Burman and Laurens Theodorus Gronovius, a councillor of Leiden, convinced Thunberg to travel to either the West or the East Indies to collect plant and animal specimens for the botanic garden at Leiden, which was lacking exotic exhibits. Thunberg was eager to travel to the Cape of Good Hope and apply his knowledge. With the help of Burman and Gronovius, Thunberg entered the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, V.O.C.) as a surgeon on board the Schoonzicht. As the East Indies were under Dutch control, the only way to enter the colonies was via the V.O.C. Hence, Thunberg embarked in December 1771. In March 1772, he reached Cape Town in now South Africa. Since the main purpose for his journey was to collect specimens for the gardens in Leiden, Thunberg regularly took field trips into the interior of South Africa. Between September 1772 and January 1773, he accompanied the Dutch superintendent of the V.O.C. garden, Johan Andreas Auge. Their journey took them to the north of Saldanha Bay, east along the Breede Valley through the Langkloof as far as the Gamtoos River and returning by way of the Little Karoo.[7] During this expedition and later, Thunberg kept in regular contact with scholars in Europe, especially the Netherlands and Sweden, but also with other members of the V.O.C. who sent him animal skins. Shortly after returning, Thunberg met Francis Masson, a Scots gardener who had come to Cape Town to collect plants for the Royal Gardens at Kew. They were drawn together by their shared interests. During one of their trips, they were joined by Robert Jacob Gordon, on leave from his regiment in the Netherlands. Together, the scientists undertook two further inland expeditions. During his three expeditions into the interior, Thunberg collected many specimens of both flora and fauna. At the initiative of Linnaeus, he graduated at Uppsala as Doctor of Medicine in absentia while he was at the Cape in 1772. Thunberg left the Cape for Batavia on 2 March 1775. (78, 226, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: John Fraser, FLS, F.R.H.S.,(14 October 1750 - 26 April 1811) was a Scottish botanist who collected plant specimens around the world, from North America and the West Indies to Russia and points between, with his primary career activity from 1780 to 1810.Fraser was a commissioned plant collector for Catherine, Czar of Russia in 1795, Paul I of Russia in 1798,and for the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in 1806; he issued nursery catalogues c. 1790 and 1796, and had an important herbarium that was eventually sold to the Linnean Society John's brother James was actively involved with the American side of Fraser's plant export-import business, and from at least 1791 they jointly leased some land in Charleston until May 1800. In 1796, the brothers additionally mortgaged 406 acres on Johns Island along the marshy edge of Stono River, originally a part of the Fenwick Hall estate. The brothers had difficulties with their land deals though, and in 1798 they fell behind in their payment obligations to the extent that their creditors instituted litigation to collect past due sums. Despite their problems with lawsuits, leases, mortgages, and land too marshy to be perfectly suited to their enterprise, in 1810, the year prior to Fraser's death, large numbers of rhododendrons, magnolias, and other native plants were still being shipped from the Fraser brothers' Charleston nursery by their agents there. As the 18th century came to a close, botanists who hunted plants afar were adventurers and explorers, John Fraser among them, fielding shipwrecks, sieges, slavery, pirates, escaped convicts and hostile natives.Fraser travelled extensively, from Scotland to England, the Americas, the West Indies, Russia, and points between. He began by collecting in Newfoundland from 1780 to 1783 or 1784, and then moved on to the Appalachian Mountains in eastern North America,all without the benefit of railroads or well-established highways. By the time he completed his journeys, John Fraser had introduced about 220 distinct species of plants from the Americas to Europe and beyond. Throughout his travels, Fraser sent his collections to his nursery in London for reproduction and general sale to gardeners and architects coming to London to look for plants; to his herbarium (later becoming that of the Linnean Society) for further study; and to his clients, including Catherine the Great, the Emperor Paul I, the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, the Chelsea Physic Garden, William Aiton (head gardener of Kew Gardens), Sir James Edward Smith (founder of the Linnean Society), and others. William Roscoe wrote of him: "John Fraser brought more plants into this kingdom [Britain] than any other person." (213, 226, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: At this time the colonial economy of Brazil was in a state of decadence, having exhausted the placer gold of Mato Grosso, Goiás, and, especially, Minas Gerais. For this reason, the queen Maria I of Portugal, desiring to know more about the central and north of the Brazilian colony, which at that point remained practically unexplored, in order to implement developmental measures, ordered Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira, as a naturalist, to undertake a "philosophical voyage through the captaincies of Gr?o-Pará, Rio Negro, Mato Grosso e Cuiabá." The idea was to provide an impetus for economic exploration and enable conquest of disputed territory. In 1783 the naturalist left his post at the Museum of Ajuda, and, in September, left for Brazil to describe, collect, prepare and remit to the Royal Museum of Lisbon samples of tools used by the local population, as well as local minerals, plants, and animals. He was also to write political and philosophical commentaries about what he saw in the places he passed through. This pragmatism was what separated this voyage from other, more scientific, voyages led by other naturalists who explored America. The material provided by the Philosophical Voyage remained for more than a century unknown and unstudied by Portuguese scholars, not even by Ferreira himself. He never resumed work on the species and samples collected in Brazil, nor refined his records and studies of the journey, and much of the material was taken to Paris as war booty. There remains today, however, a rich archive of diaries, geographic, demographic and agricultural maps, correspondence, more than a thousand boards and records, today kept mainly in the National Library Foundation in Rio de Janeiro (11, 24, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Linnean Society of London The Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir James Edward Smith. The society takes its name from the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, the 'father of taxonomy', who systematised biological classification through his binomial nomenclature. He was known as Carl von Linne after his ennoblement, hence the spelling 'Linnean', rather than 'Linnaean'. The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, when the name became fixed as "The Linnean Society of London". In 1802, as a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world.Throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history. The inception of the society was the direct result of the purchase by Sir James Edward Smith of the specimen, book and correspondence collections of Carl Linnaeus. When the collection was offered for sale by Linnaeus's heirs, Smith was urged to acquire it by Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent botanist and President of the Royal Society. Smith bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books from Linnean. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later. The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections, and publishes academic journals and books on plant and animal biology. The society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes. A product of the 18th-century enlightenment, the Society is the oldest extant biological society in the world and is historically important as the venue for the first public presentation of the theory of evolution by natural selection on 1 July 1858. The patron of the society is Queen Elizabeth II. Honorary members include Emeritus Emperor Akihito of Japan, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden (both of whom have active interests in natural history), and the eminent naturalist and broadcaster Sir David Attenborough. (11, 23, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Knights Templar Headquarters Whereas the Assassins assert that utopia can someday be achieved through a gradual process of learning tolerance and mutual understanding, we Templars classically insist that human nature is too prone to corruption for this to be a possibility.Defeat our sworn enemies, the Assassin Brotherhood. The Templar's true goal is to lead and enlighten humanity so as to transform the world into a self-sustaining progressive utopia, cleansed of their barbaric nature. The Templars view this step as necessary for the world, given the fact that humanity was created to serve and be led by the First Civilization in the first place. (151, 142, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Elisabeth von Matt (1762-1814) was an Austrian astronomer active in the late 18th and early 19th century who is regarded as the only female scientist to have her observations published in European astronomy journals during the period.She worked primarily in positional astronomy, documenting the asteroids Pallas and Juno. Elisabeth von Matt (nee Humelauer) was a baroness living in Vienna. There, she built a private observatory and ordered the equipment needed to observe the sky. Her observations were published in Bode's Astronomisches Jahrbuch and Franz Xaver von Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz.In addition to her own contributions to measurements at the time, von Matt supported the advancement of the field of astronomy by opening her observatory to Johann Tobias Bürg, who was her mentor, and assisting in the supply of books and instruments in the community (211, 169, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mining and ironworks of Bilbao (209, 168, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Jose Joaquín de Ferrer y Cafranga (Pasaia, October 26, 1763 - Bilbao, May 18, 1818) was a Spanish Basque astronomer. The Spanish astronomer was part of the first solar eclipse expeditions. He journeyed to Cuba in 1803 and to New York State in 1806 and observed the two solar eclipses successfully. In the description of the solar eclipse in 1806 observed from Kinderhook, New York he coined the word "corona"for the bright ring observable during a total eclipse. (148, 249, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Antonio de Ulloa y de la Torre-Giralt, FRS, FRSA, KOS (12 January 1716 - 3 July 1795) was a Spanish naval officer, scientist, and administrator. At the age of nineteen, he joined the French Geodesic Mission to what is now the country of Ecuador. That mission took more than eight years to complete its work, during which time Ulloa made many astronomical, natural, and social observations in South America. (96, 202, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: David Rittenhouse (April 8, 1732 - June 26, 1796) was an American astronomer, inventor, clockmaker, mathematician, surveyor, scientific instrument craftsman, and public official. Rittenhouse was a member of the American Philosophical Society and the first director of the United States Mint. His skill with instruments, particularly clocks, led him to construct two orreries (scale models of the solar system), the first for The College of New Jersey (now known as Princeton University), the second for the College of Philadelphia (now known as the University of Pennsylvania). David was prevailed upon to construct the second orrery by his friend, the Reverend William Smith, the first provost of the College of Philadelphia, who was upset that David would deliver such a device to a college located in the rural area of New Jersey, rather than in Philadelphia, which was seeking to be one of the important centers of the 18th century enlightenment and for the study of "natural philosophy" such as astronomy. (7, 244, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment, which emphasized reason, science, practicality, clarity rather than obscurantism, and secularism, were transmitted from France to the New World in the eighteenth century, following the establishment of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain. In Spanish America, the ideas of the Enlightenment affected educated elites in major urban centers, especially Mexico City, Lima, and Guatemala, where there were universities founded in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In these centers of learning, American-born Spanish intellectuals were already participants in intellectual and scientific discourse, with Spanish American universities increasingly anti-scholastic and opposed to “untested authority” even before the Spanish Bourbons came to power. The best studied is the University of San Carlos Guatemala, founded in 1676 In Spanish America just as in Spain, the Enlightenment had some aspects of anticlericalism, but many priests were in favor of science and scientific thinking and were practitioners themselves.Some clergy were proponents of the Enlightenment as well as independence.Enlightenment texts circulating in Spanish America have been linked to the intellectual underpinnings of Spanish American independence. Works by Enlightenment philosophers were owned and read in Spanish America, despite restrictions on the book trade and their inclusion on the Inquisition’s list of forbidden books . The Jesuits were instrumental introducing new trends in philosophy to Spanish America, and following their expulsion in 1767, the Franciscans continued exploring this line of thought.Spanish American secular clergy owned such works, including Mexican priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, whose free-thinking lost him his position as rector of the seminary of San Nicolás and he was sent to the small parish of Dolores. Hidalgo's study of French allowed him to read and study works of the Enlightenment current in Europe but, at the same time, forbidden by the Catholic church in Mexico.Although Hidalgo had a traditional education for the priesthood, as an educator at the Colegio de San Nicolás he had innovated in teaching methods and curriculum. In his personal life, he did not advocate or live the way expected of 18th-century Mexican priests. Instead, his studies of Enlightenment-era ideas caused him to challenge traditional political and religious views. (237, 211, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: This is for Ai This is for Ai Cheater! (100, 186, 1) ***Pegasus*** Message: Rumor had it that British were about to make a move on the leaders of the Sons of Liberty and other American Patriots.I would put one lantern if the British were coming by land and two if they were coming by sea. one if by land, two if by sea"--Paul Revere (247, 158, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Langeron, a member of a noble French family from Nivernais, held the titles of comte de Langeron, marquis de la Coste, baron de Cougny, de la Ferte et de Sassy, and lord du Mont, de Bazolle de l'Isle de Mars et d'Alligny. He entered the French army at age 15 as a Sous-Lieutenant in the Gardes Fran?aises Regiment and was dispatched to Caracas and then to Saint-Domingue from 1782 to 1783. Promoted to captain in the Conde-Dragons Regiment, he took part in the American Revolutionary War. In 1786, Langeron was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in the Medoc Regiment, and in 1788 he became colonel of the Armagnac Regiment. A Royalist, Langeron left France at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 and entered Russian service in 1790 as a colonel in the Siberian Grenadier Regiment. He distinguished himself in battle against Sweden and then in the Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792). (251, 161, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: As head of the Saxe-Weimar War Commission, Goethe participated in the recruitment of mercenaries into the Prussian and British military during the American Revolution. Goethe's journey to the Italian peninsula and Sicily from 1786 to 1788 was of great significance in his aesthetic and philosophical development. In late 1792, Goethe took part in the Battle of Valmy against revolutionary France, assisting Duke Karl August of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach during the failed invasion of France. (90, 201, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: American Continental Army led by General George Washington (89, 202, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Battle of Brandywine Win Battle of Long Island first The forces met near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, as Howe moved to take Philadelphia, then the American capital. (88, 199, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Susquehanna River (89, 199, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Washington's headquarters Commander-in-Chief Washington awaits report from Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge (249, 154, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In 1781 Frederick resigned from the Prussian Army as a major general and the following year he accompanied Sophie and her husband to Russia, after a Grand Tour of Europe that the imperial couple had undertaken. Frederick stayed in Russia in 1780s.In the meantime, Frederick's succession to the throne of Württemberg had become more and more likely. Pleased with the well-spoken and confident young man, Catherine II appointed Frederick Governor-General of Eastern Finland, with his seat at Viipuri. In June 1789 he traveled to Paris to see the first stages of the French Revolution at first hand, before moving to Ludwigsburg the following year，and then soon become the elector of Württemberg of the Holy Roman Empire. (251, 164, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: In late 1780s,Miranda travelled throughout Europe, including present-day Belgium, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Greece and Italy, where he remained for over a year. Miranda and the French Revolution Starting in 1791, Miranda took an active part in the French Revolution as marechal de camp. (251, 153, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith GCB GCTE KmstkSO FRS (21 June 1764 - 26 May 1840) was a British naval officer. Serving in the American and French revolutionary wars, he later rose to the rank of admiral. Smith went to Sweden in 1788 In 1790, he applied for permission to serve in the Royal Swedish Navy in the war between Sweden and Russia. (234, 210, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Torre del Oro--a dodecagonal military watchtower in Seville (237, 212, 1) ***Swordsman*** Message: You captured The allied fleet commander French Admiral Villeneuve (239, 209, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Trienio Liberal (Spanish pronunciation: [t?i?e.nio li.βe??al], "Liberal Triennium") is a period of three years in the modern history of Spain between 1820 and 1823, when a liberal government ruled Spain after a military uprising in January 1820 by the lieutenant-colonel Rafael de Riego against the absolutist rule of Ferdinand VII. Rafael del Riego y Flórez (7 April 1784 - 7 November 1823) was a Spanish general and liberal politician, who played a key role in the outbreak of the Liberal Triennium (Trienio liberal in Spanish). In 1819, the King was forming an army of ten battalions to fight in the Spanish American wars of independence. Riego was given command of the Asturian Battalion. After arriving in Cádiz, together with other liberal officers, he started a mutiny on 1 January 1820, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution.In December 1822, at the Congress of Verona, the Quintuple Alliance countries decided that a Spain that was bordering on republicanism was a threat to the balance of Europe, and France was chosen to force a restoring of the absolute monarchy in Spain. On 7 April 1823, the French army crossed the borders. Riego took command of the Third Army and resisted the invaders as well as local absolutist groups. On 15 September he was betrayed and taken prisoner in a country estate near the village of Arquillos, Jaen. He was taken to Madrid. Despite asking for clemency from the King, Riego was found guilty of treason, as he was one of the members of parliament who voted in favor of taking the power from the King. On 7 November 1823, he was hanged at La Cebada Square in Madrid. Riego joined the {Freemason}s and collaborated with liberals in several conspiracies against the King, which failed.But the Trienio Liberal's shine will last forever. (152, 149, 1) ***Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment*** Message: Joseph died on 20 February 1790. He is buried in tomb number 42 in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. He asked that his epitaph read: "Here lies a ruler, who despite his best intentions, couldn't realize any of his plans." (Hier liegt ein Fürst, der trotz der besten Meinung keiner seiner Pl?ne durchsetzen konnte in German original). Joseph was succeeded by his brother Leopold II. Joseph II has been ranked with Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia as one of the three great Enlightenment monarchs. (177, 187, 1) ***Event*** Message: The naval leader has taken centre stage in traditional naval histories. (175, 210, 1) ***Event*** Message: The global legacy of mutiny and revolution on the high seas. Mutiny tore like wildfire through the wooden warships of the age of revolution. While commoners across Europe laid siege to the nobility and enslaved workers put the torch to plantation islands, out on the oceans, naval seamen by the tens of thousands turned their guns on the quarterdeck and overthrew the absolute rule of captains. By the early 1800s, anywhere between one-third and one-half of all naval seamen serving in the North Atlantic had participated in at least one mutiny, many of them in several, and some even on ships in different navies. The Bloody Flag, how a decade of violent conflict onboard gave birth to a distinct form of radical politics that brought together the egalitarian culture of North Atlantic maritime communities with the revolutionary era’s constitutional republicanism. The attempt to build a radical maritime republic failed, but the red flag that flew from the masts of mutinous ships survived to become the most enduring global symbol of class struggle, economic justice, and republican liberty to this day. (100, 187, 1) ***Event*** Message: Chapter 1:American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775- September 3, 1783),also known as the Revolutionary War or the American War of Independence, was initiated by delegates from thirteen American colonies of British America in Congress against Great Britain. The war was fought over the issue of U.S. independence from the British Empire. Engagements took place in North America, the Caribbean Sea, and in the seas surrounding England: the North Sea, the Irish Sea, and the English Channel. (99, 185, 1) ***Skeleton Warrior*** Message: Battles of Lexington and Concord.British soldiers led by Francis Smith fire on you (98, 184, 1) ***Peasant*** Message: “Stand your ground. Don’t fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war let it begin here.” (98, 185, 1) ***Event*** Message: "Old Put"Israel Putnam and his men at your service (100, 189, 1) ***Event*** Message: Mary Draper is famous for her efforts to assist the Continental Army by offering food, hospitality, clothing, and ammunition to the Patriots. Little is known of her life previous to the American Revolutionary War.While she couldn’t leave her family and join the army (though her willingness to help leaves me little doubt she would have, if she could), she gave as much as she could. According to the records left by the Rev. William Clark, large companies of soldiers marched through their town almost daily, and Mary Draper set to work baking bread and making cheese and cider. She spread it all out on a table in front of her house that she kept stocked daily for the soldiers passing through. After the soldiers had all made their way to the battlefield, her work was hardly over. On hearing that the army was low on ammunition, she melted down her own pewter platters and mugs. As if that wasn’t enough, she also made shirts and coats for the Continental Army from her spare sheets and fabric woven in her own home. (177, 209, 1) ***Event*** Message: The universality of the aspirations and politics of 18th-century revolutionary movements, from North America to Europe, and from Latin America to the Haitian revolution, anchored the Age of Democratic Revolution firmly in the Atlantic. The revolutionary Atlantic was a movement of public opinion, protest, and representative institutions that grew out of independence and democratic movements spanning the ocean. (177, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: (66, 64, 1) ***Vial of Lifeblood*** Message: French doctor and surgeon Pierre-Francois Percy at your service (172, 210, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. (6, 19, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Inner Temple (7, 14, 1) ***Genie*** Message: Salons were places where philosophes were reunited and discussed old, actual or new ideas. This led to salons being the birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas. (8, 14, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Salon de Madame Geoffrin (11, 13, 1) ***Monk*** Message: Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of their size might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs—rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. (12, 11, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Age of Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Reason or simply the Enlightenment) was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. The Enlightenment has its roots in a European intellectual and scholarly movement known as Renaissance humanism and was also preceded by the Scientific Revolution and the work of Francis Bacon, among others. Some date the beginning of the Enlightenment back to the publication of Rene Descartes' Discourse on the Method in 1637, featuring his famous dictum, Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"). Others cite the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution and the beginning of the Enlightenment. European historians traditionally date its beginning with the death of Louis XIV of France in 1715 and its end with the 1789 outbreak of the French Revolution. Many historians now date the end of the Enlightenment as the start of the 19th century, with the latest proposed year being the death of Immanuel Kant in 1804. Philosophers and scientists of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffeehouses and in printed books, journals, and pamphlets. Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of {{Freemason}ry} was a main factor in the Enlightenment.The leaders of the Enlightenment included {Freemason}s such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope,Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington.Norman Davies said that {{Freemason}ry} was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. During the Age of Enlightenment, {Freemason}s comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. {{Freemason}ry} as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity and equality".Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.{{Freemason}ry} was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making {{Freemason}ry} the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.The {Freemason}s displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies During the 18th century the glorious line of the "Encyclopedistes" found in our temples a fervent audience, which, alone at that period, invoked the radiant motto, still unknown to the people, of "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity". The revolutionary seed germinated rapidly in that select company. Our illustrious brother masons d'Alembert, Diderot, Helvetius, d'Holbach, Voltaire and Condorcet, completed the evolution of people's minds and prepared the way for a new age. And when the Bastille fell, {{Freemason}ry} had the supreme honour to present to humanity the charter which it had friendly elaborated. "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges".Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right".Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between {Freemason} ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. (168, 222, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Devil's Island (244, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military general who crowned himself the first emperor of France. His Napoleonic Code remains a model for governments worldwide.However, after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon abdicated the throne two years later and was exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815, he briefly returned to power in his Hundred Days campaign. After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, he abdicated once again and was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena "I used to rule the world Seas would rise when I gave the word Now in the morning, I sleep alone Sweep the streets I used to own … I used to roll the dice Feel the fear in my enemy's eyes Listen as the crowd would sing Now the old king is dead, long live the king" "The emperor won't see anyone, miss." St Helena Governor Hudson Lowe said. "I am different with anyone to him"--Lucia Elizabeth Balcombe Abell (245, 242, 1) ***Event*** Message: “La France, l'armee, tête d'armee, Josephine”-the dying French Emperor Napoleon (246, 161, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Destined for a military career from childhood, his father desiring him to have a career in the army and continue the family tradition of military service, Freire joined the Portuguese army as an infantry cadet in September 1782. After completing his training, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned to the 5th Company of the infantry regiment stationed at Peniche. Freire then went into the Portuguese Royal Navy, embarking in 1784 with an auxiliary squadron sent to assist the Spanish naval forces of Charles III of Spain in the shelling of Algiers. Freire returned to Lisbon in September, where he was promoted to lieutenant, and in April 1788 volunteered to rejoin the army, and returned to his old regiment with the rank of staff sergeant (102, 188, 1) ***Event*** Message: Battle of Bunker Hill (110, 86, 1) ***Dread Knight*** Message: The cavalry of the Teutonic Order attacked you, vowing to defend their remaining territory in Germany (15, 19, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. (2, 128, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. (90, 220, 1) ***Event*** Message: Robert Howe and his men at your service (220, 213, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The True Cross are the physical remnants which, by the tradition of some Christian churches, are said to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified. Many churches possess fragmentary remains that are by tradition alleged to be those of the True Cross. (242, 230, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Between the 1770s and the 1820s, revolutions erupted across the Atlantic world. In North and South America, colonists rebelled against their colonial governments. Old and new nations experienced political upheaval on both sides of the Atlantic. At the same time, the enslaved population of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) overthrew its masters, inspiring acts of resistance throughout the Caribbean and beyond. While these events were once studied separately, the field of Atlantic history has enabled historians to examine the connections among the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American Revolutions. Yet, the maritime spaces that enabled these connections remained in the background of historical scholarship until recently. New scholarship foregrounds the ocean as a place of exploitation, political development, identity formation, and cross-cultural interaction. Diverse peoples—sailors, fishermen, enslaved Africans, refugees, and revolutionaries—traversed sea lanes during the Age of Revolutions. Some brought with them news of political developments, ideas about sovereignty, or revolutionary materials. Others sought freedom and new opportunities. They hoped to escape enslavement, find refuge from revolution, or envision a different political future. Still others saw the sea as a site of exploitation. There, Africans endured the Middle Passage, the Royal Navy impressed sailors, and fishermen harvested the ocean’s bounty. Indeed, the Age of Revolutions was inherently a maritime age. As scholars continue to reconstruct the inter-imperial and transatlantic connections that residents forged across the Atlantic world, the ocean will become a key site for understanding the Age of Revolutions. (242, 229, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cape Verde Islands --a stopover on the route between Europe and Africa and the Americas (227, 234, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Cisplatine War Finish Battle of Ayacucho Although the war was not a war of independence, as none of the belligerents fought to establish an independent nation, it has a similar recognition within Uruguay. The Thirty-Three Orientals are acknowledged as national heroes, who freed Uruguay from Brazilian presence. The landing of the Thirty-Three Orientals is also known as the "Liberation crusade" (12, 247, 1) ***Inferno*** Name: Mexico City Timed events: Name: e18210927 Message: On September 27, 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire, as New Spain was henceforth to be called. Name: e18241004 Message: On October 4 of 1824,The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1824 (Spanish: Constitución Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1824) was enacted , after the overthrow of the Mexican Empire of Agustin de Iturbide. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with Catholicism as the official and unique religion. (233, 245, 1) ***Nomad*** Message: My horse and my woman Went off to Salta May the horse return For I don't need my woman. (11, 27, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. It is the Templars' aim to restore peace in the way the Isu had once done - forced by the Pieces - (9, 28, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. It is the Templars' aim to restore peace in the way the Isu had once done - forced by the Pieces - (7, 29, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. It is the Templars' aim to restore peace in the way the Isu had once done - forced by the Pieces - (5, 30, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. It is the Templars' aim to restore peace in the way the Isu had once done - forced by the Pieces - (7, 31, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. whereas the Assassins, who fight for freedom and a flawed (but unshackled) humanity, put free will above order. (9, 30, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. whereas the Assassins, who fight for freedom and a flawed (but unshackled) humanity, put free will above order. (11, 29, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Pieces of Eden were not destroyed by the blast, and throughout time humans began recovering them, also causing an ideological divide, resulting in the formation of two groups, now referred to as the Templars and the Assassins. Many decades have gone by as the war continues between Templars and Assassins, both knowing the importance of the Pieces - especially the Apple - to reach their goal. whereas the Assassins, who fight for freedom and a flawed (but unshackled) humanity, put free will above order. (191, 32, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Russian impire Guards desperately resisted (177, 206, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Successfully intercepted the French grain convoy (228, 217, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Faro (244, 224, 1) ***Event*** Message: You find the Thornton,a ship of the Sierra Leone company captured by a French naval squadron.You deside to rescue it (58, 58, 1) ***Event*** Message: The Salon of Madame Recamier,Rue Mirabeau-le-Patriote”(1791-1793).From the earliest days of the French Consulate to almost the end of the July Monarchy, Recamier's salon in Paris was one of the chief resorts of literary and political society that followed what was fashionable. (3, 209, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Missouri river (2, 209, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sacagawea helped the Lewis and Clark Expedition in achieving their chartered mission objectives by exploring the Louisiana Territory. Sacagawea traveled with the expedition thousands of miles from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean, helping to establish cultural contacts with Native American populations and contributing to the expedition's knowledge of natural history in different regions. (246, 212, 1) ***Random Monster*** Message: Combined French and Spanish Navy under Rear-Admiral Sir James Saumarez (248, 244, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tristan da Cunha,or Tristan. Win Battle of Camden of American Revolutionary War After the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War halted penal transportation to the Thirteen Colonies, British prisons started to overcrowd.Captain John Blankett, R.N., also suggested independently to his superiors in August 1786 that convicts be used to establish a British settlement on Tristan. In consequence, the Admiralty received orders from the government in October 1789 to examine the island as part of a general survey of the South Atlantic and the coasts of southern Africa. (250, 244, 1) ***Event*** Message: Cape of Good Hope (117, 227, 1) ***Event*** Message: Le Cap (99, 189, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Mount Gulian manor house,Town of Fishkill, New York--the place where the Society of the Cincinnati was founded. (20, 12, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In order to ensure he was instantly identifiable on the battlefield, Napoleon wore his sideways. “Hatter, costume designer and trimmer of the Emperor and the princes”Poupart is thought to have made about 120 hats for him, only a minority of which survive.But the highlight is the hat, which has survived in near perfect condition bar a little wear on the underside of the brim and a nick in its left-hand edge. In order to ensure he was instantly identifiable on the battlefield, Napoleon wore his sideways. “Hatter, costume designer and trimmer of the Emperor and the princes”Poupart is thought to have made about 120 hats for him, only a minority of which survive.But the highlight is the hat, which has survived in near perfect condition bar a little wear on the underside of the brim and a nick in its left-hand edge. Evidence that its owner was not just a man of action, but one who understood, as Shakespeare has Polonius say in Hamlet, that clothes make the man.“has an emperor won an empire simply by showing his hat.” The autocratic rulers of Russia, Prussia and Austria wanted to crush the revolutionary ideas and enlightment ideas for which Napoleon stood, including meritocracy, equality before the law, anti-feudalism and religious toleration. Essentially, they wanted to turn the clock back to a time when Europe was safe for aristocracy. At this they succeeded—until the outbreak of the Great War a century later. The British had long enjoyed most of the key Enlightenment values, having beheaded King Charles I 140 years before the French guillotined Louis XVI, but they had other reasons for wanting to destroy Napoleon. Anything that distracted the British public’s attention from Andrew Jackson’s victory at New Orleans in January 1815 was very welcome, not least because the British commander there, Gen. Edward Pakenham, was the Duke of Wellington’s brother-in-law. More gravely, Britain and France had fought each other for no fewer than 56 years in the preceding 125, and Napoleon himself had posed a threat of invasion before Lord Nelson destroyed the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar in 1805. With the French threat removed, the British were able to sign a peace treaty securing strategically important points around the globe, such as Cape Town, Jamaica and Sri Lanka, from which they could project their maritime power into a new empire to replace the one they’d lost in America. They, too, succeeded, building the largest empire in world history, which by the dawn of the 20th century covered nearly a quarter of the world’s land surface. The British could have achieved those goals even if they’d left Napoleon alone; they had total control of the oceans. If Napoleon had remained emperor of France for the six years remaining in his natural life, European civilization would have benefited inestimably. The reactionary Holy Alliance of Russia, Prussia and Austria would not have been able to crush liberal constitutionalist movements in Spain, Greece, Eastern Europe and elsewhere; pressure to join France in abolishing slavery in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean would have grown; the benefits of meritocracy over feudalism would have had time to become more widely appreciated; Jews would not have been forced back into their ghettos in the Papal States and made to wear the yellow star again; encouragement of the arts and sciences would have been better understood and copied; and the plans to rebuild Paris would have been implemented, making it the most gorgeous city in the world. Why We’d Be Better Off if Napoleon Never Lost at Waterloo? A distinguished historian once looked at what could have been: Napoleon deserved to lose Waterloo, and Wellington to win it, but the essential point that the epic battle did not need to be fought—and the world would have been better off if it hadn’t been. (10, 25, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Systema Naturae (originally in Latin written Systema Natur? with the ligature ?) is one of the major works of the Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann, 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was Systema natur? per regna tria natur?, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis or translated: "System of nature through the three kingdoms of nature, according to classes, orders, genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places". In early editions of Systema Naturae, many well-known legendary creatures were included such as the phoenix, dragon, manticore, and satyrus, which Linnaeus collected into the catch-all category Paradoxa. Broberg thought Linnaeus was trying to offer a natural explanation and demystify the world of superstition.Linnaeus tried to debunk some of these creatures, as he had with the hydra; regarding the purported remains of dragons, Linnaeus wrote that they were either derived from lizards or rays.For Homo troglodytes he asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence.Homo lar has since been reclassified as Hylobates lar, the lar gibbon. (218, 189, 1) ***Event*** Message: ávila (124, 198, 1) ***The Grail*** Message: Where are you now Atlantis Under the sea Under the sea Where are you now The records speak of a vast power that your city once brought to a halt in its insolent march against the whole of Europe and Asia at once - a power that sprang forth from beyond, from the Atlantic Ocean. For at that time this ocean was passable, since it had an island in it in the front of the strait that you people say you call the 'Pillars of Hercules.' [Strait of Gibraltar] This island was larger than Libya and Asia [for the Greeks at that time Asia was the Nile to the Hellespont] combined, and it provided passage to the other islands for people who travelled in those days. From those islands one could then travel to the entire continent on the other side, which surrounds that real sea beyond. Everything here inside the strait we're talking about seems nothing but a harbour with a narrow entrance, whereas that really is an ocean out there and the land that embraces it all the way around truly deserves to be called a continent. Now on this Isle of Atlantis a great and marvellous royal power established itself, and ruled not the whole island, but many of the other islands and parts of the continent as well. What's more, their rule extended even inside the strait, over Libya as far as Egypt, and over Europe as far as Tyrrhenia [central Italy]. Now one day this power gathered all of itself together, and set out to enslave all of the territory inside the strait, including your region and ours, in one fell swoop. Then it was, Solon, that your city's might shone bright with excellence and strength, for all humankind to see. Preeminent among all others in the nobility of her spirit and in her use of all the arts of war she first rose to the leadership of the Greek cause. Later, forced to stand alone, deserted by her allies, she reached a point of extreme peril. Nevertheless, she overcame the invaders and erected her monument of victory. She prevented the enslavement of those not yet enslaved, and generously freed all the rest of us who lived within the boundaries of Hercules. Sometime later excessively violent earthquakes and floods occurred, and after the onset of an unbearable day and a night, your entire warrior force sank below the earth all at once, and the Isle of Atlantis likewise sank below the sea and disappeared. That is how the ocean in that region has come to be even now unnavigable and unexplorable, obstructed as it is by a layer of mud at a shallow depth. The residue of the island as it settled. The founders of Atlantis, were half god and half human. They created a utopian civilization and became a great naval power. The ancient civilization of Atlantis was a utopia. It was lush and full of food and wildlife. And the people of Atlantis were wise and just. They were a knowledgeable society capable of amazing feats of architecture and engineering. (152, 190, 1) ***Rampart*** Name: Dublin Timed events: Name: e17980822IrishRepublic Message: General Humbert declared the Irish Republic in his declaration to the people upon landing in Ireland on 22 August 1798: LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY, UNION, After several unsuccessful attempts, behold at last Frenchmen arrived amongst you... Union, Liberty, the Irish Republic! Such is our shout. Let us march. Our hearts are devoted to you; our glory is in your happiness. Name: Whiteboys Message: Following the landing of a French force under Humbert, some local Whiteboys join the rebellion against the British and fought alongside United Irishmen and French soldiers. Name: Irish guerrilla warfare Message: Small fragments of the great rebel armies and whiteboys waged a form of guerrilla or "fugitive" warfare fighting aginst Presbyterian radicalismr,Peep o' Day Boys and British rule Name: 长老会和窥测男孩-玩家英国专属-后期增兵事件(补AI专属) Message: Presbyterian radicalism was effectively tamed or reconciled to British rule by inclusion in a new Protestant Ascendancy, as opposed to a merely Anglican one. The Presbyterian radicalism and the Peep o' Day Boys are now both under the command of the British government Name: eActofunion Message: Name: eNelson's Pillar Message: On 21 October,1809,Nelson's Pillar in Dublin is completed. Nelson's Pillar (also known as the Nelson Pillar or simply the Pillar) was a large granite column capped by a statue of Horatio Nelson, built in the centre of what was then Sackville Street (later renamed O'Connell Street) in Dublin, Ireland. Nelson had been hailed in Dublin seven years earlier, after the Battle of the Nile, as defender of the Harp and Crown, the respective symbols of Ireland and Britain. When news of Trafalgar reached the city on 8 November, there were similar scenes of patriotic celebration, together with a desire that the fallen hero should be commemorated.The mercantile classes had particular reason to be grateful for a victory that restored the freedom of the high seas and removed the threat of a French invasion.Many of the city's population had relatives who had been involved in the battle: up to one-third of the sailors in Nelson's fleet were from Ireland, including around 400 from Dublin itself. In his short account of the Pillar, Dennis Kennedy considers that Nelson would have been regarded in the city as a hero, not just among the Protestant Ascendancy but by many Catholics among the rising middle and professional classes. According to the committee's published report, 22,090 cubic feet (626 m3) of black limestone and 7,310 cubic feet (207 m3) of granite had been used to build the column and its pedestal. when the project was complete in the autumn of 1809, costs totalled ￡6,856, but contributions had reached ￡7,138, providing the committee with a surplus of ￡282 (152, 189, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The initial plan of the Rebellion was to take Dublin, with the counties bordering Dublin to rise in support and prevent the arrival of reinforcements followed by the rest of the country who were to tie down other garrisons. (150, 190, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Lodge of Ireland,No. 19, Dawson Street,Dublin. It is inscribed with the phrase, "I will strive to live with love and care, upon the level and by the square." It was that the majority of masonic lodges in the British Army, wherever they came from, were warranted under the Irish Constitution. The form of masonry that the British Army spread in the colonies was predominantly Irish.The Grand Lodge of Ireland played a central role in the spread of military-based masonic lodges of British Army from the 18th century onwards. Grand Master of {{Freemason}ry} in Ireland promise to unite with you.You got one part of the Home Grand Lodges (171, 226, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fortress of St. Joseph,Macapá (163, 180, 1) ***Mage*** Message: John James Chalon RA (27 March 1778 - 14 November 1854) --a Swiss painter active in England. He treated a wide range of subjects — landscapes, marine scenes, animal life, and figure-pieces.Among these, a very noble work is his 'Castle of Chillon,' its lonely white walls strongly contrasting with the dark mountains that rise behind them, and glittering in the ripple of the clear blue lake (164, 180, 1) ***Event*** Message: Reformed Baptists (239, 212, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The tactic exposed the leading ships in the British lines to intense fire from multiple ships as they approached the Franco-Spanish lines. (238, 212, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (130, 83, 1) ***Devil*** Message: These Assassins are disturbancing this Seismic Temple,you must stop them (130, 82, 1) ***Orb of Silt*** Message: "We haven't found an apple, but... a tree. These Temples hold the earth together like roots. Disturb them, and Haiti falls or... Lisbon. Or any other place the Manuscript shows." -Shay Cormac explaining his theory of the structures to Haytham Kenway (130, 81, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The Seismic Temples are subterranean complexes, built by the Isu, that hold together a vast underground network beneath the Earth's crust. Each Temple holds within it a core component vital to its structural integrity, which, if removed, triggers a violent seismic reaction within the underground network. Although their original function is lost to humans, Seismic Temples may have been erected to stabilize the planet's crust or otherwise as a monumental defense system. The Seismic Temples are vast underground structures, located across the globe, that serve a purpose unknown to humans. They are typically built within large, cavernous spaces with protective walkways leading to a central pedestal residing at the base of a singular, large pyramid. Atop the pedestal sits a core component that appears to control or stabilize the Earth's crust within a localized area; any disturbance of the component risks disrupting the entire region above ground. During the 18th century, when a number of the Seismic Temples were discovered by the Assassins and Templars, it was erroneously believed that the core components were Pieces of Eden in and of themselves, and so were sought out by both parties, often with cataclysmic results (220, 214, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: A Precursor box, also known as an Isu Data Cache,is a type of device created by the Isu capable of interacting with other Pieces of Eden to accomplish a variety of functions,principally, to store vast contents of knowledge on any single given subject. Normally powered by the Piece of Eden it is paired with, in the absence of such a device, electricity can be used in its place. However, the amount of electricity required is on the magnitude of a lightning strike and can damage the box. One such box was indeed powered in this way, and when activated, it was able to decipher the Isu language written in the Voynich manuscript, giving the location of the Seismic Temples. (221, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: After reassembling Franklin's lighting-to-battery assembly, Shay watched as the electrical charge powered the box, projecting a holographic display of the globe with a shimmering light over the site of a a Precursor Temple in Lisbon, Portugal. (56, 190, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Niagara Falls (250, 104, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: The sixth solution was to create entirely new vessels that could safely transfer one's consciousness in a way that the former solution had failed to do. The new vessels would be able to withstand the new environment, and they could house the transferred consciousness. However, while transferring one's consciousness into the new vessel was easy, subsequent releasing of oneself from the vessel was nearly impossible, and required another being's sacrifice to be successful. (66, 108, 1) ***Devil*** Message: These Assassins are disturbancing this Seismic Temple,you must stop them (56, 54, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Belles Heures of Jean de Berry The “Belles Heures” or “The Beautiful Hours” is a beautifully illuminated manuscript book containing prayers to be said by the faithful at each canonical hour of the day. The French Duke of Berry (French: Jean, Duc de Berry) commissioned this book in 1409 for his private use. (91, 194, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: “Common Sense” was sold and distributed widely and read aloud at taverns and meeting places. In proportion to the population of the colonies at that time, it had the largest sale and circulation of any book published in American history. (90, 195, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: “Common Sense” by Thomas Paine was written in 1775–76 as a pamphlet advocating for the independence of the Thirteen Colonies. Paine used persuasive moral and political arguments to encourage the ordinary people in the Colonies to fight for an equal government. It was published anonymously at the beginning of the American Revolution and became an immediate bestseller. Paine connected independence with common Protestant beliefs to present a distinctly American political identity, structuring Common Sense as if it were a sermon. Common Sense was an impressive piece of propaganda advocating action and a set of principles. Together with its immense publicity and readership, Common Sense accelerated attitudes to independence. Common Sense was so influential that John Adams said: “Without the pen of the author of Common Sense, the sword of Washington would have been raised in vain.” (15, 23, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “The History of England” by Jane Austen – Handwritten Manuscript “The History of England” by Jane Austen was written when the author was fifteen years old in 1791. The work is a humorous work that pokes fun at widely used school history books of the time. The manuscript of thirty-four pages is in Jane Austen’s hand. Thirteen watercolor miniatures accompany it by her elder sister, Cassandra. The notebook is today preserved in the British Library collection. In “The History of England,” Austen mockingly imitates the style of textbook histories of English monarchs, while ridiculing school history books’ pretensions to objectivity. The title page of Austen’s manuscript reads: “The History of England from the reign of Henry the 4th to the death of Charles the 1st By a partial, prejudiced, & ignorant Historian.” (12, 22, 1) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Myosotis (/?ma?.??so?t?s/ MY-?-SOH-tiss) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae. The name comes from the Ancient Greek μυοσωτ?? "mouse's ear", which the foliage is thought to resemble.In the northern hemisphere they are colloquially denominated forget-me-notsor scorpion grasses. The colloquial name "forget-me-not" was calqued from the German Vergissmeinnicht and first used in English in AD 1398 through King Henry IV of England.Similar names and variations are found in many languages. The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne in 1926, as a Masonic emblem. During the ensuing decade of Nazi power a little blue Forget Me Not flower worn in a Brother’s lapel served as one method whereby brethren could identify each other in public (although even then it was not always safe to wear any non-Nazi pin), and in cities and concentration camps throughout Europe. The Forget Me Not distinguished the lapels of countless brethren who staunchly refused to allow the symbolic Light of Masonry to be completely extinguished. Behind the Masonic Symbols: The Forget-Me-Not. Explore the history behind the forget-me-not, a symbol used in {{Freemason}ry} to teach a valuable and important lesson: the dedication and courage it takes to hold to Masonic principles, even in the face of grave danger. While temples were once destroyed, property confiscated and burned, and Masons imprisoned and murdered, the mysteries of {{Freemason}ry} and the core principles of brotherly love, relief, and truth survived unimpaired in our brothers’ hearts. Masonic organizations promptly rebuilt following those dark era, and once again to thrive in the face of adversity and hardship. Lets keep it at that and let us admit to the Masonic Brotherhood of the blue Forget Me Not and thus did a simple flower blossom forth into a symbol of the fraternity, and become perhaps the most widely worn emblem among {Freemason}s. The badge is now sometimes worn in the coat lapel by {Freemason}s around the world to remember all who suffered in the name of {{Freemason}ry}, especially those during the Nazi era. (14, 23, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Magna Carta – Protection of Ancient Personal Liberties The Magna Carta or “Great Charter” is a charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede in 1215. This document is considered an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom. It also influenced the formation of the United States Constitution.Today four of the original thirteen copies of the 1215 charter remain in existence, two at the British Library, one at Lincoln Castle, and one at Salisbury Cathedral. Magna Carta continues to have a dominant iconic status in several countries, often being cited by politicians and lawyers in support of constitutional and political positions. Although rarely invoked in court in the modern era, the use of the Magna Carta’s perceived guarantee of trial by jury and other civil liberties continues to be used to defend various political and public positions and actions. The Charter was drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury to make peace between the unpopular King and a group of rebel barons. Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in high respect by the British, American, and Australian legal communities. Lord Denning described it as: “the greatest constitutional document of all times – the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot.“ (19, 11, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Civil Code Napoleon in later life considered the Civil Code to be the most significant of his achievements. The Code represented a comprehensive reformation and codification of the French civil laws. Under the ancien regime more than 400 codes of laws were in place in various parts of France, with common law predominating in the north and Roman law in the south. The Revolution overturned many of these laws. In addition, the revolutionary governments had enacted more than 14,000 pieces of legislation. Five attempts were made to codify the new laws of France during the periods of the National Convention and the Directory. Through the efforts of Napoleon the drafting the new Civil Code in an expert commission, in which Jean-Etienne-Marie Portalis took a leading role, took place in the second half of 1801. Napoleon attended in person 36 of the commission’s 87 meetings. Although the draft was completed at the end of 1801, the Code was not published until 21 March 1804. The Civil Code represents a typically Napoleonic mix of liberalism and conservatism, although most of the basic revolutionary gains – equality before the law, freedom of religion and the abolition of feudalism – were consolidated within its laws. Property rights, including the rights of the purchasers of the biens nationaux were made absolute. The Code also reinforced patriarchal power by making the husband the ruler of the household. The Napoleonic Code was to be promulgated, with modifications, throughout the Empire. The Civil Code was followed by a Code of Civil Procedure in 1806, a Commercial Code in 1807, a Criminal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure in 1808 and a Penal Code in 1810. A Rural Code was debated, but never promulgated. The Code Napoleon, renamed the Civil Code, was retained in its majority after the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815. The Civil Code has served as the model for the codes of law of more than twenty nations throughout the world. (143, 171, 1) ***Fire Elemental*** Message: In 1815, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn in a gaseous atmosphere without causing an explosion. At the same time, the eminent scientist and Cornishman Humphry Davy was also looking at the problem. Despite his lack of scientific knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes, through which the flames of the lamp could not pass. (15, 13, 1) ***Celestial Necklace of Bliss*** Message: Lady Liberty or Marianne-- a female classical goddess.Examples include Marianne, the national personification of the French Republic and its values of Liberte, egalite, Fraternite, the female Liberty portrayed on United States coins for well over a century (18, 24, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Premier Grand Lodge of England, organisation known as the Premier Grand Lodge of England was founded on 24 June 1717 as the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster. Originally concerned with the practice of {{Freemason}ry} in London and Westminster, it soon became known as the Grand Lodge of England. Because it was the first Masonic Grand Lodge to be created, convention calls it the Premier Grand Lodge of England in order to distinguish it from the Most Ancient and Honourable Society of Free and Accepted Masons according to the Old Constitutions, more usually referred to as the Ancient Grand Lodge of England, and the Grand Lodge of All England Meeting at York. The second quarter of the 18th century saw the London organisation flourish as the Premier Grand Lodge of England.The new Grand Lodge was evidently not immediately attractive to the older "Ancient" or independent lodges, who already found much to dislike about the organisation. It had been their custom to mark the lodge out in chalk, which would be erased with a mop and bucket. This began to be replaced with tape and thin metal letters, hence an advertisement in a London newspaper in 1726 for a lecture on "Ante-Diluvian Masonry. Showing what innovations have lately been introduced by the Doctor and some other of the Moderns, with their Tape, Jacks, and Movable Letters, Blazing Stars, etc., to the great indignity of the Mop and Pail. The basic principles of the Premier Grand Lodge of England were inspired by the ideal of tolerance and universal understanding of the Enlightenment and by the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. (17, 24, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Ancient Grand Lodge of England, as it is known today, or The Grand Lodge of the Most Ancient and Honourable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons (according to the Old Constitutions granted by His Royal Highness Prince Edwin, at York, Anno Domini nine hundred and twenty six, and in the year of Masonry four thousand nine hundred and twenty six) as they described themselves on their warrants,was a rival Grand Lodge to the Premier Grand Lodge of England. It existed from 1751 until 1813 when the United Grand Lodge of England was created from the two Grand Lodges. They are now called the Antients, in contrast to the Moderns, the original Grand Lodge which its critics, notably Laurence Dermott, said had moved away from the ritual of Scotland, Ireland, and now the Antient Grand Lodge. Although the Grand Lodge never spelled Antient with a 't', the convention was followed by the Moderns, and continues to be used by United Grand Lodge. Some confusion arises from the Ancients' own documentation. Their seals are inscribed Grand Lodge in London of Free and Accepted Masons According to the Old Institution(s), while in their masonic certificates, issued to new members, they called themselves the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of England according to the Old Constitutions This society, which adhered to what it believed to be an older and more authentic ritual than the original Grand Lodge, grew rapidly under the influence of Laurence Dermott, who was Grand Secretary from 1752 to 1771, and deputy Grand Master intermittently thereafter. (As the Grand Masters of the period were mainly noble figureheads, it was the Deputy Grand Master who actually directed the Grand Lodge.) It also benefited from early recognition by the Grand Lodges of Ireland and Scotland. Dermott's characterisation of the Moderns is scathing and satirical, and with each succeeding edition during his lifetime, more scorn is heaped on the society that deviated from the established landmarks of the order, and whose greatest masonic symbols were the knife and fork. (53, 54, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Robert was a also keen balloonist who designed and flew balloons in different countries around the world. On 18 July 1803 in Hamburg he set an altitude record in a montgolfière.He spent many flights investigating meteorological activity. In fact, he did numerous observations: Observations of barometer and thermometer, on shapes and altitudes of cloud formations, the behaviour of parachutes at different altitudes, the evaporation of Ether, the electrical properties of different materials and the air, behavior of a magnetic needle, the boiling point of Water at great altitudes, sound propagation, influence of the high altitudes on animals (Pigeons and Butterflies), strength of solar radiation, the solar spectrum, gravity properties, chemical composition of the air and pressure of the air. (68, 108, 1) ***Orb of Silt*** Message: "We haven't found an apple, but... a tree. These Temples hold the earth together like roots. Disturb them, and Haiti falls or... Lisbon. Or any other place the Manuscript shows." -Shay Cormac explaining his theory of the structures to Haytham Kenway (251, 104, 1) ***Magic Elemental*** Message: Ezio: "You are... gods." Minerva: "No. Not gods. We simply came... before." —Ezio Auditore da Firenze and Minerva, on the nature of the Isu, 1499 The Isu are an ancient and highly-advanced species of humanoid beings who were active on Earth during the eponymous era several millennia before the rise of even the most ancient human civilizations. The Isu are responsible for the creation of the Pieces of Eden, powerful artifacts and weapons that augmented their already superhuman abilities, as well as forming the human race itself. Their history shrouded in mystery, the Isu ruled over Earth roughly 77,000 years ago, before they were largely wiped out, alongside their human creations, during the Great Catastrophe. By that point, the Isu had been in a decade long war with a human rebellion led by two hybrids, Adam and Eve, who sought to free humanity from servitude to their "gods". Following the Great Catastrophe, the Isu population rapidly declined to the point of near extinction within the century, but their legacy would live on for thousands of years through myth and legend, becoming the focal point of many human religions, whether polytheistic or monotheistic. Further still, those Pieces of Eden that survive the Great Catastrophe also influenced early man’s development and eventually became a pivotal desire for both the Templar Order and the Assassin Brotherhood, who waged a war of their own for control of the Pieces, and by extension humanity’s future. You meet Three representatives of the Isu: Juno, Minerva and Jupiter (248, 102, 1) ***Spell Scroll*** Message: Before and after the war with humanity, all information from the other Temples regarding any way to prevent the first catastrophe was sent there for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva to "sort and sample all that was collected." The three tested six possible solutions in succession, "each more encouraging than the last", but all six solutions ultimately failed. The first solution was to build four towers to collect the solar flare that would strike the planet, and virtually dispel it. (219, 215, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: However, disturbing the artifact from its stationary position caused it to disintegrate, and triggered a massive earthquake in Lisbon. Refusing to serve under a man who would brush off such destruction and loss of life, Shay resolved to steal the manuscript in order to prevent the Assassins from finding other Temples. Sneaking into the manor that night, Shay took the artifact and was about to make his escape before he was confronted by Achilles. When the Mentor tried to stop him, a struggle ensued, during which Shay was thrown outside through a broken window.With the Assassins hunting him across the Homestead grounds, Shay made his way to a cliff overlooking the bay, but was cornered by the remaining members of the Brotherhood. As he attempted to leap into the water below, one of the Assassins shot Shay in the left shoulder from behind, which caused him to fall off the ledge; Shay was led to believe it had been Liam who shot him. Due to this turn of events, the Assassins believed Shay dead and the manuscript lost, though his unconscious form was rescued and placed in the care of Barry and Cassidy Finnegan by a Templar, Colonel George Monro. (214, 174, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During special times, the royal family ordered the important roads to be strictly guarded to prevent the infiltration of foreign forces Please send someone more prestigious to see our chief for approval. The royal family has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (77, 52, 1) ***Event*** Message: Some regiments of the French revolutionary army will be under your command (135, 236, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The First Republic of Venezuela Win Siege of Maastricht (1793) Venezuela achieved de facto independence on Maundy Thursday April 19, 1810 (134, 235, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The government granted Miranda command of the army and leadership of the Confederation (47, 89, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: QUEEN'S HAMLET This is for AI (207, 0, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finnish War(Sweden part) Win The Battle of Svensksund first Nikolay Tuchkov, a Russian general who was dispatched to the north of Finland, left garrisons in every fort along his way. This reduced his unit to 4,000 troops, which proved insufficient to pacify the hostile country. The Finns rose up in guerrilla fighting as far east as Frederikshamn (Finnish: Hamina) within the Old Finland province of Russia. In May, the Russians suffered further setbacks when they were driven from Gotland and Aland, where a Swedish flotilla, supported by the local population, compelled the small Russian force left on the main island of Fasta Aland to surrender, and then invaded the island of Kumlinge where the bulk of the Russian garrison on the Aland Islands was based. (210, 5, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finnish War After the Russian Emperor Alexander I concluded the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon, Alexander, in his letter on 24 September 1807 to the Swedish King Gustav IV Adolf, informed the king that the peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden depended on Swedish agreement to abide by the limitations of the Treaty of Tilsit which in practice meant that Sweden would have been required to follow the Continental System Gustav IV refused to fulfil his responsibilities , he made an alliance with Britain. We, Russia, can only declare war on it and take this opportunity to occupy Finland. Let's start the attack from Svartholm fortress (210, 2, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finnish War After the Russian Emperor Alexander I concluded the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon, Alexander, in his letter on 24 September 1807 to the Swedish King Gustav IV Adolf, informed the king that the peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden depended on Swedish agreement to abide by the limitations of the Treaty of Tilsit which in practice meant that Sweden would have been required to follow the Continental System Gustav IV refused to fulfil his responsibilities , he made an alliance with Britain. We, Russia, can only declare war on it and take this opportunity to occupy Finland. Let's start the attack from Svartholm fortress (250, 165, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Your experience in The Antilles of Spanish officialdom gave you an independent mind, and your experience in North America made you discover the meaning of independence. Now in the French Revolution, you decide to put your ideals into practice and start a new life in this new revolution. Under recommendation of the Girondists Jacques Pierre Brissot and Jerome Petion de Villeneuve,you are given command of marechal de camp in france (243, 174, 1) ***Event*** Message: 在大西洋革时代，当拿破仑战争如火如荼地在欧洲大陆爆发时，伊比利亚理应成为一个远离冲突的边陲之地，但半岛战争改变了一切。许多西班牙人拿起武器保卫家园，或者被迫加入大国的军队参与欧陆大战，如跟随法国参与1812年征俄战争;同时，也有很多欧洲诸国的人离开他们在欧洲的家乡，途径伊比利亚半岛并以之为跳板，进而前往美洲寻找各自的人生目标，如东欧的波兰族士兵被法国征召前往海地作战，海地革命结束后，这些波兰士兵和军官不愿再被当做棋子利用，于是当中许多人选择永久定居在了海地 (154, 148, 1) ***Hellstorm Helmet*** Message: The Imperial Crypt (German: Kaisergruft), also called the Capuchin Crypt (Kapuzinergruft), is a burial chamber beneath the Capuchin Church and monastery in Vienna, Austria. It was founded in 1618 and dedicated in 1632, and located on the Neuer Markt square of the Innere Stadt, near the Hofburg Palace. Since 1633, the Imperial Crypt serves as the principal place of entombment for the members of the House of Habsburg.The bones of 145 Habsburg royalty, plus urns containing the hearts or cremated remains of four others, are here, including 12 emperors and 18 empresses. (136, 54, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Many of the Napoleonic Wars were fought on German territory, and the German vassals had different positions, some supported France, some fell into the arms of Russia, and some were neutral. Eventually, in some battles between the Anti-French League and France, the armies of the German vassals from both sides would meet in a narrow encounter, which appeared to be like a German civil war. However, there was a common fact that the war parties carried out a lot of plundering of supplies and mobilization of men from German territory, and German horses were heavily requisitioned.The French army also collected 150,000 horses in the German region during the later Russian campaign. Emperor Napoleon of France personally drew the imperial marshals, generals such as Lana, Soult, Ney, Mortier, Lefebvre, Victor, Saint-Cyr and Junod and eight of the infantry field armies stationed in Germany to reorganize as the Spanish Legion to cross the west bank of the Elbe to the Spanish front (124, 107, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Bavaria and Württemberg were the two most loyal countries to Napoleon's followers For Napoleon's conquest, these two servant states needed to provide nothing more than manpower, money, food, and goods. The armies of Bavaria and Württemberg would follow Napoleon's French army around (18, 21, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Grand Lodge of New York (officially, the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons of the State of New York) It is not known when the first {Freemason} set foot in the American colony of New York, but the first documented presence dates from the mid-1730s, when Daniel Coxe Jr. (1673-1739), was appointed by the Duke of Norfolk, the Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England (known to historians as the "Moderns"), to act as a Provincial Grand Master for the provinces of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania It is the largest and oldest independent organization of {Freemason}s in the U.S. state of New York. It was at one time the largest grand lodge in the world in terms of membership. The Grand Lodge is over 230 years old, having been founded December 15, 1782. Today Grand Lodge of New York acts as the coordinating body for many functions undertaken throughout the state. Its various committees organize blood drives, the New York Masonic Safety Identification Program and various charitable events around New York. The Grand Lodge of New York has jurisdiction over approximately 60,000 {Freemason}s, organized in more than 800 Lodges, most of them located within New York State. (67, 244, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Turneffe Atoll--is the exact historical region believed to contain the Fountain of Youth (104, 230, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ragged Island (95, 229, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Big Blue Hole ,Cat Island. The hole is very deep and it has a strong undercurrents flowing into the sea. (13, 17, 1) ***Event*** Message: Although there is no consensus about the exact span of time that corresponds to the American Enlightenment, it is safe to say that it occurred during the eighteenth century among thinkers in British North America and the early United States and was inspired by the ideas of the British and French Enlightenments. Sources of the American Enlightenment are many and vary according to time and place. As a result of an extensive book trade with Great Britain, the colonies were well acquainted with European literature almost contemporaneously. Early influences were English writers, including James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, the Viscount Bolingbroke, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon (especially the two's Cato's Letters), and Joseph Addison (whose tragedy Cato was extremely popular). A particularly important English legal writer was Sir William Blackstone, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England served as a major influence on the American Founders and is a key source in the development Anglo-American common law. Although John Locke's Two Treatises of Government has long been cited as a major influence on American thinkers, historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May demonstrate that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read than were his political Treatises. The Scottish Enlightenment also influenced American thinkers. David Hume's Essays and his History of England were widely read in the colonies,and Hume's political thought had a particular influence on James Madison and the Constitution. Another important Scottish writer was Francis Hutcheson. Hutcheson's ideas of ethics, along with notions of civility and politeness developed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, and Addison and Richard Steele in their Spectator, were a major influence on upper-class American colonists who sought to emulate European manners and learning. The ideas of the Enlightenment flowed from Europe to the North American continent and sparked a revolution that made enlightened thought all the more popular back across the Atlantic. It finally lead to the American Revolution war. Many Europeans came to North America to fight for Continental Army. Some of these foreign officers may well have been inspired by the principles of the American Revolution. Europeans would obtained information about the American Revolution from soldiers returning from America. French soldiers would returned to France with ideas of individual liberty, popular sovereignty and the notion of republicanism. (14, 17, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The {Atlantic Revolutions} were a revolutionary wave in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic World during the era from the 1760s to the 1870s. In long-term perspective, the revolutions were mostly successful. They spread widely the ideals of liberalism, republicanism, the overthrow of aristocracies, kings and established churches. They emphasized the universal ideals of the Enlightenment, such as the equality of all men, including equal justice under law by disinterested courts as opposed to particular justice handed down at the whim of a local noble. They showed that the modern notion of revolution, of starting fresh with a radically new government, could actually work in practice. Revolutionary mentalities were born and continue to flourish to the present day. It took place in both the Americas and Europe, including the United States (1765-1783), Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1788-1792), France and French-controlled Europe (French Revolution1789-1814), Haiti (1791-1804), Ireland (1798) and Spanish America (1810-1825).There were smaller upheavals in Switzerland, Russia, and Brazil. The revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them. Independence movements in the New World began with the American Revolution, 1765-1783, in which France, the Netherlands and Spain assisted the new United States of America as it secured independence from Britain. In the 1790s the Haitian Revolution broke out. With Spain tied down in European wars, the mainland Spanish colonies secured independence around 1820. The common Atlantic theme breaks down to some extent from reading the works of Edmund Burke. Burke firstly supported the American colonists in 1774 in "On American Taxation", and took the view that their property and other rights were being infringed by the crown without their consent. In apparent contrast, Burke distinguished and deplored the process of the French revolution in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), as in this case property, customary and religious rights were being removed summarily by the revolutionaries and not by the crown. In both cases he was following Montesquieu's theory that the right to own property is an essential element of personal freedom. Various connecting threads among these varied uprisings include a concern for the "Rights of Man" and freedom of the individual; an idea (often predicated on John Locke or Jean-Jacques Rousseau) of popular sovereignty; belief in a "social contract", which in turn was often codified in written constitutions; a certain complex of religious convictions often associated with deism or Voltairean agnosticism, and characterized by veneration of reason; abhorrence of feudalism and often of monarchy itself. The {Atlantic Revolutions} also had many shared symbols, including the name "Patriot" used by so many revolutionary groups; the slogan of "Liberty"; the liberty cap; Lady Liberty or Marianne; the tree of liberty or liberty pole, and so on. This Magical Surrealism map will guide you in the complicated disputes into the romantic and adventurous with ideal and reality life of revolutionaries on both sides of the Atlantic to have the insight of life course. Explore the imprint of the era of Democratic Revolution in the troubled wars of North American independence, French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars and South American independence; To rekindle the fire of truth, to review the fiery days of the Revelations, to reappear the never-annihilating Wars History of the {Atlantic Revolutions}! (14, 12, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Les Neuf Soeurs--法国大东方的一个著名{共济会}分会，在组织法国人支持美国革命方面很有影响。 (149, 144, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The French have surpassed us in Austria in many remaining areas, except for the size of the territory, and we should send some of our elite to study at the universities and colleges in Paris to change some of our lack of talent in the scientific and military fields You need the Habsburg royal family to grant you diplomatic status to visit France Our relations between Austria and France are very delicate at the moment, and the interests of the Reich in Europe are at stake. You must not give a bad influence on the relations between the two countries by furthering your expertise at the university in Paris with all your heart. (223, 187, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The French have always thought that we Spaniards are synonymous with laziness, but apart from a little laziness in military matters, we in Spain are admired even by ourselves for our scientific inventions, and our diligence in the field of architecture. We must be confident to show our Spanish style to the French! Before going to Paris, you need a license from the Spanish Bourbon crown The Parisians are very good at the art of fashion, and as Spaniards we must learn from them in order to create our own results! (231, 241, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The people of Latin America had been living under Spanish rule for centuries, and the revolutionary ideas of the United States and France had sparked great changes in Europe. For you, a white bourgeois born in South America with big ambitions, you had a longing for Paris and you always wanted to be there to witness the great events that were taking place. To study in France, you need the recommendation of a prominent family and the permission of the Spanish colonial authorities. You must cherish your time in France and Paris so that you can spread the spirit of revolution and independence in South America in the future. You are deeply committed to your mission. (79, 203, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Americans and the French would fight side by side, for the British were not only opposed to our independence, but they were also uniting with the rest of Europe to extinguish the French Revolution. It is therefore essential that we send more men to establish close contact with the Paris authorities. The first step was to obtain an appointment in Congress to work in Paris. This task would take a long way to go, and it is up to you whether our new North American regime can maintain relations with all sides and gain as much diplomatic benefit as possible in a situation where the European powers are at war. (17, 20, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment[note 2] was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries with global influences and effects.[2][3] The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the value of human happiness, the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and ideals such as natural law, liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state.The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Catholic Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Enlightenment era ushered in a series of sweeping changes in both Europe and the English Colonies in America. Both the American and French Revolutions were greatly influenced by ideas that came from the Enlightenment period.Revolutionaries were inspired by the ideals of the Enlightenment including individual freedom. The Enlightenment ideas contributed to the Atlantic Revolution because people believed that the ideas were telling them to fight for liberty, natural rights, equality, and free trade, provided which provided the intellectual underpinnings of the Atlantic Revolutions. The might and magic door to the Revolutionary Atlantic is now open! (104, 204, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: American Revolution (1765–1783) The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), gaining independence from the British Crown and establishing the United States as the first nation-state founded on Enlightenment principles of liberal democracy. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean American Revolution (1765–1783) (235, 239, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Argentine War of Independence The Argentine War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de Argentina) was a secessionist civil war[3][4][5][6] fought from 1810 to 1818 by Argentine patriotic forces under Manuel Belgrano, Juan Jose Castelli and Jose de San Martín against royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown. On July 9, 1816, an assembly met in San Miguel de Tucumán, declaring independence with provisions for a national constitution. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Argentine War of Independence The territory of modern Argentina was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with its capital city in Buenos Aires, seat of government of the Spanish viceroy. Modern Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia were also part of the viceroyalty, and began their push for autonomy during the conflict, becoming independent states afterwards. The vast area of the territory and slow communications led most populated areas to become isolated from each other. The wealthiest regions of the viceroyalty were in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia). Salta and Córdoba had closer ties with Upper Peru than with Buenos Aires. Similarly, Mendoza in the west had closer ties with the Captaincy General of Chile, although the Andes mountain range was a natural barrier. Buenos Aires and Montevideo, who had a local rivalry, located in the La Plata Basin, had naval communications allowing them to be more in contact with European ideas and economic advances than the inland populations. Paraguay was isolated from all other regions. (92, 202, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Episcopal Church (United States)--Embracing the symbols of the British presence in the American colonies, such as the monarchy, the episcopate, and even the language of the Book of Common Prayer, the Church of England almost drove itself to extinction during the upheaval of the American Revolution. More than any other denomination, the War of Independence internally divided both clergy and laity of the Church of England in America, and opinions covered a wide spectrum of political views: patriots, conciliators, and loyalists. While many Patriots were suspicious of Loyalism in the church, about three-quarters of the signers of the Declaration of Independence were nominally Anglican laymen, including Thomas Jefferson, William Paca, and George Wythe.It was often assumed that persons considered "High Church" were Loyalists, whereas persons considered "Low Church" were Patriots: assumptions with possibly dangerous implications for the time. The Episcopal Church claims apostolic succession, tracing its bishops back to the apostles via holy orders. The Book of Common Prayer, a collection of traditional rites, blessings, liturgies, and prayers used throughout the Anglican Communion, is central to Episcopal worship. There were approximately three hundred clergy in the Church of England in America between 1776 and 1783，In the wake of the Revolution, American Episcopalians faced the task of preserving a hierarchical church structure in a society infused with republican values. (96, 201, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peale had a great interest in natural history, and organized the first U.S. scientific expedition in 1801. These two major interests combined in his founding of what became the Philadelphia Museum, later known as Peale's American Museum. It housed a diverse collection of botanical, biological, and archaeological specimens. the museum contained a large variety of birds which Peale himself acquired, and in many instances mounted, having taught himself taxidermy. In 1792, Peale initiated a correspondence with Thomas Hall, of the Finsbury Museum, City Road, Finsbury, London proposing to purchase British stuffed items for his museum. Eventually, an exchange system was established between the two, whereby Peale sent American birds to Hall in exchange for an equal number of British birds. This arrangement continued until the end of the century. (94, 200, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Second Continental Congress Capture Fort Ticonderoga first Continental Army established.George Washington now made General of the Army. (75, 170, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Saint-Maurice River (82, 171, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Ramparts of Quebec City (80, 168, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Lac Saint-Jean (241, 50, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (242, 51, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by green Player. The second guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (243, 51, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (224, 240, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (223, 240, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by purple Player. The second guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (222, 240, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before purple player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (220, 238, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (78, 201, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Potomac River (166, 181, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Ancient Order of Druids--The Ancient Order of Druids (AOD) is the senior druidic order in the world, and the oldest in continuous existence. It has been revived in London, England, in 1781. It is represented in England, Wales, Scotland and the Commonwealth of Nations. Its motto is Justice, Philanthropy and Brotherly Love. 28 November 1781, in the King’s Arms tavern, near Oxford Street, some gentlemen decided to create an association basing the name and some of the iconography upon what was then believed about the ancient druids.Despite a few semantic similarities, initiatory aspects and the use of regalia, the AOD, since its origins, is completely distinct from {{Freemason}ry}. It was created by a group of friends who were merchants and artisans who liked to regularly meet at the King's Arms tavern just off Oxford Street in the West End of London. However it was founded, it is known that the first leader or "Archdruid" of the group was the aforementioned Mr Henry Hurle, a wealthy carpenter, surveyor and builder who worked at Garlick Hill in London. Ever since its inception, its members had come from a variety of different social backgrounds, and many of the poorer members, particularly in the newly-industrial towns in the English Midlands, wanted it to act more like the benefit clubs and friendly societies such as the Odd Fellows (1730), the Shepherds Friendly Society (1826), the Foresters Friendly Society (1834), which were then rising in popularity. These benefit clubs collected membership fees into a central fund that they used to care for members who were too ill to work, or unable to pay for their funerals (167, 181, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Hellfire Club Hellfire Club was a name for several exclusive clubs for high-society rakes who wished to take part in socially perceived immoral acts, and the members were often involved in politics. Hellfire Club was a satirical "gentleman's club" which was known to ridicule religion, catching onto the then-current trend in England of blasphemy.The club was more a joke, meant to shock the outside world, than a serious attack on religion or morality. The supposed president of this club was the Devil, although the members themselves did not apparently worship demons or the Devil, but called themselves devils (167, 186, 1) ***Arch Mage*** Message: "Please arrange for my sister Caroline to come here too, she is still in Hannover.And this is my first large telescop"--William Herschel (166, 186, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: 19 New King Street, Bath, England William finished building a comet-searching telescope for Caroline, which she began to use immediately Caroline made many discoveries independently of William and continued to work solo on many of the astronomical projects which contributed to her rise to fame. Caroline arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances so that her nephew, John Herschel, could re-examine them systematically. (166, 184, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Red player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Red player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area After his graduation in Geneva, Prince Edward was very unhappy with his assignment to Gibraltar, and he was very uncomfortable with the Mediterranean climate. Instead, he was interested in Canadian affairs and the environment there, and hoped to obtain a Canadian appointment as soon as possible. (165, 184, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go to the west of Quebec City and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (165, 182, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The world turned upside down. This is for Ai! Cheater! (164, 182, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A longer episode of disease began in the summer of 1788. At the end of the parliamentary session, he went to Cheltenham Spa to recuperate. It was the furthest he had ever been from London—just short of 100 miles (150 km) In November he became seriously deranged, sometimes speaking for many hours without pause, causing him to foam at the mouth and making his voice hoarse.Like being surrounded by zombies (249, 4, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Green player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Green player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Suvorov, who was fighting on the southern front, had to abandon his march to Istanbul and returned to St. Petersburg to meet with Ekaterina, Empress had new instructions for him，that is to lead the troops to put down the recent rebellion in Poland. (249, 5, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go to the underground of Moscow and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the green player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (105, 187, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Teal player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Teal player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Connor felt he was on the eve of a bigger storm. (106, 187, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go to the west of Philadelphia and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (227, 249, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Chilean Army of O'Higgins joins you (230, 192, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Finish Abdications of Bayonne Finish Abdications of Bayonne Goya decided to record this horrible thing with paintings (232, 52, 1) ***Halfling*** Message: “As they proceeded from the city, the Marshal time and again demonstrated great care for the wounded and the women and children, showing how the bravest was also the most humane,” recounted Segur. One occasion in particular is illustrative. A mother abandoned her five-year-old son twice in the snow. Both times Ney discovered the child and heaved him from the frozen ground. Failing to persuade the mother to take her child, he found another woman to care for him. (152, 137, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Congress of Vienna Win Battle of Leipzig first The Congress of Vienna (French: Congrès de Vienne, German: Wiener Kongress) of 1814-1815 was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815. (153, 137, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the Duke of Wellington, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. All countries on the Congress have selfish interest considerations. The conflicts caused by the Polish-Saxon crisis have made the Congress not reach a good consensus. The war will further escalate，and the democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. (152, 138, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Congress of Vienna Win Battle of Leipzig first The Congress of Vienna (French: Congrès de Vienne, German: Wiener Kongress) of 1814-1815 was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815. (153, 138, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism All countries on the Congress have selfish interest considerations. The conflicts caused by the Polish-Saxon crisis have made the Congress not reach a good consensus. The war will further escalate，and the democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. (154, 138, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The congress aimed at territorial resettlement and restoration to power of the crowned heads of Europe with Prince Metternich of Austria as the dominant figure. Austria was represented by Prince Metternich, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. All countries on the Congress have selfish interest considerations. The conflicts caused by the Polish-Saxon crisis have made the Congress not reach a good consensus. The war will further escalate，and the democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. (155, 139, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Congress of Vienna Win Battle of Leipzig first The Congress of Vienna (French: Congrès de Vienne, German: Wiener Kongress) of 1814-1815 was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815. (171, 173, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Sign The Treaty of Amiens Britain had almost drifted into peace by accident.This dichotomy is explained by the other cornerstone of English foreign policy; namely the Balance of Power. Cynically we might say that Britain stood for imbalance of power outside Europe where she remained ascendant, but Balance of Power on the Continent where she was just another player. There is no need to strictly abide by this hypocritical peace treaty. Now the Royal Navy is ordered to establish superiority in the wider continents, seas and theaters. (214, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Liberate Chile first Win Battle of Chacabuco first After the liberation of Chile, we will attack Peru, the Spanish colonial headquarters in America, by sea (92, 208, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Lee's treachery to Washington is clear Keep chasing for Lee and defeat it (239, 154, 1) ***Shield of the Yawning Dead*** Message: HYDRA's Evil Shield (238, 154, 1) ***Skull Helmet*** Message: HYDRA has created some skeleton skull symbols (237, 154, 1) ***Chaos Hydra*** Message: "Hail, Hydra! Immortal Hydra! We shall never be destroyed! Cut off a limb and two more shall take its place! We serve none but the Master—as the world shall soon serve us! Hail Hydra!" (246, 158, 1) ***Event*** Message: (11, 214, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the "Mound City". (85, 198, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (40, 87, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please go south of Stockholm and use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the pink player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area . (41, 87, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Pink player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Pink player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Fersen decided to do everything possible to rescue the French royal family (218, 226, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil John VI and his Portuguese court arrived in Rio de Janeiro on March 7, 1808 The transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil occurred with the strategic retreat of Queen Maria I of Portugal, Prince Regent John, and the Braganza royal family and its court of nearly 420 people from Lisbon on November 27, 1807.The embarkment took place on the 27th, but due to weather conditions, the ships were only able to depart on the 29th of November. The Braganza royal family departed for the Portuguese colony of Brazil just days before Napoleonic forces invaded Lisbon on December 1. The Portuguese crown remained in Brazil from 1808 until the Liberal Revolution of 1820 led to the return of John VI of Portugal on April 26, 1821. For thirteen years, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, functioned as the capital of the Kingdom of Portugal in what some historians call a metropolitan reversal (i.e., a colony exercising governance over the entirety of an empire). The period in which the court was located in Rio brought significant changes to the city and its residents, and can be interpreted through several perspectives. It had profound impacts on Brazilian society, economics, infrastructure, and politics. The transfer of the king and the royal court "represented the first step toward Brazilian independence, since the king immediately opened the ports of Brazil to foreign shipping and turned the colonial capital into the seat of government." (217, 225, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Rio de Janeiro Timed events: Name: eTransfer_of_the_Portuguese_court_to_Brazil Message: On December 16, 1815, John created the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (Reino Unido de Portugal, Brasil e Algarves), elevating Brazil to the same rank as Portugal and increasing the administrative independence of Brazil. Brazilian representatives were elected to the Portuguese Constitutional Courts (Cortes Constitucionais Portuguesas). Name: eIndependence_of_Brazil Message: Declaration of Brazil's independence by Prince Pedro, regent on 7 September 1822. His Guard of Honor greets him in support while some discard blue and white armbands that represented loyalty to Portugal. (2, 21, 1) ***Crusader*** Message: “God wills it.Non Nobis, Domine, Sed Nomini Tuo DaGloriam.“ (167, 183, 1) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ===={Current selected side color :Red Britain}==== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (116, 229, 1) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= ={Current selected side color : purple south America }= ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (95, 202, 1) ***Event*** Message: ========================== ======={ Map current version: 2.0}======= =={Current selected side color :teal north America}== ===Welcome to HoMM3 map Atlantic Revolutions=== {I}. Thank you for trusting and running the map successfully! This map is actually G size, the original map list does not support the display of the 'G' character, so show 'XL' there! The production of this map took Napoleonic war history enthusiasts, game Modder，HoMM3 map producer SIRGENTspent three years to complete Due to the special size of the map, You need to open this map using the unleased map editor [Map official website]HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz The official website is equal to the online version of the map bible of this map. You can also click '下载大西洋月刊-地图宝典电子书本地版' at the bottom right of the official website to Download Atlantic Monthly - Map Bible Ebook local version for a better reading experience. All the files related to the Atlantic map, as well as the English 3 game body, SoD_SP patch, Unleashed map editor, etc., can be downloaded and updated for free on the Atlantic map website forever. Any questions or suggestions, please leave comment or directly contact the chief creator @SIRGENT [Official Email] :SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {II}. Important parameters [Game Version]: Shadow of Death (SoD)3.2 or 4.0 [Required patch]:HD 3.8 or higher (latest HD is 5.4); SoD_Sp plugin [Map Size]: Double Layer Giant size (252*252*2) [H3M size]: greater than 2MB [Map text information]: nearly 1,500,000 words [Production time]:3000+Hours [Mapping tools]:Unleashed Map Editor(You need this editor to open the H3M file of this map) Note1:This map does not support 'validate map' in the editor. Some people may ask, "so Isn't it possible that there are bugs in the map that you haven't checked? Please rest assured that there are no bugs in this map, only that the map is too large and the 'validate map' function component is a bit overwhelmed, of course, we already checked the bugs by deeper technical method! Note2:This is important，It mustn’t be HOTA!Hota seems to Compatible with any SOD super map，Nah!It can not compatible with this map anyway, by using Hota may seem like you can run this map,However that is a false!As the game progresses or when loading the GM1 file, errors will be reported, so there is no need to try Hota to run this map, which has proved not to be feasible {III}. Style and Labels [Mapping style]: Magic Surrealism [Background of the story]: Atlantic Revolution era(1775-1825) [Main plot]: North American War of Independence, the French Revolution,Napoleonic Wars, South American War of Independence [Plot category]: History War/Epic/Historical [Aspect of the hero]:Celebrity legend biography [Game Mode]: eight sides Scuffle style+Strategy Role-Playing Game [Whether is a sea map]: Yes [Map difficulty]: Impossible [Optional sides] : Eight countries. Red - the British Empire; blue - France (a period of revolutionary France to the napoleon Empire); brown - the Holy Roman Empire (that is, Habsburg Austria); green - Tsarist Russia Empire; orange - Spain Portugal dual kingdom (in fact, the two do not have excessive relations or even war - see the 1801 Spanish-Portuguese Orange War, but because this figure puts the two countries in this period of the characters in a camp for the sake of); purple - South American independence forces (led by Bolivar(Tazar) and the St. Martin(Gerwurf)); teal - North American Continental Army (North American independence actually earlier than this figure on timeline) The main plot line of the starting point of more than ten years in 1789, but still in a parallel way by the cyan and red together as the first chapter of their respective interpretation and presentation, after the completion of the red to open the second chapter of the French Revolutionary War of the first anti-French alliance, cyan to open the subsequent Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 and other later chapters); pink - the Kingdom of Sweden (why Sweden, not Prussia? Yes, it is Sweden, Prussia was a second-rate country in that period, so no Prussia was established. As for the small number of Prussian generals, such as Blücher, who exist in the hero pool of this map, they all merged into the green Tsarist camp, including Clausewitz, and they did all flee to serve in the Russian army after being defeated by Napoleon. In addition, Sweden was in a golden age during that era, with a prominent position in the West in terms of literature and technology, with apprentices of the Enlightened Sages such as Linnaeus spreading across both sides of the Atlantic; militarily the Swedish army was capable of defeating the Russian navy at sea (see Sweden Chapter 1, 1788, for the Russo-Swedish naval battle, and on land for the European land war), and especially the " Traitor" Marshal Bernadotte as vampire heroes Vokial to join the Swedish camp, will be with other Swedish literati scholars scientists inventors tower mage heroes such as Berzelius together make Sweden this camp to small country identity Centre position to join the map. {IV}. Product introduction [Map official website]: HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz [Official Email]:SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn #Map file:.h3m files of main map Atlantic Revolutions and each submap (e.g. 1797 Northern Italy Campaign) #Installation version:SoD_SP+Unleashed Map Editor+Map file+ #Zip package version:Same as above #BGM:Western court and military marches music in the eighteenth century style ,which carefully selected to match the atmosphere of the map #Map bible:In order to fully illustrate the plot of the map and many other details, we developed a special introduction to the Atlantic Revolutions, also rich in vivid audio-visual and text hyperlinks. We also adopted the long-term monthly serialization, following the famous #Hero Portrait Pack:That is, this map 156 heroes' avatars (even if the same person, their big avatar and small avatar are different, a total of 312 pcx files), after hundreds of hours of production.The source material and final effect give consideration to the real historical figures and the artistic images of film and television. It is highly recommended that you can use them! #h3.CT:This is the CT script to activate the ninth moveable hero (usually the maximum number of moveable heroes is 8) and you need to install the cheat engine to use it.Great value for XL and larger map lovers. [Map official website]Acts as the online version of the Atlantic Revolutions Map bible (we recommend downloading the local version)。Any questions or suggestions on the use of the product please contact[Official Email] {V}. Walkthrough Video [Map official website] Provides Atlantic Revolutions Walkthrough Video address collection (long-term supplement) Or Login on youtube and search for'Homm III Atlantic Revolutions' to watch our map cinematic Promotional/Introduction video! Note that the hot air balloon that was featured in the Blue France Live Walkthrough Video, as well as all previous new appearance of the model in the map, have been undercarriage as Collector's Editions. From now on the map no longer relies on specific .lod files. No new appearance of the model anymore. Of course, with or without the new appearance of the model, the actual features behind them have always been the original SOD objects and buildings {VI}.It is worth mentioning that in the past, all kinds of large-scale maps often got stuck slowly or even died when they were waiting for the turn to pass, which was caused by the design defects of the map itself (for example, the map terrain was too simple, the mirror symmetry was high, As a result, AI will find multiple routes with the same value return, wander around some portals for an infinite loop, and map glitch bugs (such as object overlap);The most advanced map MOD team in the HoMM3 industry has verified that the map is BUG free from the code layer, and due to the uneven terrain of the map, we are proud to state that the map has multiple sets of portals and the AI can get the magic of”Dimension Door” and”Fly” in the mid and late stages, and the map still passes smoothly every turn, never getting stuck or reporting errors.Many maps used to have played for a long time, and when it is operating a few months in the game, it gets stuck in when endding turns, they have to repair the GM1 file on the player's mentality is a huge beat; And by choosing this map, you no longer need to worry about these situations. Eight sides are able to run smoothly for more than 24 months by fast- endding-game turns test !!! Welcome to send feedback and suggestions, please contact Email SIRGENT@Stateofwar.cn {VII}. This map can be called the HoMM3 community version of the map,There are a number of Hero communities domestic and overseas took part in to work together to complete;The main author spent Over 3000 Hours on his own production;As of now, the credits of this map include, but are not limited to, the following individuals: [Main principal]:@SIRGENT [Mapping Instructor]:@Rosekavalier [Technical Support]:@爱的燃火 @热血雄鹰 @贤知有您 [Project Design]:@现充鲶鱼小弟 @刘舰长 @佑 [Literature Support]:@Julie [Map Test]:@小胖哥 @Z_yj bravo @骨龙进化论 @Panda @9号 The above members are considered members of the Atlantic Mapping Team [Special Thanks]:@VL @彩虹组 @EvilP @Tmp001 @云斯 @Songfx @乌兰巴托大海怪 @跳来跳去的花 @思源 @麦田 @火神艾杰特 @凯旋战史 @撕咬撕咬 @墓冢虎 @老黑 @虎牙小呆 @1917 And many retweeting supporters and unsung heroes who are not on the above list ==Start the most splendid battle of your life== {i}. The Atlantic Revolution was a revolutionary wave of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic world from the 1760s to the 1870s. This map focuses on the North American War of Independence from 1775, when the first shots were fired at Lexington, through the Revolutionary Revolution that took place in France on July 14, 1789, the Napoleonic Wars in Europe from 1799 to 1815, and the South American War of Independence that began in 1810. In a short span of more than thirty years, the endless chronicles of revolutions and wars are like the rushing waves of the Atlantic Ocean, pushing the fate of countless people in the tragic and magnificent world of the West in the age of steam, in the midst of war and peace, into a magnificent chapter. Therefore, the Chinese name of the map is '大西洋革命战纪’,And the English name is 'Atlantic Revolutions’. More importantly ,It has been 20 years since the history of the HoMM3 map making, and the map plots in the forums at home and abroad have a variety of Chinese and foreign historical themes. In the historical epic biographies and other maps, there are some maps from the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the Great Voyages, to the Second World War, etc., but only the Napoleonic Wars theme, which is widely discussed by chess players, has been blank。That's reason we creat this map and meaning you choose this map. {ii}.Atlantic Revolutions is a map with the theme of Strategic history/war plot puzzle solving (Strategy Role-Playing Game).The total storyline basing on history,is divided into the main storyline and several branch storylines, and the various battles on the storyline line are like a mission，The main plot line for each sides is serially evolved, designed and implemented with a series of quest guards, which act as a set of triggers. So player will encounter a lot of quest guards on the map, whose unlocking requirements often require defeating some monsters (their Coordinates is detailed in the eBook - clearance Strategies), and many of them come with a time limit. As an important part of the trigger, these guards should show the specific coordinates of the front and back triggers when been visited , but at this stage you need to get the coordinate information through the map bible (you can also search for the guards and NPCs of its predecessor trigger by understanding the history combined with the plot tips of the guard to the location where the battle took place). Of course, there is a more convenient way benefit by SODSP patch, you can now hold down the ALT key position, while using the right mouse button to click on a guard, you will be able to clearly know the guard's pre-task NPC in what direction.The future map version 2.0 will be complete with all the pre-task guards and NPCs orientation coordinates registered to the guards . Generally the longer deadline the duration of the guards corresponding to the later battles of the Napoleonic Wars, the shorter deadline the duration of the guards of the French Revolution episodes, overall it is very flexible, no particular unreasonable duration of the guards, you go to the plot line, generally can be completed in time for the expiration.The duration of each guard is strictly in accordance with the History - game time scale conversion set by this map for conversion, see the map bible for details. {iii}. What happens if you don't go through the main storyline? Nothing. Purely from the perspective of the game, players can find ways to obtain fly and dimension door spell,you can just use fly spell to visit the keymasters tents, so as to defeat all the enemies on the map, or to achieve a special victory .The special victory method for this map is described in the 14th special victorv guide of the clearancestrategy of the map bible ebook. A significant portion of those military heroes associated with the historical storyline of the war are located in prisons on the map, you can open the guards to rescue them if following the plot line while only be able to rescue them after visiting the keymaster's tent of the corresponding color if not following the main plot. The remaining heroes that can be recruited directly from the hero pool tend to be scientists and artists. It's not that the heroes in the prisons were actually prisoners at the time, it's just that the map plot arranged for them to join the player at some point in the plot in this way. We created a complete and detailed archive of the 156 heroes of the Atlantic Revolutions, which would have taken enough time to create an XL map. Enter the following URL for online browsing:HoMM3.AtlanticRevolutions.xyz/hero.html. Then, since you dont need to follow the main plot, then how can this map still be considered an RPG map? It still counts as an RPG map, because in addition to the heroes locked in prison, almost all the heroes in the hero pool also have exclusive seer Huts to reflect their life history and achievements, and to receive the game's generous rewards; there are also plenty of branch plots that can be done at any time. These are all RPG manifestations.(RPG means Role play game) {iv}.If you follow the main storyline to win the map, the eight sides clearance strategy in the Atlantic Monthly (Map bible eBook) will not only help players to visit the various Keymaste r's tents on the main plot until they visit the ultimate black keymaster's tent and take over the whole map, but also keep rescuing some heroic characters (includingNapoleon fromthe map's prisons, and will also let playersknow a lot about the content of the branchplot. {v}. To summarize, these so-called historical episodes are just an epic that I have laid out in the map based on the history of the Atlantic Revolution, it is not necessary and must not be completed by the player,Open the bible e-book - clearance strategy, you will find that each country's plot is difficult to really get down step by step to complete according to the tips, it is more like for real history lovers, ordinary players are recommended to ignore, and take the approach described in iii to experience the map and pass the map. And because of the History - game time scale conversion, the time limits of the quest guards on those plot lines will also make it much more difficult to execute the plot lines. In addition, those creature's amount in plotline battles faced by the player with a high degree of reproduction of these Napoleonic era war battles on both sides of the battlefield (usually tens of thousands), so it is also a question of whether you can win. Fortunately, you don't have to care too much. But why did the map still go to great lengths to design these plots that could be ignored by players? Because this brings the literary and historical nature of the map to its ideal state, but allows players to still end up playing A Viking We Shall Go as freely as they did to build up national power, economy, and military strength in search of victory, And this map has a high degree of randomness (reflected in the whole map wild creatures' high randomness). Of course, this map surpasses A Viking We Shall Go by several levels in terms of geographical refinement. {vi}. The last thing to say is that the whole history of the Atlantic Revolution is full of bloodshed and hardship. The map has not been deliberately increased difficulty, everything is based on history to design, such as the computer player surge events are also set according to the size of the conscription order of a country at the time. And after players test reflect, the final difficulty factor and the existing map side-by-side comparison, probably already in a more ideal higher difficulty range, certainly not that extremely difficult map, while certainly much more difficult than the A Viking We Shall Go. So in the end you will find that to win and to operate your business on the vast map space is not destined to be an easy task, and perhaps you will also pay for it for months or years to perform that magnificent revolutionary history in this magical world. Please consider this map as the ultimate battlefield, please use all the guerrilla methods and all kinds of combat methods of HoMM3 that you have mastered.It is full of challenges. I wish you the best of luck when you really get through, to overcome all the difficulties and to succeed! --SIRGENT,2022.07.14 {vii}.Now, officially enter the map. The story rewinds and time is about to go back more than two hundred years. Vision through The {Le Rouge et le Noir}, Whether Portal {A Tale of Two Cities}? The Mirth can not hide the {Les Miserables}, Knights of {Pride have no Prejudice }or regret! =About the object model of this map= {1}.All the objects in this map that look different from the original model are in no way the result of any error happend from the models itself, but are in the result of modified one by one ，for designing requirement. All the objects that have been modified ended up with no problems at all! They contributed a lot to the realizes of many designings of the map! Homm3 is a numerical game, In more sense a checkerboard game! Please read the following and go to the map to experience a few examples of model modify, and you will really begin to understand how many design goals that would have required a large map area and a large number of objects to put into effect without model changes were successfully achieved with as small an area and as few objects as possible with some model changes! {2}.For example, you are not destined to visit any of the tents in tent area, because those guards expire before you can not finish collecting the resources required by the guards! But when you play as the blue and purple powers, you will receive resources the next day that will be used to allow your heroes in the tent area to open the special guards, enter the portal and leave the tent area for the location set in the plot! Of course, this still does not help on visiting tents in the tent area.And , many of the objects on this map seem to have some discrepancies between the appearance of the model mapping and the actual function, and there seems to be some misalignment in the enter grid of the objects.So is this map’s model messy or The appearance is messy? In fact, not chaotic/messy at all, and the map's logic is highly organized. The shape of many objects is not can not be changed back to the original, but many logical design of this map, must need to transform the model, change the obstacle points, to achieve a series of plot triggers design, so must change the appearance to ocupy the grids. That is, to ensure that the logic is correct, the appearance of some sacrifice, some 'chaos', please do not feel unreasonable, when reading the appearance of these objects look 'chaotic' after the text information, you can find that the map's re-modeling of objects is usually very reasonable. {3}. All these designs are not designed to hide the road or to hide the artifact (some map authors do often change the map to hide the road to hide the artifact , through the appearance to confuse players deliberately so that players can not find a artifact ), but to complete the design (aimed at building a large number of plot triggers effect) and deliberately carried out. {4}.The following is cases study to illustrate that a series of modifications to the external viewpoint of the model mapping in the Atlantic Revolutions is a deliberate design to complete many designs. Case A: The opening keymater's tent area. ''This area alone has multiple border guard access grids (yellow grid) and impassable grid (red grid in the editor) look extremely abnormal and misaligned. Is this a map mistake? Or even if this would be equivalent, why did you have to change the access grid etc. to be inconsistent with the normal situation? Is it a deliberate attempt to make things difficult for players? ''Of course not, the real reason is because the chief tent area is in the bottom right corner of the background pattern "La Liberte guidant le peuple" range, in order to make the background pattern on the thumbnail display intact, the chief tent area was built here, the land under its feet (i.e., the landscape and terrain) can no longer be changed. In this way, to perform a set of quite complex tent logic design in a small limited space (human can not open the first day of each guard while the computer heroes need to take turns to go out to visit their color-specific tent and visit the black tent together, and then leave the chief tent area through a one-way portal-- It is necessary to make changes to the access grid and the non-passable grid, in short, each border here In short, we will take every border guard and chief tent model here, first arrange them to the right position to make the overall visual appearance of coordination, and then try to eliminate some of their excess red unpassable grid, and then through repeated debugging, to get the best deployment point of the yellow access grid. At the same time, ensure that the chief tent area has a pathway for the computer heroes to visit the tent and enter the one-way portal to leave and go to the main structure of the map without any obstruction. Case B: red player hero Dracon birthplace. ''Just started this map in this place a little inadvertent Deken can not move, the wisdom stone is also the underground gate fake, feel fooled by the author in general. ''In fact, it is not. This place geographically corresponds to the shores of Lake Geneva, 1789 French Revolution this year (the map of the main plot of multiple forces common starting point) Prince Edward (the biological father of Queen Victoria) in a Masonic degree and graduation in Geneva. The Masonic lodges and their many internal functions, which are widely distributed in the map, could not be fully developed on the surface of a certain location, so they were moved underground to the corresponding location for construction. In this case, if the original model of the underground entrance had been used, it would have looked particularly obtrusive because of the large size of the model blocking the entire lake, so the appearance of the underground entrance was replaced by the appearance of the Wisdom Stone (the symbol of Freemasonry is also a mason). Other examples: a lot of things that look like a griffin castle but are actually a sign showing geographic information and a garrison site. The appearance of the Dragon Kingdom but the actual interior hides a variety of other recruitment buildings, and a series of seemingly invisible guards that form the trigger for the map's plot flow and so on. The map is a series of seemingly invisible and untouchable level guards and so on. The concept is the same as in Case A and Case B, that is, due to the limited overall space, it is necessary to keep the landscape and terrain intact on a large scale, and when it comes to these specific locations, it is necessary to break the functional structure of each location into multiple small packages, and then use the selected suitable appearance as the final integrated model carrier (e.g. a griffin castle squat that is not a griffin castle, or a superimposed dragon kingdom that actually has more than one dragon kingdom). {5}. please believe that this map all kinds of model mapping external point of view modifications are repeatedly tested, there is no any bug, there is no any red and yellow grid overlap situation (the situation once there is a bug of the existence of the map will lead to jump code when entering). There is never any superfluous model mapping outside the point of view design, because the goal is mostly to make a variety of plot triggers and carried out, all the design has been tested, the effectiveness of the trigger to achieve good. Just does affect the traditional planning, it is recommended to master more laws such as more use of the right mouse button to view the essence of the object properties! {6}. In short, any place you can't understand at once even if you don't understand and don't want to understand its design meaning, please be sure that are designed after repeated polishing, there will not be any bugs, but also absolutely have access to the way and stepping point. The appearance looks ''chaotic'' but the inner step (red and yellow grid) is not only not chaotic but highly ordered, highly orderly and contains a high degree of logic. {7}. The last thing I want to say is that if you follow the rules completely, it is difficult to have a long life of more than twenty years. All kinds of maps that break the norm, and all kinds of new mods with new types of soldiers and new ways of playing, all contain more or less innovation. Although this map is only the original version, not really model innovation, but in order to produce a large number of plot triggers effect when the mapping of objects and step modifications are not lost as an innovation, it help the map to save a lot of space from each limited local space, so that after the huge story plots system is organically integrated into a seemingly dense but highly ordered map, there also remain a huge space for the map 's 8xm8 map plate (Napoleon cross the Alps pattern area and La Liberte guidant le peuple pattern area ，in the underground part of the map) to be built and successful layout., so during your hard exploration of the map will also reap the unprecedented game experience! You will feel that once you break through the start area, you will face a 8xm8 map style European battlefield, its geographic realism is as exquisite as the Europa Universalis series! And all the triggers related to the plot content of this map have been properly set into it, they completely do not block of the roads of the map! #SoD_Sp patch# SoD_Sp patch powerful multi-functional Alt key: while holding down the Alt key of the keyboard, and then right click on the following various objects, it will allow you to anticipate the specific content of the corresponding object, and then you will clearly see object's information and content,the object can be of any type, for example: Sign: the information content of the sign Garrison: details of the garrison of that garrison (the enemy force is even larger at a glance) Quest Guard: if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means looking for the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Prophet's Hut: similar to Quest Guard, if it shows creatures + white numbers, it means to find the number of creatures with white numbers; if it has red coordinates below, it asks to visit the group of creatures at the red coordinates Pandora's Box: full details of the contents of this Pandora's Box (information, guards, rewards such as magic and creatures, etc.) Town: Note that you have to right-click on the town's entrance grid to get visual details of the town's resident heroes and defenders, as well as what skills come out of the town's magic tower at each level Heroes: information about the specific strength index of that enemy hero And when you move the mouse over any object, the coordinate value of that object on the map will appear at the bottom of the screen (you can press F12 to bring up the SoD_Sp patch panel to turn off the coordinate function). For example, if it shows (114,125,1), it means that the object is located on the map at X coordinate 114, Y coordinate 125, and 1 represents the subterranean layer (if it is 0, it represents the surface layer) The guidelines for this map Atlantic Revolutionas involve a lot of coordinate orientation information, so be sure to keep the coordinates feature of the SoD_Sp patch turned on! SoD_Sp patch's powerful Find Objects feature: Press Ctrl+F and check the button in the pop-up panel to select any type of object and search for its location in the map! (20, 18, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of New York Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of New York You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Grand Lodge of New York,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (22, 18, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the Atlantic revolutionary era,influential {Freemason}s helped to further the 18th century intellectual movement known as The Enlightenment that promoted ideas such as equality, freedom and tolerance. Later, during the revolutions and wars on both sides of the Atlantic, {{Freemason}ry} became the driving force behind many revolutions and the cooperative partners of some revolutionary organizations and groups. The members of the the {Freemason}s must conduct themselves with duty and honor. Please show the gesture of {{Freemason}ry} {Freemason} ideals penetrated and influenced many revolutionary groups and organizations behind the revolution. The Society of the Cincinnati established. (20, 19, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of New York Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Grand Lodge of New York Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (19, 19, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of New York Degrees of Fellowcraft of Grand Lodge of New York Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (18, 19, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Independent Order of Odd Fellows--The Independent Order of Odd Fellows (IOOF) is a non-political and non-sectarian international fraternal order of Odd Fellowship. It was founded in 1819 by Thomas Wildey in Baltimore, Maryland, United States.It was founded in 1819 by Thomas Wildey in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Evolving from the Order of Odd Fellows founded in England during the 1700s, the IOOF was originally chartered by the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity in England but has operated as an independent organization since 1842, although it maintains an inter-fraternal relationship with the English Order. The order is also known as the Triple Link Fraternity, referring to the order's "Triple Links" symbol, alluding to its motto "Friendship, Love and Truth" While several unofficial Odd Fellows Lodges had existed in New York City circa 1806-1818, because of its charter relationship, the American Odd Fellows is regarded as being founded with Washington Lodge No 1 in Baltimore at the Seven Stars Tavernon April 26, 1819, by Thomas Wildey along with some associateswho assembled in response to an advertisement in the New Republic. The following year, the lodge affiliated with the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity and was granted the authority to institute new lodges. Previously, Wildey had joined the Grand United Order of Oddfellows (1798-) in 1804 but followed through with the split of Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity (1810-) before immigrating to the United States in 1817. Beyond fraternal and recreational activities, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows promotes the ethic of reciprocity and charity, by implied inspiration of Judeo-Christian ethics.Over the next half-century, also known as the "Golden age of fraternalism" in America, the Odd Fellows became the largest among all fraternal organizations, (at the time, even larger than {{Freemason}ry}). By the late nineteenth century, the Order had spread to most of the rest of the world, establishing lodges in the Americas, Australasia, and Europe.In 1896, the World Almanac showed the Odd Fellows as the largest among all fraternal organizations. Compared to Masonic lodges, membership in the Odd Fellows lodges tended to be more common among the lower middle class and skilled workers and less common among the wealthy white collar workers and professionals.The need for the social work of the Odd Fellows never declined. (185, 34, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (156, 242, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (167, 175, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Double assassination attempt on George III 15 May 1800.On 15 May 1800, George III went to Hyde Park to review the 1st Foot Guards. During the review, a shot was fired which narrowly missed the King. Mr Ongley, a clerk in the Navy Office, who was standing only a few paces away, was struck, and it was said that “had the wound been two inches higher it must have been mortal.” Unperturbed, the King visited the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, in the evening with the Queen and other members of the royal family. When the arrival of the King was announced, the band, as usual, played 'God save the King'. I was standing at the stage-door, opposite the royal box, to see His Majesty. The moment he entered the box, a man in the pit, next the orchestra, on the right hand, stood up on the bench, and discharged a pistol at our august Monarch, as he came to the front of the box. Never shall I forget His Majesty’s coolness - the whole audience was in an uproar. The King, on hearing the report of the pistol, retired a pace or two, stopped, and stood firmly for an instant; then came forward to the very front of the box, put his opera-glass to his eye, and looked round the house, without the smallest appearance of alarm or discomposure. The culprit is secured The orchestral performers seized the perpetrator - an ex-soldier named James Hadfield who was later judged insane Despite the Lord Chamberlain urging him to retire, George III determined to remain and see the performance. (166, 178, 1) ***Necropolis*** Name: London Timed events: Name: eFrench visitors Message: French visitors came to England during The Period of Consolidation of Treaty of Amiens Name: eLoveofOurCountry Message: On 4 November of 1789, Richard Price watched the French Revolution, and felt that it was fulfilling prophecies of his millennialist belief, that a great change was going to transform humanity.The Revolution Society was formed in support of overthrow of King James II a century earlier, the "Glorious Revolution", and on that date was celebrating the birthday of William III, who had displaced him. Price compared the French Revolution to that event, much as he had previously defended the American Revolution, despite living in the country at war against it. To express this, he wrote a speech"A Discourse on the Love of Our Country", starts out by establishing that he believes in patriotism, love of one's own country. This speech was quickly picked up by pamphleteers, printed in London and Boston, spurring responses both by supporters and critics in a flurry of debate known as the Revolution Controversy. Name: e17890828 Message: On 28 August,1789,William Herschel discovers Enceladus by the 40-foot telescope which costs ￡4,000 Name: e17900213Edmund Burke Message: On 13 February 1790,Edmund Burke, a dominant and dynamic member of Parliament who had argued in the 1770s against taxing the American colonies, publishes Reflections on the Revolution of France, which condemns the revolution as the beginning of mob rule by "the swinish multitude," and argues against all change that does not work in accordance with the 1688 Glorious Revolution. Whatever is not traditional, in other words, is unnatural, and therefore evil, unbritish, and unpatriotic. Burke's book produces no less than 36 responses, among them responses by Mary Wollstonecraft, Joseph Priestly, and Thomas Paine Name: e17900616Britishgeneralelection Message: The general election was held between 16 June 1790 and 28 July 1790.This was the first general election after the law had been changed in 1785 to limit the maximum duration of polling in county elections to fifteen days. Name: eRightsofMan Message: On 13 March,1791,Thomas Paine's Rights of Man was published.It sold as many as one million copies and was "eagerly read by reformers, Protestant dissenters, democrats, London craftsman, and the skilled factory-hands of the new industrial north" Rights of Man (1791), a book by Thomas Paine, including 31 articles, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard the natural rights of its people. Using these points as a base it defends the French Revolution against Edmund Burke's attack in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). Name: e1792Charles Stanley Message: In 1792,The investment management business in London which will become the Charles Stanley Group is established. Name: eEnlistmentAct1794玩家增兵 Message: After 9 May 1794,The Enlistment Act 1794 (also known as the Emigrant Corps Bill or Act) which allowed the British government to create regiments of emigres from France Received Royal Assent. Name: e1794TreasonTrials Message: In November 1794 the Treason Trials, arranged by the administration of William Pitt, were intended to cripple the British radical movement of the 1790s.The British government, headed by Prime Minister Pitt, begins to arrest anyone publishing anything criticizing the government. Initially the men were confined to the Tower of London, but they were moved to Newgate prison. Those charged with treason faced the brutal punishment of hanging, drawing and quartering if convicted: each would have been "hanged by the neck, cut down while still alive, disembowelled (and his entrails burned before his face) and then beheaded and quartered".The entire radical movement was also on trial. Name: eTheRatcliffeFire Message: The Ratcliffe Fire took place in July 1794 when a smaller fire ignited a barge loaded with saltpetre. The conflagration that followed destroyed over 400 homes and 20 warehouses and left 1000 people homeless. Name: eWilliam V, Prince of Orange's exile Message: On 18 January,1795,William V, Prince of Orange, flees the Dutch Republic for exile at Kew. Name: eTreasonablPracticeAct Message: November 1795-Parliament passes the Treasonable Practices Act and the Seditious Meetings Act--Pitt introduces the Two Acts, which ban all assemblies of over 50 people, and make resisting any effort to break up a meeting by a magistrate punishable by death. Name: eactunion Message: On1 August ,1800,Acts of Union 1800: The complementary Union with Ireland Act 1800, an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, and Act of Union (Ireland) 1800, an Act of the Parliament of Ireland, are passed by the respective legislatures, to unite the Kingdom of Ireland and Kingdom of Great Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Name: eHorse Guards Parade Message: On 4 June,1805,the first Trooping the Colour ceremony at the Horse Guards Parade in London Name: eSouth Sea Company Message: Founded in January 1711,and since its trade end of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), The South Sea Company's main function was always managing british government debt Name: eSouth Sea Company2 Message: Founded in January 1711,and since its trade end of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), The South Sea Company's main function was always managing british government debt Name: ehaydn Message: On 11 March,1791,Austrian composer Joseph Haydns' first London symphonies, Symphony No. 96, is premièred at the Hanover Square Rooms. Name: eCavalry_Barracks Message: In 1793,Permanent Cavalry Barracks, Hounslow, west London ,established. Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: 220 90’40' 30’20 20'15 5 Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: 320 140'50 45’30 25'20 10 Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: 820 380’140 100'80 55’45 20 Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1020 430’170 120'110 85’70 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2520 930’420 370'310 235’170 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3020 1080’520 420'360 285’220 135 Name: 玩家增兵1-3月 Message: The die is now cast; the colonies must either submit or triumph.... we must not retreat. Name: 玩家增兵4-6月 Message: Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North, The birth-place of Valour, the country of Worth; Wherever I wander, wherever I rove, The hills of the Highlands for ever I love. Name: 玩家增兵7-9月 Message: “The King’s Ships Were at Sea” Name: 玩家增兵10-12月 Message: “Child of the House of Commons” Name: 玩家增兵13-18月 Message: “War of the Unknown Warriors” Name: 玩家增兵19月- Message: If I should die, think only this of me: That there’s some corner of a foreign field That is forever England. Name: Ai主城满建 Message: (65, 63, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: October 26,1795, Bonaparte is named commander in chief of the Army of the Interior. (194, 2, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: For tapperhet till sjoss ("For Valour at Sea") (193, 2, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: For tapperhet i falt ("For Valour in the Field") (157, 138, 1) ***Pendant of Courage*** Message: The Military Order of Maria Theresa (German: Milit?r-Maria-Theresien-Orden; Hungarian: Katonai Mária Terezia-rend; Czech: Vojensky ?ád Marie Terezie; Polish: Wojskowy Order Marii Teresy; Slovene: Voja?ki red Marije Terezije; Croatian: Vojni Red Marije Terezije) was the highest military honour of the Habsburg Monarchy, Austrian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire. (170, 168, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of the Bath The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate medieval ceremony for appointing a knight, which involved bathing (as a symbol of purification) as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as "Knights of the Bath". George I "erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order". He did not (as is commonly believed) revive the Order of the Bath,since it had never previously existed as an Order, in the sense of a body of knights who were governed by a set of statutes and whose numbers were replenished when vacancies occurred. The Order consists of the Sovereign (currently Queen Elizabeth II), the Great Master (currently Charles, Prince of Wales)[9] and three Classes of members: Knight Grand Cross (GCB) or Dame Grand Cross (GCB) Knight Commander (KCB) or Dame Commander (DCB) Companion (CB) Members belong to either the Civil or the Military Division. Prior to 1815, the order had only a single class - Knight Companion (KB) - which no longer exists. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior military officers or senior civil servants.Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members. The Order of the Bath is the fourth-most senior of the British Orders of Chivalry, after The Most Noble Order of the Garter, The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, and The Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick (dormant). (169, 168, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of St Patrick The Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick is a dormant British order of chivalry associated with Ireland. The Order was created in 1783 by King George III at the request of the then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, The 3rd Earl Temple (later created Marquess of Buckingham). The regular creation of knights of the Order lasted until 1922, when most of Ireland gained independence as the Irish Free State, a dominion within what was then known as the British Commonwealth of Nations. While the Order technically still exists, no knight of St Patrick has been created since 1936, and the last surviving knight, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, died in 1974. Elizabeth II, however, remains the Sovereign of the Order, and one officer, the Ulster King of Arms (now represented in the office of Norroy and Ulster King of Arms), also survives. St Patrick is patron of the order; its motto is Quis separabit?, Latin for "Who will separate [us]?": an allusion to the Vulgate translation of Romans 8:35, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ?" Most British orders of chivalry cover the entire United Kingdom, but the three most exalted ones each pertain to one constituent country only. The Order of St Patrick, which pertains to Ireland, is the most junior of these three in precedence and age. Its equivalent in England, the Most Noble Order of the Garter, is the oldest order of chivalry in the British Isles, dating from the mid fourteenth century. The Scottish equivalent is the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, dating in its present form from 1687. (168, 168, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of the Thistle The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle is an order of chivalry associated with Scotland. The current version of the Order was founded in 1687 by King James VII of Scotland (James II of England and Ireland) who asserted that he was reviving an earlier Order. The Order consists of the Sovereign and sixteen Knights and Ladies, as well as certain "extra" knights (members of the British Royal Family and foreign monarchs). The Sovereign alone grants membership of the Order; he or she is not advised by the Government, as occurs with most other Orders. The Order's primary emblem is the thistle, the national flower of Scotland. The motto is Nemo me impune lacessit (Latin for "No one provokes me with impunity").The same motto appears on the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom for use in Scotland and some pound coins, and is also the motto of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, the Scots Guards, the Royal Regiment of Scotland, and The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada. The patron saint of the Order is St Andrew. Most British orders of chivalry cover the whole United Kingdom, but the three most exalted ones each pertain to one constituent country only. The Order of the Thistle, which pertains to Scotland, is the second most senior in precedence. Its equivalent in England, the Most Noble Order of the Garter, is the oldest documented order of chivalry in the United Kingdom, dating to the middle fourteenth century. In 1783 an Irish equivalent, the Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick, was founded, but it is now dormant. (167, 168, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: Order of the Garter The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. It is the most senior order of knighthood in the British honours system, outranked in precedence only by the Victoria Cross and the George Cross. The Order of the Garter is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George, England's patron saint. Appointments are at the sovereign's sole discretion and are usually in recognition of a national contribution, for public service, or for personal service to the sovereign. Membership of the order is limited to the sovereign, the Prince of Wales, and no more than 24 living members, or Companions. The order also includes supernumerary knights and ladies (e.g., members of the British royal family and foreign monarchs). The order's emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense (Middle French: "Shame on him who thinks evil of it") in gold lettering. Members of the order wear it on ceremonial occasions. (166, 168, 1) ***Crest of Valor*** Message: George Cross The George Cross (GC) is the highest award bestowed by the British government for non-operational gallantry or gallantry not in the presence of an enemy. In the UK honours system, the George Cross is equal in stature to the Victoria Cross, the highest military gallantry award. This has been the case since the introduction of the award in 1940. It is awarded "for acts of the greatest heroism or for most conspicuous courage in circumstance of extreme danger",not in the presence of the enemy, to members of the British armed forces and to British civilians.Posthumous awards have been allowed since it was instituted. It was previously awarded to residents of Commonwealth countries (and in one case to Malta, a colony which subsequently became a Commonwealth country), most of which have since established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians including police, emergency services and merchant seamen. Many of the awards have been personally presented by the British monarch to recipients or, in the case of posthumous awards, to next of kin. These investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. (165, 168, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Victoria Cross The Victoria Cross (VC) is the highest and most prestigious award of the British honours system. It is awarded for valour "in the presence of the enemy" to members of the British Armed Forces. It may be awarded posthumously. It was previously awarded by countries of the Commonwealth of Nations, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians under military command. No civilian has received the award since 1879. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857, two-thirds of all awards have been personally presented by the British monarch. These investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. Victoria Cross The Victoria Cross (VC) is the highest and most prestigious award of the British honours system. It is awarded for valour "in the presence of the enemy" to members of the British Armed Forces. It may be awarded posthumously. It was previously awarded by countries of the Commonwealth of Nations, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians under military command. No civilian has received the award since 1879. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857, two-thirds of all awards have been personally presented by the British monarch. These investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. rule ，britannia ! (237, 207, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Seville Timed events: Name: esuperjunta Message: The Supreme Central and Governing Junta of Spain and the Indies (also known as Supreme Central Junta, the Supreme Council, and Junta of Seville)established on 25 September 1808 following the Spanish victory at the Battle of Bailen and after the Council of Castile declared null and void the abdications of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII done at Bayonne earlier in May. Name: ecortes Message: The General and Extraordinary Cortes that met in the port of Cádiz starting 24 September 1810, "claimed legitimacy as the sole representative of Spanish sovereignty," following the French invasion and occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars and the abdication of the monarch Ferdinand VII and his father Charles IV. When the Cortes convened for the first time on 24 September 1810, 104 deputies were present, 30 representing overseas territories (interim delegates who were living in Spain at the time) of the French invasion. Name: AI主城满建 Message: (239, 207, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Alameda de Hercules,Seville (83, 173, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Quebec City Timed events: Name: eConstitutionalAct1791 Message: On 10 June,1791,Parliament passes the Constitutional Act, splitting the old province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada.The legislative Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec, with its subset Executive Council cabinet, was continued and reinforced by the establishment of freeholder-elected legislative assemblies. These elected assemblies led to a form of representative government in both colonies; the Province of Quebec had not previously had a legislative assembly. Name: e1798summer Message: Joseph-Geneviève de Puisaye and forty-one other settlers departed England for Upper Canada in the summer of 1798.It was expected that this expedition would pave the way for the emigration of thousands of French loyalists. Name: eFrenchloyalists绉绘皯-鐜╁跺炲叺 Message: Emigration of French loyalists new arrived Name: AI增兵1-3月 Message: Name: AI增兵4-6月 Message: Name: AI增兵7-9月 Message: Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: Name: AI增兵19- Message: Name: AI主城满建 Message: (165, 247, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Lima Timed events: Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI1-3 Message: Name: AI4-6 Message: Name: AI7-9 Message: Name: AI10-12 Message: Name: AI13-18 Message: Name: AI19- Message: (163, 246, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Manuela was born on December 27, 1797, the illegitimate child of Simón Sáenz Vergara, a Spanish military officer, and Ecuadorian María Joaquina Aizpurru. Scandalized, her mother’s family threw her out and Manuela was raised and schooled by nuns at the La Concepcion Convent convent in Quito, a place where she would receive a proper upper-class upbringing. Young Manuela caused a scandal of her own when she was forced to leave the convent at the age of 17 when it was discovered that she had been sneaking out to have an affair with a Spanish army officer. She then moved in with her father.In 1814, Manuela's father arranged for her to marry James Thorne, an English doctor who was a good deal older than she was. In 1819 they moved to Lima, then the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Thorne was wealthy, and they lived in a grand home where Manuela hosted parties for Lima’s upper class. In Lima, Manuela met high-ranking military officers and was well-informed about the different revolutions taking place in Latin America against Spanish rule. She sympathized with the rebels and joined the conspiracy to liberate Lima and Peru. 1822, Manuela met Simón Bolívar. Manuela’s impact on the independence movement is greatly underestimated today, as she is remembered mostly as Bolivar's lover. In fact, she actively participated in the planning and funding of a good deal of rebel activity. She fought at Pichincha, Junín, and Ayacucho and was recognized by Sucre himself as an important part of his victories. She often dressed in the uniform of a cavalry officer, complete with a saber. An excellent rider, her promotions were not merely for show. Finally, her effect on Bolívar himself should not be underestimated: many of his greatest moments came in the eight years they were together.In Lima, Peru, in 1819 where she lived as an aristocrat and held social gatherings in her home where guests included political leaders and military officers ,These guests shared military secrets about the ongoing revolution with her, and, in 1819, when Simón Bolívar took part in the successful liberation of New Granada, Manuela Sáenz was radicalized and an active member in the conspiracy against the viceroy of Perú, Jose de la Serna e Hinojosa during 1820. (98, 194, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: New York City Timed events: Name: e18120618-鐜╁跺炲叺 Message: The government called out 450,000 men from the state militias during the war of 1812 Name: eJosephPriestley Message: Joseph Priestley arrived in New York City on 4 June 1794, where he were fêted by various political factions vying for Priestley's endorsement Name: e1776fire Message: The Great Fire of New York -- a devastating fire that burned through the night of September 20, 1776, and into the morning of September 21, on the West Side of what then constituted New York City at the southern end of the island of Manhattan. It broke out in the early days of the military occupation of the city by British forces during the American Revolutionary War. The fire destroyed about 10 to 25 percent of the buildings in the city, while some unaffected parts of the city were plundered. Many people believed or assumed that one or more people deliberately started the fire, for a variety of different reasons. British leaders accused revolutionaries acting within the city and state, and many residents assumed that one side or the other had started it. The fire had long-term effects on the British occupation of the city, which did not end until 1783. Name: eLoyalist refugees Message: After the battle, in which the Americans were defeated, the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America. The city was a haven for Loyalist refugees and escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom newly promised by the Crown for all fighters. As many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation. Name: e1811Commissioners' Plan Message: The Commissioners' Plan of 1811 began--the original design for the streets of Manhattan above Houston Street and below 155th Street, which put in place the rectangular grid plan of streets and lots that has defined Manhattan to this day. It has been called " the single most important document in New York City's development,"during the 19th century, the city was transformed by immigration, a visionary development proposal called the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the Midwestern United States and Canada. Name: AI主城满建 Message: Name: AI1-3 Message: Name: AI4-6 Message: Name: AI7-9 Message: Name: AI10-12 Message: Name: AI13-18 Message: Name: AI19- Message: (168, 208, 1) ***Angel*** Message: The Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance is now under your leadership (172, 208, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Atlantic Revolutions were a revolutionary wave in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was associated with the Atlantic World during the era from the 1760s to the 1870s. In long-term perspective, the revolutions were mostly successful. They spread widely the ideals of liberalism, republicanism, the overthrow of aristocracies, kings and established churches. They emphasized the universal ideals of the Enlightenment, such as the equality of all men, including equal justice under law by disinterested courts as opposed to particular justice handed down at the whim of a local noble. They showed that the modern notion of revolution, of starting fresh with a radically new government, could actually work in practice. Revolutionary mentalities were born and continue to flourish to the present day.Revolutionaries build communities and sought allies on both sides of the transatlantic Atlantic Revolutions took place in both the Americas and Europe, including the United States (1765–1783), Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1788–1792), France and French-controlled Europe (1789–1814), Haiti (1791–1804), Ireland (1798) and Spanish America (1810–1825).[1] There were smaller upheavals in Switzerland, Russia, and Brazil. The revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them. (120, 237, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) The Haitian Revolution (French: revolution ha?tienne French pronunciation: ?[?ev?lysj?? a.i.sj?n]; Haitian Creole: revolisyon ayisyen) was a successful insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolt began on 22 August 1791,[3] and ended in 1804 with the former colony's independence. It involved black, biracial, French, Spanish, British, and Polish participants—with the ex-slave Toussaint Louverture emerging as Haiti's most prominent general. The revolution was the only slave uprising that led to the founding of a state which was both free from slavery (though not from forced labour)[4] and ruled by non-whites and former captives.[5] It is now widely seen as a defining moment in the history of the Atlantic World. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) The revolution's effects on the institution of slavery were felt throughout the Americas. The end of French rule and the abolition of slavery in the former colony was followed by a successful defense of the freedoms the former slaves won and, with the collaboration of already free people of color, their independence from white Europeans.[8][9][10] The revolution represented the largest slave uprising since Spartacus' unsuccessful revolt against the Roman Republic nearly 1,900 years earlier,[11] and challenged long-held European beliefs about alleged black inferiority and about slaves' ability to achieve and maintain their own freedom. The rebels' organizational capacity and tenacity under pressure inspired stories that shocked and frightened slave owners in the hemisphere. (21, 242, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia de Mexico, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from Spain. It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional struggles that occurred within the same period, and can be considered a revolutionary civil war Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Mexican War of Independence (173, 249, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Peruvian War of Independence The Peruvian War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia del Perú) consisted in a series of military conflicts in Peru beginning with viceroy Abascal military victories in the south frontier in 1809, in La Paz revolution and 1811 in the Battle of Guaqui, continuing with the definitive defeat of the Spanish Army in 1824 in the Battle of Ayacucho, and culminating in 1826 with the Siege of Callao.[1] The wars of independence took place with the background of the 1780–1781 uprising by indigenous leader Túpac Amaru II and the earlier removal of Upper Peru and the Río de la Plata regions from the Viceroyalty of Peru. Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the "Lima Oligarchy", who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires. During the first decade of the 1800s Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, who fought those in favor of independence in Peru, Bolivia, Quito and Chile. Among the most important events during the war was the proclamation of independence of Peru by Jose de San Martín on 28 July 1821. Visit the Atlantic Revolutionaries Alliance on the Revolutionary Atlantic first, then we can link these national revolutions by the ocean Peruvian War of Independence (134, 52, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (35, 96, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (156, 107, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (174, 107, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (74, 91, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (159, 88, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (236, 90, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (108, 102, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (94, 165, 1) ***Orb of Vulnerability*** Message: Apple of Eden was one of the numerous artifacts created by the First Civilization to control the minds of their slave race, the humans. After the Toba catastrophe in 75010 BCE, the First Civilization slowly became extinct, and the Pieces of Eden were scattered around the world. (166, 182, 1) ***Event*** Message: Reading,A Deo et Regina With God and Queen (169, 184, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Southampton (170, 182, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (169, 183, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by Red Player. The second guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (168, 183, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (59, 63, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: With the defeat of Napoleon, Louis Joseph returned to Paris, where he resumed his courtly duties as grand ma?tre in the royal household of Louis XVIII. (58, 63, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Six Days' Campaign(Coalition plot) Win Six Days' Campaign(Coalition plot) A letter containing an outline of Napoleon's plan of action was captured by his enemies. The Coalition commanders held a council of war at Pougy on the 23 March and initially decided to follow Napoleon, but the next day Tsar Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick of Prussia along with their advisers reconsidered, and realising the weakness of their opponent, decided to march to Paris ( Talleyrand wrote and informed that Paris is an open city) (148, 143, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung (To Hope Crowned),Vienna Finally in 1790s Emperor Franz II forced the last two Viennese lodges to extinguish their lights, not least due to strengthened relations with the Vatican and from fear of the intrusion French-inspired revolutionaries. Freire was initiated into {{Freemason}ry} before 1785, probably in the Vienna Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung (To Hope Crowned) an organization to which he is known to have belonged together with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart by 1790, attaining the rank of Worshipful Master of the Regeneration. (146, 141, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung Degrees of Entered Apprentice of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung Believe in some kind of Supreme Being (147, 142, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung Grand Master title of honour of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung You win your Degrees of Master Mason of {{Freemason}ry} of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung ,congratulations,"Most Worshipful Grand Master"! (147, 141, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung Degrees of Fellowcraft of Masonic lodge Zur gekronten Hoffnung Take vows on that scripture.Obey the system of morality, allegory and symbols of {{Freemason}ry} (149, 140, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (149, 139, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by tan Player. The second guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (150, 138, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before tan player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (168, 179, 1) ***Event*** Message: St John the Baptist's Church, Crawley (172, 180, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: In 1804, Fulton switched allegiance and moved to Britain, where he was commissioned by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger to build a range of weapons for use by the Royal Navy during Napoleon's invasion scares. Among his inventions were the world's first modern naval "torpedoes" (modern "mines"). (171, 179, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Although our English London was the most populous city in the 18th century, Paris, France, was equally cosmopolitan. Many young Britons are eager to take a trip to Paris to gain an insight into the luxury side of fashion. You need the cabinet to grant you diplomatic status to visit France I have heard that the political situation in Paris has been volatile recently, so you should exercise extra caution in all areas except for exchanging and learning about culture and art. (95, 201, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,officially The Right Worshipful Grand Lodge of the Most Ancient and Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted Masons of Pennsylvania and Masonic Jurisdictions Thereunto Belonging, is the premier masonic organization in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The Grand Lodge claims to be the oldest in the United States, and the third oldest in the world after England (est. 1717) and Ireland (est. 1725), having been originally established as the Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania in 1731. The Demise of the Moderns in Pennsylvania The {{Freemason}ry} of the Moderns Grand Lodge and its daughter lodges in Pennsylvania was eclipsed during the latter half of the 18th century by the rise of the Ancients Grand Lodge and its subordinate lodges. The American Revolutionary War took a great toll on Pennsylvania {{Freemason}ry}, and especially the Moderns' lodges. Beginning before the War some of the Modern Lodges had switched allegiance to the Ancients, e.g. Lodge No. 4 of the Moderns. By the end of the Revolution nearly all the lodges in Pennsylvania owed allegiance to the Ancients. It is impossible to determine precisely when the Moderns' Provincial Grand Lodge folded, but it was gone by 1785. The Masonic Hall, built by the Moderns in 1755 was sold, and the proceeds were placed in a charitable trust and became the "{Freemason}'s Fuel Fund." Thus, we can say that the "Modern" line was grafted onto the "Ancient." As noted above, in a process that began before the Revolutionary War, some Modern Lodges had defected to and were absorbed by the Ancient Provincial Grand Lodge thus making the Ancients the dominant form of {{Freemason}ry} in Pennsylvania. Thanks to your invaluable perseverance, the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania has regained its independence and you have become a new master, congratulations! On 25 September 1786, the Ancient Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania declared itself to be independent of the mother Grand Lodge and closed itself permanently as a provincial grand lodge. The following day, 26 September, the representatives of 13 Ancient lodges met together and reformed the independent Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, headquartered in Philadelphia. (78, 200, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (79, 200, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by teal Player. The second guard before teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before teal player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (80, 200, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (53, 67, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (52, 68, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by blue Player. The second guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (51, 68, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (49, 70, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The box contains a total of three keys - the Pendant of total recall. This artifact is banned from appearing randomly in this map, which means it cannot be obtained on various random occasions, so please make sure to keep these three Pendant of total recall(keys) safe. Please use these three keys (Pendant of total recall) to open three guards to let the blue player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area (just below). (50, 69, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Blue player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area Blue player's key which used to unlock the three guards before red player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area After completing the French opening montage RPG plot, the Great Retreat of 1812 French invade of Russia, Marshal Ney returned to Paris and returned to the main plot line of 1789 of the map ! (50, 65, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: "Why are things always so bad in Spain? "--Napoleon complained "Maybe I need to take a trip to deal with Spain myself! A expedition lead by myself !" -- Napoleon "So who do we send this time? Which corps? My elite Prussian corps or the Poles? The Poles are not doing well in Haiti!I'm going to start preparing for the conquest of Tsarist Russia!" -- said Napoleon (54, 60, 1) ***Cavalier*** Message: "We are Swiss, the Swiss do not part with their arms but with their lives. We think that we do not merit such an insult. If the regiment is no longer wanted, let it be legally discharged. But we will not leave our post, nor will we let our arms be taken from us."-- Swiss Guards of King Louis XVI (54, 61, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Insurrection of 10 August 1792 We need Danton and his Paris Commune! Would you allow foreign hordes to spread like a destroying torrent over your countryside! That they ravage our harvest! That they devastate our fatherland through fire and murder! In a word, that they overcome you with chains dyed with the blood of those whom you hold the most dear... Citizens, the country is in danger! (54, 62, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: We find a detailed document entitled Declaration to the French People prepared by king Louis for presentation to the National Assembly and left behind here in the Tuileries But the king and his royal family members are gone You successfully repatriated The Royal Flight to Varennes back to paris. The Assembly suspends Louis's functions until further notice.The royal family now confined to the Tuileries Palace. (53, 63, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Assembly decrees that the tricolor flag will replace the white flag and fleur-de-lys of the French monarchy as emblem of France. Please let Talleyrand come here--the Tuilerie palace to represent the clergy to assist in the implementation of the ordinances related to the tricolor flag, and publish the Report on Public Instruction A tricolour (British English) or tricolor (American English) is a type of flag or banner design with a triband design which originated in the 16th century as a symbol of republicanism, liberty or indeed revolution. (54, 63, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The Oriflamme - The Oriflamme (from Latin aurea flamma, "golden flame") was the battle standard of the King of France in the Middle Ages. It was originally the sacred banner of the Abbey of St. The Oriflamme (from Latin aurea flamma, "golden flame"), a pointed, blood-red banner flown from a gilded lance, was the battle standard of the King of France in the Middle Ages. The oriflamme originated as the sacred banner of the Abbey of St. Denis,a monastery near Paris. When the oriflamme was raised in battle by the French royalty during the Middle Ages, most notably during the Hundred Years War, no prisoners were to be taken until it was lowered. Through this tactic they hoped to strike fear into the hearts of the enemy, especially the nobles, who could usually expect to be taken alive for ransom during such military encounters. The banner was red or orange-red silk and flown from a gilded lance.According to legend, its colour stems from it being dipped in the blood of the recently beheaded St. Denis. “Soldiers! Citizens of Paris! Behold the Oriflamme. Behold the sacred flag of Saint-Denis. Behold the sacred flag of Frankia. Behold, soldiers of Christ. That wherever the Oriflamme is, no quarter is to be given to our enemies. Soldiers, show no mercy. Fight on! Fight to the death!" The Oriflamme (from Latin aurea flamma, "golden flame"), a pointed, blood-red banner flown from a gilded lance, was the battle standard of the King of France in the Middle Ages. The oriflamme originated as the sacred banner of the Abbey of St. Denis,a monastery near Paris. When the oriflamme was raised in battle by the French royalty during the Middle Ages, most notably during the Hundred Years War, no prisoners were to be taken until it was lowered. Through this tactic they hoped to strike fear into the hearts of the enemy, especially the nobles, who could usually expect to be taken alive for ransom during such military encounters. The banner was red or orange-red silk and flown from a gilded lance.According to legend, its colour stems from it being dipped in the blood of the recently beheaded St. Denis. (49, 68, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The Napoleonic wars pitted France, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, against a number of countries in Europe from 1797 through 1815. At different times during this period, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and the Neapolitan Kingdom all waged war against France in various coalitions. The main rivals in this struggle were Great Britain and France. During this time, the methods of intelligence gathering, espionage, and counterespionage did not differ so much from modern methods, apart from the differences in technological progress. Compared to other periods, however, espionage was a much more intense activity during the Napoleonic wars. This rise in espionage activity resulted mainly from revolutionary events in France and the following French emigration, which was in turn, used by Britain to achieve their own goals. France had one unsurpassed master of intrigue in the famous person of Joseph Fouche, who spied rampantly on his social and professional contacts alike. Fouche remained as permanent minister of police during four consecutive regimes: directory, consulate, empire, and the restored monarchy. (244, 0, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Senate Square,Saint Petersburg (245, 0, 1) ***Angel*** Message: Солдаты, Константин уверяет вас, что у вас будет благополучие, Улла Константин!--Yevgeny Obolensky ,Kondraty Ryleyev,Mikhail_Bestuzhev-Ryumin and the rest leaders shouts (246, 0, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Солдаты, Константин однажды подарил мне этот меч, и я никогда не забывал своей дружбы с ним! Но теперь, когда он отказался от престола, Николай - ваш император, вы должны присягнуть на верность! (247, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: Nicholas ordered Her Sovereign Majesty Empress Maria Theodorovna's Chevalier Guard Regiment a a cavalry charge,and three artillery pieces to open fire with grapeshot ammunition (248, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: The Chevalier Guard Regiment now turn to your side (245, 6, 1) ***Helm of Heavenly Enlightenment*** Message: Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov (Russian: Никола?й Ива?нович Новико?в) (8 May [O.S. 27 April] 1744, Moscow Governorate - 12 August [O.S. 31 July] 1818. Moscow Governorate) was a Russian writer and philanthropist most representative of his country's Enlightenment. Frequently considered to be the first Russian journalist, he aimed at advancing the cultural and educational level of the Russian public, included the production of social satires as well as the founding of schools and libraries. Influenced by {{Freemason}ry}, Novikov converted his journals and his ambitious publishing enterprise into vehicles of freethinking and even criticized Empress Catherine II the Great. When the French Revolution started, Catherine changed her attitude towards the likes of Novikov. His printing house was confiscated. Three years later, without a formal trial, he was incarcerated in the Shlisselburg Fortress(in St.Petersburg) for 15 years. (247, 1, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: When Pavel Vasilievich Chichagov returned to Russia in 1796, he applied for permission to marry but was told by Paul I "there are sufficient brides in Russia; there is no need to look for one in England." Some violence followed and Chichagov was sent to prison. In 1802, Alexander I, Paul's successor, promoted Chichagov to Vice Admiral and made him a member of the Committee on Navy Reorganization. In 1807, he was promoted to Admiral and appointed Minister of the Navy. Pavel Chichagov at your service (147, 177, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: During the war years, the main road to London was not allowed to enter and leave at will,for preventing foreign spies from entering London Please present a credential that better proves your status to gain access to London London has approved your request to open up this place to travel. (146, 179, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Glasgow Timed events: Name: eGlasgowPoliceAct Message: On 30 June,1800,Glasgow Police Act authorises creation of the City of Glasgow Police,passed by the Parliament of Great Britain, which established a professional police force for the city of Glasgow. Under the Act, this police force was placed under the control of the Lord Provost, three magistrates and nine elected commissioners. Name: eactunion Message: Name: AI增兵10-12月 Message: 1020 430’170 120'110 85’70 35 Name: AI增兵13-18月 Message: 2520 930’420 370'310 235’170 85 Name: AI增兵19月- Message: 3020 1080’520 420'360 285’220 135 Name: AI满建 Message: (147, 98, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade V of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Minor Grade V of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Minor Grade V of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Minor (150, 97, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade VIII of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Magister Grade VIII of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Magister Grade VIII of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Magister (149, 97, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade IX of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Magus Grade IX of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Magus Grade IX of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Magus (148, 97, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Grade VII of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Exemptus Grade VII of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Exemptus Grade VII of Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross - Adeptus Exemptus (67, 138, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Masonic lodge L'Union--Mother lodge to Prince Edward Masonic lodge L'Union--Mother lodge to Prince Edward On 5 August 1789, aged 22, Prince Edward became a mason in the L'Union.He completed Degrees of Entered Apprentice,remembered the signs of hand gestures as Masonic ritual and symbolism from then on (54, 58, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: On the high wall outside the Tuileries Palace, Arno discovered that the Revolutionary Army had launched a general offensive, the defenders were defeated, and many of the captured guards were executed by radicals. Standing at the observation point, Arnault witnessed Frederic Rouille, a captain of the National Guard,and his army breaking through the prison and starting to execute the prisoners inside. He saved several captured guards and tried his best to prevent the massacre. Then Arno avoided the militants and climbed to the top floor to successfully assassinate Rouille. Rouille's memery shows once he attended the tennis court declaration in 1789. He was impressed by Mirabeau's speech and political determination. After the meeting, Ruye wanted to shake hands with Mr. Mirabeau, but was ignored. At this time, German appeared and invited him to join the Templars. After that, he and a woman named Mary had secretly hoarded food in recent years under the instruction of German, which aggravated the famine in Paris and finally led to the outbreak of the Great Revolution. (50, 53, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) Flight to Varennes(Sweden part) (244, 212, 1) ***Event*** Message: You seem to be leading the fleet fortunately to find a route without the main force of the Royal Navy,but you still discovered by a small but elite fleet of the Royal Navy. (240, 211, 1) ***Devil*** Message: "Let's build corvettes for the expedition: Descubierta and Atrevida and set on!"--Alejandro Malaspina (242, 215, 1) ***Clover of Fortune*** Message: Czech botanist Thaddaus Haenke joined the Malaspina Expedition (242, 213, 1) ***Master Genie*** Message: The expedition carried on board the elite of astronomers and surveyors of the Spanish Navy, headed by Juan Gutierrez de la Concha, with the young Felipe Bauza as cartographer. Also on board were many scientists and artists, such as painting master Jose del Pozo, artists Jose Guío, Fernando Brambila and Giovanni Ravenet, cartoonist and columnist Tomás de Suria, botanists Luis Nee, Antonio Pineda and Thadd?us Haenke, and many others. (231, 232, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Malaspina Expedition (243, 204, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The first guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in the first of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The first guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The first guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (243, 205, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The second guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.This guard is required to be unlocked only by orange Player. The second guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area.When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The second guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now (243, 206, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: The third guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. Turn in one of the three pendant of total recallyou have. Keeping a clear head at all times is the key and secret to success. The third guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area. When defeating the Mini BOSS hero/small BOSS Hero/Big BOSS hero/Super BOSS hero/Ultimate BOSS hero of the computer, get "crest of valor " or "Badge of Courage " or "pendant of courage"as universal equivalent ，respectively in bonus area. There are also other types of missions in the bonus area that for earning varying amounts of The above three universal equivalents when completed. Eventually you can use different amounts of The above three universal equivalents to select and redeem various rewards such as creatures/treasures in the Bonus area The third guard before orange player Summoning AI Boss /entering the bonus area is unlocked now.But it also means that the computer's various bosses can henceforth be committed through this door (237, 208, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Bailen Win Battle of Bailen The catastrophe was total. With the loss of 24,000 troops, Napoleon's military machine in Spain collapsed. Stunned by the defeat, on 1 August Joseph evacuated the capital for Old Castile, while ordering Verdier to abandon the siege of Zaragoza and Bessières to retire from Leon; the entire French army sheltered behind the Ebro.By this time, Girona had resisted a Second Siege. Europe welcomed this first check to the hitherto unbeatable Imperial armies—a Bonaparte had been chased from his throne; tales of Spanish heroism inspired Austria and showed the force of national resistance. Bailen set in motion the rise of the Fifth Coalition. (238, 207, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Win Battle of Ocana Win Battle of Ocana Spanish resistance evaporated,Spain's Supreme Junta was overthrown in a coup,as Cordoba and Seville fell without a fight (237, 209, 1) ***Event*** Message: Wellesley strengthened Portuguese and Spanish positions with the construction of the Lines of Torres Vedras, and the remainder of the Spanish forces fell back to defend the Spanish government at Cádiz against Soult's Army of Andalusia. The port of Cádiz was surrounded on land by the armies of Soult and Victor, in three entrenched positions at Chiclana, Puerto Real and Santa Maria, positioned in a semicircle around the city. The terrain surrounding the strong fortifications of Cádiz proved difficult for the French to attack In 1812 the Battle of Salamanca eventually forced the French troops to retreat from Andalusia, for fear of being cut off by the Coalition armies.The French defeat contributed decisively to the liberation of Spain from French occupation, due to the survival of the Spanish government and the use of Cádiz as a jump-off point for the Coalition forces (165, 181, 1) ***Power Lich*** Message: 'Altough I am dead, but I'm going to the Parallel universe of Homm3 to summon the undead Redcoats to continue my reign!' -- {Queen Elizabeth II of England}, who died in the third quarter of 2022, joins your army ''Oh no, I'm not even dead yet, how can it be your turn so soon?'' George III replied. (98, 188, 1) ***Event*** Message: Although there is no consensus about the exact span of time that corresponds to the American Enlightenment, it is safe to say that it occurred during the eighteenth century among thinkers in British North America and the early United States and was inspired by the ideas of the British and French Enlightenments. Sources of the American Enlightenment are many and vary according to time and place. As a result of an extensive book trade with Great Britain, the colonies were well acquainted with European literature almost contemporaneously. Early influences were English writers, including James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, the Viscount Bolingbroke, John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon (especially the two's Cato's Letters), and Joseph Addison (whose tragedy Cato was extremely popular). A particularly important English legal writer was Sir William Blackstone, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England served as a major influence on the American Founders and is a key source in the development Anglo-American common law. Although John Locke's Two Treatises of Government has long been cited as a major influence on American thinkers, historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May demonstrate that Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read than were his political Treatises. The Scottish Enlightenment also influenced American thinkers. David Hume's Essays and his History of England were widely read in the colonies,and Hume's political thought had a particular influence on James Madison and the Constitution. Another important Scottish writer was Francis Hutcheson. Hutcheson's ideas of ethics, along with notions of civility and politeness developed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, and Addison and Richard Steele in their Spectator, were a major influence on upper-class American colonists who sought to emulate European manners and learning. The ideas of the Enlightenment flowed from Europe to the North American continent and sparked a revolution that made enlightened thought all the more popular back across the Atlantic. It finally lead to the American Revolution war. Many Europeans came to North America to fight for Continental Army. Some of these foreign officers may well have been inspired by the principles of the American Revolution. Europeans would obtained information about the American Revolution from soldiers returning from America. French soldiers would returned to France with ideas of individual liberty, popular sovereignty and the notion of republicanism. (99, 188, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Sons of Liberty Foundation:1765 Dissolved:1776 Motives:Before 1766:Opposition to the Stamp Act After 1766:Independence of the United Colonies from Great Britain Active regions: Province of Massachusetts Bay and so on Ideology:Initial phase:Rights of Englishmen "No taxation without representation" Later phase:Liberalism,Republicanism,American Independence Major actions:Public demonstrations, Direct action, Destruction of Crown goods and property, Boycotts, Tar and feathering, Pamphleteering Notable attacks:Gaspee Affair, Boston Tea Party, Attack on John Malcolm Allies:Patriot revolutionaries Opponents:Great Britain ,Royal Colonial Governments,Loyalists The Sons of Liberty was a loosely organized clandestine political organization active in the Thirteen American Colonies founded to advance the rights of the colonists and to fight taxation by the British government. The well-known label allowed organizers to make or create anonymous summons to a Liberty Tree, "Liberty Pole", or other public meeting-place. Furthermore, a unifying name helped to promote inter-Colonial efforts against Parliament and the Crown's actions. Their motto became "No taxation without representation." This is for Ai Cheater! (243, 210, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Fuerte de Isla Verde,Algeciras (69, 51, 1) ***Quest Guard*** Message: Philippe Rühl is going to smash the Holy Ampulla publicly on the pedestal of the statue of Louis XV with a hammer. Hurry up to stop Philippe Rühl The ampoule now saved by you! (69, 50, 1) ***Everpouring Vial of Mercury*** Message: The Holy Ampulla or Holy Ampoule (Sainte Ampoule in French) was a glass vial which, from its first recorded use by Pope Innocent II for the anointing of Louis VII in 1131 to the coronation of Louis XVI in 1774, held the chrism or anointing oil for the coronation of the kings of France. (0, 79, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (2, 79, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (4, 79, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (8, 79, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (6, 79, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (1, 77, 1) ***Event*** Message: (5, 77, 1) ***Event*** Message: (9, 77, 1) ***Event*** Message: (156, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (160, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (166, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (168, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (172, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (170, 32, 1) ***Event*** Message: (164, 32, 1) ***Event*** Message: (158, 32, 1) ***Event*** Message: (148, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (150, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (152, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (154, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (156, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (158, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (160, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (164, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (166, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (170, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (168, 42, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (149, 44, 1) ***Event*** Message: (153, 44, 1) ***Event*** Message: (157, 44, 1) ***Event*** Message: (161, 44, 1) ***Event*** Message: (165, 44, 1) ***Event*** Message: (169, 44, 1) ***Event*** Message: (181, 37, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (185, 37, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (177, 41, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (177, 39, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (181, 39, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (179, 40, 1) ***Event*** Message: (183, 38, 1) ***Event*** Message: (134, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (136, 34, 1) ***Event*** Message: (145, 34, 1) ***Event*** Message: (138, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (143, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (147, 33, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (147, 35, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (0, 87, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Education without courage is like a wax statue - beautiful to look at but bound to melt at the first touch of a hot stuff.没有勇气的教育就像一尊蜡像--看起来很美，但一碰就会融化。 Education without courage is like a wax statue - beautiful to look at but bound to melt at the first touch of a hot stuff.没有勇气的教育就像一尊蜡像--看起来很美，但一碰就会融化。 (2, 87, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Happiness is like a butterfly: the more you chase it, the more it will elude you, but if you turn your attention to other things, it will come and sit softly on your shoulder. 幸福就像一只蝴蝶: 你越是追逐它，它就越是躲避你，但是如果你把注意力转移到其他事情上，它就会来，轻轻地坐在你的肩膀上。 Happiness is like a butterfly: the more you chase it, the more it will elude you, but if you turn your attention to other things, it will come and sit softly on your shoulder. 幸福就像一只蝴蝶: 你越是追逐它，它就越是躲避你，但是如果你把注意力转移到其他事情上，它就会来，轻轻地坐在你的肩膀上。 (3, 87, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “All ancient books which have once been called sacred by man, will have their lasting place in the history of mankind, and those who possess the courage, the perseverance, and the self-denial of the true miner, and of the true scholar, will find even in the darkest and dustiest shafts what they are seeking for,-real nuggets of thought, and precious jewels of faith and hope.” ~ Max Muller “所有曾经被人类视为神圣的古书，都将在人类历史上留下永恒的地位，那些拥有真正的矿工和真正的学者的勇气、毅力和自我克制的人，即使在最黑暗、最尘土飞扬的矿井里，也会找到他们所寻找的东西——真正的思想宝石、信仰和希望的宝石。 “All ancient books which have once been called sacred by man, will have their lasting place in the history of mankind, and those who possess the courage, the perseverance, and the self-denial of the true miner, and of the true scholar, will find even in the darkest and dustiest shafts what they are seeking for,-real nuggets of thought, and precious jewels of faith and hope.” ~ Max Muller “所有曾经被人类视为神圣的古书，都将在人类历史上留下永恒的地位，那些拥有真正的矿工和真正的学者的勇气、毅力和自我克制的人，即使在最黑暗、最尘土飞扬的矿井里，也会找到他们所寻找的东西——真正的思想宝石、信仰和希望的宝石。 (0, 86, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “Necessity makes the frog jump.”"必要性使青蛙跳起来"。 “Necessity makes the frog jump.”"必要性使青蛙跳起来"。 (2, 86, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “You will be alone with the gods, and the nights will flame with fire. You will ride life straight to perfect laughter. It’s the only good fight there is.”"你将与众神独处，夜晚将燃起火焰。你将驾驭生命直达完美的笑声。这是唯一美好的战斗。" “You will be alone with the gods, and the nights will flame with fire. You will ride life straight to perfect laughter. It’s the only good fight there is.”"你将与众神独处，夜晚将燃起火焰。你将驾驭生命直达完美的笑声。这是唯一美好的战斗。" (3, 86, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” "永远不要怀疑，一小群有思想、有决心的人可以改变世界。事实上，它是唯一能够改变世界的东西" “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” "永远不要怀疑，一小群有思想、有决心的人可以改变世界。事实上，它是唯一能够改变世界的东西" (4, 86, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “Better my own cottage than the palace of another.” “宁可住在自己的小屋里，也不要住在别人的宫殿里” “Better my own cottage than the palace of another.” “宁可住在自己的小屋里，也不要住在别人的宫殿里” (0, 85, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Life is an arrow, therefore you must know What mark to aim at, how to use the bow-- Then draw it to the head and let it go! 生命是一支箭，因此你必须知道瞄准什么标志，如何使用弓——然后把它拉到头上，让它走! Life is an arrow, therefore you must know What mark to aim at, how to use the bow-- Then draw it to the head and let it go! 生命是一支箭，因此你必须知道瞄准什么标志，如何使用弓——然后把它拉到头上，让它走! (2, 85, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A society of sheep will eventually breed a government of wolves.一个羊群的社会最终会滋生出一个狼群的政府。 A society of sheep will eventually breed a government of wolves.一个羊群的社会最终会滋生出一个狼群的政府。 (3, 85, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: It is the great north wind that made the Vikings是伟大的北风造就了维京人 It is the great north wind that made the Vikings是伟大的北风造就了维京人 (4, 85, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The flyer comes to an end to the utmost , the good bow hides; After the cunning hare is killed , the hound is boiled飞鸟尽，良弓藏;狡兔死，走狗烹。 The flyer comes to an end to the utmost , the good bow hides; After the cunning hare is killed , the hound is boiled飞鸟尽，良弓藏;狡兔死，走狗烹。 (5, 85, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: The idea of shape-shifting lizards taking human forms in a plot to rule America and the world has become one of the most majestic and marvelous conspiracy theories created by mankind (or lizardkind, if you will). 变形蜥蜴化身为人形，阴谋统治美国和世界的想法已经成为人类(或蜥蜴人，如果你愿意的话)创造的最雄伟和奇妙的阴谋理论之一。 The idea of shape-shifting lizards taking human forms in a plot to rule America and the world has become one of the most majestic and marvelous conspiracy theories created by mankind (or lizardkind, if you will). 变形蜥蜴化身为人形，阴谋统治美国和世界的想法已经成为人类(或蜥蜴人，如果你愿意的话)创造的最雄伟和奇妙的阴谋理论之一。 (0, 84, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “To know the path ahead, ask those returning.” – Serbian Proverb “想知道前方的道路，就问问那些回来的人 “To know the path ahead, ask those returning.” – Serbian Proverb “想知道前方的道路，就问问那些回来的人 (9, 83, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “Alive or dead, the truth won't rest. Rise up while you can.”"不管是活的还是死的，真理都不会休息。趁着你还可以，赶紧起来吧。" “Alive or dead, the truth won't rest. Rise up while you can.”"不管是活的还是死的，真理都不会休息。趁着你还可以，赶紧起来吧。" (10, 83, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: “Be happy while you’re living, For you’re a long time dead.” 活着的时候要快乐，因为你已经死去很久了。 “Be happy while you’re living, For you’re a long time dead.” 活着的时候要快乐，因为你已经死去很久了。 (10, 82, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Nothing can dim the light that shines from within.” “没有什么可以使内心的光芒黯淡” Nothing can dim the light that shines from within.” “没有什么可以使内心的光芒黯淡” (11, 82, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Better keep the devil at the door than have to turn him out of the house.” “宁可让魔鬼守在门口，也不要把他赶出家门” Better keep the devil at the door than have to turn him out of the house.” “宁可让魔鬼守在门口，也不要把他赶出家门” (12, 82, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Shared joy is double joy. Shared sorrow is half sorrow.” 共同的快乐是双倍的快乐，共同的悲伤是一半的悲伤 Shared joy is double joy. Shared sorrow is half sorrow.” 共同的快乐是双倍的快乐，共同的悲伤是一半的悲伤 (53, 2, 1) ***Event*** Message: (57, 2, 1) ***Event*** Message: (61, 2, 1) ***Event*** Message: (65, 2, 1) ***Event*** Message: (56, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (58, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (60, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (62, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (64, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (66, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (18, 48, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Though you live near a forest, do not waste firewood. 虽然你住在森林附近，但不要浪费柴火。 Though you live near a forest, do not waste firewood. 虽然你住在森林附近，但不要浪费柴火。 (1, 41, 1) ***Event*** Message: (5, 47, 1) ***Event*** Message: (0, 39, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (3, 41, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (6, 45, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (4, 45, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (0, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (2, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (4, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (6, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (8, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (10, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (12, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (14, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (16, 53, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (19, 54, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (1, 55, 1) ***Event*** Message: (5, 55, 1) ***Event*** Message: (9, 55, 1) ***Event*** Message: (13, 55, 1) ***Event*** Message: (17, 55, 1) ***Event*** Message: (1, 59, 1) ***Event*** Message: (5, 59, 1) ***Event*** Message: (9, 59, 1) ***Event*** Message: (13, 59, 1) ***Event*** Message: (17, 59, 1) ***Event*** Message: (21, 60, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: A soldier who doesn't want to be a general is not a good soldier 一个不想当将军的士兵不是一个好士兵 A soldier who doesn't want to be a general is not a good soldier 一个不想当将军的士兵不是一个好士兵 (0, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (2, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (4, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (6, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (8, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (10, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (12, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (14, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (16, 61, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (19, 60, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (0, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (2, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (4, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (6, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (8, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (10, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (12, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (14, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (16, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (18, 71, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (1, 73, 1) ***Event*** Message: (5, 73, 1) ***Event*** Message: (9, 73, 1) ***Event*** Message: (13, 73, 1) ***Event*** Message: (17, 73, 1) ***Event*** Message: (54, 0, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (192, 5, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (144, 2, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Unbroken坚不可摧 Unbroken坚不可摧 (146, 2, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Magnificent气吞山河 Magnificent气吞山河 (148, 2, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Unstoppable所向披靡 Unstoppable所向披靡 (183, 3, 1) ***Naga Queen*** Message: Beata Charlotta "Charlotte" Eckerman (1759 - 16 January 1790 in Stockholm), was a Swedish opera singer and actress. She was also a very well known courtesan during the Gustavian era, and the official royal mistress of Charles XIII of Sweden from 1779 to 1781.After traveled Europe for a long years,She returned to Sweden in 1786. Charlotte Eckerman now became active as a spy. She received an allowance from the authorities in exchange for spying on the foreign ambassadors stationed in Stockholm in her capacity of a courtesan. At the time of her death, she was the mistress of the Dutch ambassador to Sweden, baron van der Bork. (153, 2, 1) ***Sign*** Message: Amalienborg (132, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (134, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (136, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (138, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (140, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (144, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (142, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (146, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (148, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (150, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (152, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (154, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (156, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (158, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (160, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (164, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (170, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (172, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (168, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (166, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (174, 8, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (133, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (137, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (141, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (145, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (149, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (153, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (157, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (161, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (165, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (169, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (173, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (137, 14, 1) ***Event*** Message: (141, 14, 1) ***Event*** Message: (145, 14, 1) ***Event*** Message: (149, 14, 1) ***Event*** Message: (153, 14, 1) ***Event*** Message: (157, 14, 1) ***Event*** Message: (180, 10, 1) ***Event*** Message: (182, 11, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (182, 9, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (188, 10, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (189, 12, 1) ***Event*** Message: (187, 13, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (161, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (163, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (165, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (167, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (169, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (171, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (173, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (175, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (177, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (179, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (181, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (183, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (185, 16, 1) ***Event*** Message: (135, 15, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (138, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (140, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (142, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (144, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (146, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (150, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (148, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (152, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (156, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (154, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (158, 16, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (160, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (162, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (166, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (164, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (170, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (168, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (172, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (174, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (176, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (178, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (180, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (182, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (184, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (186, 18, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (188, 15, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (189, 17, 1) ***Event*** Message: (188, 19, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (131, 15, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Second to none绝世无双 Second to none绝世无双 (132, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (134, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (136, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (138, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (140, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (142, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (144, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (146, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (148, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (150, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (152, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (154, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (156, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (158, 26, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (135, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (139, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (143, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (147, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (151, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (155, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (159, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (133, 29, 1) ***Event*** Message: (161, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (163, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (167, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (169, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (173, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (175, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (165, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (171, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (177, 28, 1) ***Event*** Message: (179, 27, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (163, 2, 1) ***Seer's Hut*** Message: Knowledgeable知识渊博 Knowledgeable知识渊博 (6, 23, 1) ***Arch Devil*** Message: Black Cross-- a title bestowed upon the members of a branch within the Templar Order ,only answering to the Inner Sanctum's orders, the agents were authorized to use any means necessary, even deadly force, to take down corrupted members of the Order. The Black Cross were tasked with keeping the Grand Masters and their subordinates in line with the Templar Code and ideals.The unique skills required to become a Black Cross is based on parts of the Assassins skill set that was recreated to that of the Templars' doctrine to strengthen the Order itself. (125, 201, 1) ***Event*** Message: You were the shadow to my light Did you feel us Another star You fade away Afraid our aim is out of sight Wanna see us Alive Where are you now (124, 201, 1) ***Ocean Bottle*** Message: These shallow waters, never met What I needed I'm letting go A deeper dive Eternal silence of the sea I'm breathing Alive (155, 52, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (161, 52, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (157, 52, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (163, 52, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (159, 52, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (166, 51, 1) ***Pandora's Box*** Message: (156, 50, 1) ***Event*** Message: (160, 50, 1) ***Event*** Message: (164, 50, 1) ***Event*** Message: (90, 236, 1) ***Event*** Message: Andros, Bahamas All the main islands of the Bahamas have blue holes, but those of Andros are the best known. Andros has 178 on land with at least 50 in the sea. Blue holes can best be described as entrances to the intricate cave systems that run underneath the island and sea floor. (53, 84, 1) ***Event*** Message: Welcome to the sewer system in Paris. The Paris sewers system can be traced back to 1370 BC. The Paris sewers was planned and built more than 100 years ago. Its magnificent engineering and exquisite design can be called a miracle, and it still plays an indispensable role in the bustling city of Paris. L’égout, c’est la conscience de la ville.--Hugo in (117, 232, 1) ***Random Town*** Name: Port-au-Prince Timed events: Name: e17940204 Message: On 4 February 1794,The Convention deputies agreed, and made the decree that "slavery of the blacks is abolished in all the colonies; consequently, it decrees that all men living in the colonies, without distinction of color, are French citizens and enjoy all the rights guaranteed by the constitution" Name: eYellowfeverforBr Message: Yellow fever continued to erode the British expeditionary forces in San Domingue and cost a lot of money Name: eindependence18040101 Message: The Haitian Declaration of Independence was proclaimed on 1 January 1804 in the port city of Gona?ves by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, marking the end of 13-year long Haitian Revolution. The declaration marked Haiti's becoming the first independent Black nation in the Western Hemisphere Name: Ai涓诲煄婊″缓 Message: Name: AI1-3 Message: Name: AI4-6 Message: Name: AI7-9 Message: Name: AI10-12 Message: Name: AI13-18 Message: Name: AI19- Message: ===== End of file =====